IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-S) 


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Hiotographic 
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Corporation 


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et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  Ie  nombre 
d'images  nAcessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mAthode. 


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d^ 


ARCTIC 


SEARCHING  EXPEDITION: 


JOURNAL  OF  A  BOAT-VOYAGE  THROUGH  RUPERTS 
LAND  AND  THE  ARCTIC  SEA, 

IN    SEARCH    OF    THE    DISCOVERY    SHIPS    UNDER    COMMAND    OF 

SIR  JOHN  FRANKLIN. 


WITH    AN    APPENDIX    ON    THE     PHYSICAL     GEOGRA- 
PHY   OF     NORTH     AMERICA. 


O 


BY  SIR  JOHN   RICHARDSON,   C.B.,  F.R.S., 

INSFECTOE  OF  NAVAL  HOSPITALS  AND  FLEETS, 
ETC.,   ETC.,   ETC. 


N  E  W    YO  RK: 

HARPER  «&   BROTHERS,   PUBLISHERS, 

82   CLIFF   STREET. 

1852. 


CONTENTS. 


m 


CHAPTER  I. 

Route  assigned  to  the  Expedition  under  Command  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin.— Names  of  the  Officers. — Erebus  and  Terror. — Date  of  its 
Sailing. — Last  Letters. — Sir  John  Franklin's  Last  Official  Letter. — 
Last  Sight  of  the  Expedition. — Sir  John  Ross  proposes  a  Search.— 
Discussion  of  various  Opinions  offered  respecting  the  Fate  of  the 
Expedition. — Plans  of  Search  adopted. — Main  Objects  of  the  Over- 
land Searching  Expedition. — Instructions  from  the  Admiralty .... 


PAOB 


13 


CHAPTER  IL 

Overland  Searching  Expedition. — Routes  through  the  Interior. — Hud- 
son's Bay  Ships. — Pemican. — Boats. — Boat  Party  leaves  England. 
— Arrives  at  Winter  Quarters. — Volunteers. — Mr.  John  Rae  ap- 
pointed to  the  Expedition. — The  Author  and  Mr.  Rae  sail  from 
England. — Land  at  New  York. — Proceed  to  Montreal  and  La 
Chine. — Canoe-Men. — Saut  Ste.  Marie. — Voyage  to  the  North. — 
Reach  Cumberland  House 30 


t 


CHAPTER  III. 

Pine  Island  Lake. — Silurian  Strata. — Sturgeon  River. — Progress  of 
Spring. — Beaver  Lake.— Isle  a  la  Crosse  Brigade. — Ridge  River.-— 
Native  Schoolmaster  and  his  Family. — Two  kinds  of  Sturgeon. — 
Native  Medicines. — Bald  Eagles. — Pelicans. — Black-bellied  and 
Cayenne  Terns. — Cranes. — Frog  Portage. — Missinipi  or  Churchill 
River. — Its  Lake-like  Character. — Poisonous  Plants  and  Native 
Medicines. — Athabasca  Brigade. — Sand-fly  Lake. — The  Country 
changes  its  Aspect. — Bull-dog  Fly. — Isle  a  la  Crosse  Lake. — Its 
Altitude  above  the  Sea. — Length  of  the  Missinipi. — Isle  a  la 
Crosse  Fort. — Roman  Catholic  Mission. — Deep  River. — Canada 
Lynx. — Buffalo  Lake. — Methy  River  and  Lake. — Murrain  among 
the  Horses. — Burbot  or  La  Loche.— A  Mink. — Methy  Portage. — 
Join  Mr.  Bell  and  his  Party 54 


^. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Clear-water  River. — Valley  of  the  Washakummow. — Portages. — Lime- 
stone Cliffs. — Shale. — Elk  or  Athabasca  River. — Wapiti. — De- 
vonian Strata. — Geological  Structure  of  the  Banks  of  the  River.— 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


-V 


PAOK 


Athabanca  Lake,  or  Lake  of  the  Hills. — Meet  Mr.  MTherson  with 
the  Mackenzie  River  Brigade. — Send  home  Letters. — L'Esperance's 
Brigade. — Fort  Chepewyan. — Height  of  Lake  Athabasca  above  tho 
Sea. — Rocks. — Plumbago. — Forest  Scenery. — Slave  River. — Rein- 
deer Islands. — Portages. — Native  Remedies. — Separate  from  Mr. 
Bell  and  his  Party 77 

CHAPTER  V. 

Pyrogenous  Rocks. — Rate  of  the  Current  of  Slave  River. — Salt  River 
and  Springs. — Geese. — Great  Slave  Lake. — Domestic  Cattle. — 
Deadman's  Islands. — Horn  Mountain. — Hay  River. — Alluvial  Lig- 
nite Beds. — Mackenzie's  River.— -Marcellus  Shale. — Fort  Simpson. 
— River  of  the  Mountains. — Rocky  Mountains. — Spurs. — Animals. 
— AiAuents  of  the  Mackenzie. — Cheta-ut-Tinne 94 


CHAPTER  VI. 


Rock  by  the  River's  Side. — Shale  Formation. — Fort  Norman. — Ter- 
tiary Coal  Formation. — Lignite  Beds. — Fossil  Leaves. — Edible 
Clay. — Spontaneous  Combustion  of  the  River  Bank. — Hill  at  Bear 
Lake  River. — Hill  at  the  Rapid  on  that  River. — Forest. — Plants. — 
Birds 

CHAPTER  VII. 


113 


peregrine  Falcon. — The  Rapid. — Ramparts. — Hare  Indians. — Fort 
Good  Hope. — Hares. — Kutchin. — Their  Contests  with  the  Eskimos. 
— A  Fatal  Dance. — A  Hare  Indian  devoured  by  a  Brown  Bear. — 
Vegetation. — Narrows. — Richardson  Chain  of  Hills. — Fort  Separa- 
tion.— Cache  of  Pemican  and  Memorandum. — ^Alluvial  Delta. — 
Yukon  River. — Reindeer  Hills. — M'Gillivray  Island. — Harrison  Is- 
land.— Termination  of  the  Forest. — Sacred  Island. — Richard's  Is- 
land.— Point  Encounter 127 

CHAPTER  VIII. 


Enter  the  Estuary  of  the  Mackenzie.— Interview  with  the  Eskimos. — 
Remarks  on  that  People. — Winter-houses  near  Point  Warren. — 
Copland  Hutchison  Bay. — Flat  Coast  with  Hummocks. — Level 
boggy  Land. — Mirage. — A  Party  of  Eskimos  visit  us. — Point  At- 
kinson.— Kayhim. — Old  Woman. — Old  Man. — ^Young  Men. — Cape 
Brown.  —  Eskimos.  —  Russell  Inlet. — Cape  Dalhousie.  —  Sabine 
Xema. — ^Liverpool  Bay. — Nicholson  Island. — Frozen  Cliflfs  of  Cape 
Maitland. — ^Rock  Ptarmigan. — Eskimo  Tents. — Harrowby  Bay. — 
Baillie's  Islands. — ^River  of  the  Toothless  Fish  or  Beghula  Tesse. 
—Eskimo  of  Cape  Bathurst. — Their  Summer  and  its  Occupations. 
— Shale  Formation  of  the  Sea-Coast 145 


irfa 


COXTKNTS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


%ii 


PAOB 


Voyage  continued  along  tho  Coast. — Franklin  Bay. — Melville  Hills. 
— Point  Stivcns. — SellwooJ  Bay. — Cape  Parry. — Cocked-lvat  Point. 
— Cache  of  Pemican. — Ice  Packs. — Archway. — Burrow's  Islands. 
— Darnley  Bay. — Clapperton  Island. — Cape  Lyon. — Point  Poarce. 
— Point  Keats. — Point  Deas  Thompson. — Silurian  Strata. — Roscoe 
River. — Point  De  Witt  Clinton. — Furrowed  Clifts. — Melville  Range. 
— Point  Tinney. — Buchanan  River. — Drift  Ice. — Croker's  River. — 
Point  Clifton. — Inman's  River. — Point  Wise. — Hoppner  River. — 
WoUaston  Land.— Cape  Young. — Stapylton  Bay. — Cape  Hope. — 
Cape  Bexley. — Ice  Floes. — Point  Cockburn. — A  Storm.— Chantry 
Island. — Salmon. — Lambert  Island. — Leave  a  Boat. — Cape  Krus« 
enstem. — Detained  by  Ice. — Basil  Hall's  Bay. — Cape  Hearne. — 
Peculiar  Severity  of  the  Season. — Conjectures  respecting  the  Dis- 
covery Ships. — Resources  of  a  Party  inclosed  by  Ice  among  tho 
Arctic  Islands. — General  Reflections .    166 


4 


CHAPTER  X. 

Preparing  for  the  March. — Sleep  in  Back's  Inlet. — Eskimo  Village- 
Eskimos  ferry  the  Party  across  Rae  River. — Basaltic  Cliffs. — 
Cross  Richardson's  River. — March  along  the  Banks  of  the  Copper- 
mine.— Geese. — First  Clump  of  Trees. — Musk-oxen. — Copper  Ores 
and  Native  Copper. — Kendall  River. — Make  a  Raft. — Fog. — Pass 
a  Night  on  a  naked  Rock  without  Fuel. — Fine  Clump  of  Spruce 
Firs. — ^Dismal  Lakes. — Indians. — Dease  River. — Fort  Confidence, 
—Send  off  Dispatches  and  Letters 185 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ON    THE    ESKIMOS    OR    INUIT. 

The  four  Aboriginal  Nations  seen  ^  v  the  Expedition. — Eskimos. — 
Origin  of  the  Name, — National  i%a.iie  Inu-it. — Great  Extent  of 
their  Country. — Personal  Appearance. — Occupations. — Provident 
of  the  Future. — ^Villages. — Seal  Hunt. — Snow-houses. — Wander- 
ings not  extensive. — Respect  for  Territorial  Rights. — Dexterous 
Thieves. — Courage. — Traffic. — Compared  to  the  Phoenicians. — 
Skrellings. — ^Western  Tribes  pierce  the  Lips  and  Nose. — Female 
Toilet. — ^Mimics. — Mode  of  defying  their  Enemies. — Dress. — Boats. 
— Kaiyaks. — ^Umiaks. — Dogs. — Religion. —  Shamanism. —  Suscep- 
tibility of  Cultivation. — Origin. — Language. — Western  Tribes  of  the 
Eskimo  Stock. — Tchngatchih. — Kuskutchewak. — A  Kashim  or 
Council  House . — Feasts . — Qu  arrels . — Wars . — Cu  stoms . — M  am- 
moth's  Tusks. — National  Names. — NamoUos  or  Sedentary  Tchuk- 
che. — ^Reindeer  Tchukche. — Their  Herds. — Commerce. — Shaman- 
ism.— Of  the  Mongolian  Stock 202 


nil 


CONTENTS 


PA0B 


li 


CHAPTER  XII. 


ON    THE    KUTCHI.N    OR    LOrCllEt'X. 


Designations. — Personal  Appearance. — Tattoo. — Employ  Pigments. 
— Dress. — Ornaments. — Beads. — Used  as  a  Medium  of  Exchange. 
— Shells. — Winter  Dress. — Arms. — Wives. — Treatment  of  Infanta. 
— Compress  their  Feet. — Lively  Dispositions. — Religious  Belief. — 
Shamanism. — Anecdotes. — Treachery. — Contests  with  the  Eski- 
inos. — Occupations. — Traffic. — Beads  and  Shells. — Tents. — Vapoi 
Baths.  —  Deer  Pounds.  —  Oratory.  —  Talkativeness.  —  Dances. — 
Manbote  or  Blood-money. — Ceremonies  on  meeting  other  People. — 
Population  of  the  Valley  of  the  Yukon. — Same  People  with  certain 
Coast  Tribes. —  Kolusches.  —  Kenaiyers. —  Ugalents.  —  Atnaer.  — 
Koltshanen. — Persons  and  Dress. — Deer  Pounds. — Passion  for  Glass 
Beads. — Kolushes  descended  from  a  Raven. — Courtship. — Wives. 
— Revenge. — Murder. — Burn  the  Dead. — Mourning. — Do  not  name 
the  Deceased. — Custom  connected  therewith. — Winter  Habitations. 
— Journeys  of  the  Kenaiyer  Inland. — Porcupine  Quills. — Slavery  . 


223 


|i. 


CHAPTER  Xni. 

OF    THE    'tINNE    OR    CHEPEWYANS. 

Geographical  Position. — National  Name. — Tribes. — Hare  Indians  and 
Dog-ribs. — Personal  Appearance. — Women. — Dress. — Disposition. 
— Wars. —  Socialism. —  Improvidence.  —  Suffering.  —  Affection  for 
their  Children. — Hospitality  feeble. — Falsehood. — Honesty. — Re- 
ligious Belief. — Volatility. — Marriages. — Wrestling  for  a  Wife. — 
Dogs. — Moose-hunting. — Public  Opinion  the  only  Rule  of  Conduct. 
— Chiefs.  —  Introduction  of  Christianity.  — Horses.  —  Houses.  — 
Dawnings  of  Civilization. — Members  of  the  'Tinne  People  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains. — Southern  Athabascans 244 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

EYTHINYUWUK,   OR  CREES  AND  CHIPPEWAYS. 

National  Names. — Division. — Tribes. — Territory. — Wars  with  the 
Mengwe. — Conventional  Character  not  true. — Persons. — Gait. — 
Crimes. — Wabunsi. — Wigwams. — Religious  Belief. — Vapor  Baths. 
— Everlasting  Fire. — Its  Rites. — ^U.sed  in  Sickness. — Its  Priests. — 
Its  Origin. — Chief  Sun. — Policy. — Calumet. — Maize. — Food. — 
Reindeer. —  Bison. — White-Fish. — Earth- Works. — Pottery. — Lan- 
guage.— Half-breeds. — Colony  of  Red  River,  or  Osnaboya. — Spirit- 
uous Liquors 262 


CHAPTER  XV. 

OCCURRENCES  IN  WINTER. 

Fort  Confidence. — Situation. — Silurian  Limestone. — Lake  Basin.— 
Trees. — Dwelling-house. — Occupations. —  Letters  — Galena  News- 


CONTENTS. 


is 


«a 


rAOi 
paper.-  Oregon  "Spectator."  —  Extent  of  th«  Iluiison'a  Bay 
Company'8  Territory. — Fisheries. — Venison. — Wolverenoa. — Na- 
tive Socialism. — Provisions  collected  at  Fort  Conftdenci'. — Fetes. 
— Winter  Fishery. — Eskimo  Sleds. — Reindeer. — Wolverene. — 
Wolves. — Honesty  of  the  Dog-ribs. — Their  Indolence. — Provisions 
not  individual  Property. — Indians  move  off. — An  Accouchement. — 
Ccelebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife. — Might  makes  Right. — None  but  the 
Bravo  deserve  the  Fair. — Progress  of  the  Seasons. — Tempcrahire. 
— Arrival  of  Summer  Bi/ds  :  at  Fort  (Jonfidence  ;  at  F<m  t  Frank- 
lin i  on  the  Vukon 278 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

Mr.  Rao's  Expedition  in  the  Summer  of  1849. — Instructions. — He 
crosses  to  the  Coppermine. — Descends  that  River. — Sea  covered 
with  Ice. — Surveys  Rae  River. — Eskimos. — Cape  Kendall. — Cape 
Hearne. — Basil  Hall  Bay.  Cape  Krusenstern. — Douglas  Island. 
— Detention. — Dangerous  Situation. — August  23,  return. — Author 
and  Mr.  Bell  leave  Fort  Confidence. — Cross  Great  Bear  Lake. — 
Descend  Bear  Lake  River. — David  Brodie  lost  in  the  Woods. — His 
Adventures. — Fort  Simpson. — Methy  Portage. — Receive  English 
Letters. — Norway  House. — Part  from  the  Seamen  and  Sappers  and 
Miners. — Continue  the  Voyage  to  Canada. — Boston. — Land  at 
Liverpool. — Summary  of  the  present  State  of  the  Search  for  Sii 
John  Franklin 306 


Po.««TSCRTPT 


330 


APPENDIX. 


^ 


No.  I.— PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

General  View. — Rocky  Mountains. — Their  Length. — Their  Height. 
— Glaciers. — Parallelism  to  the  Pacific  Coast. — Continental  Slopes. 
— Russian  America. — Eastern  Slope. — Prairies. — Mississippi  Val- 
ley.— Its  Slope. — Fundamental  Rocks  of  the  Basin. — Silurian 
Strata. — Carboniferous  Series. — Tertiary  Beds. — Lignite  Forma- 
tions.— Series  of  Lake  Basins. — Transverse  Valleys. — Intermediate 
Belt  of  Primitive,  Hypogenous,  or  Metamorphic  Rocks. — Its  Rivers 
mere  Chains  of  Lakes. — Its  Breadth. — Altitude. — Sources  of  three 
great  River  Systems. — Great  Fish  River. — The  Yukon  or  Kwich- 
pack. — Basins    of    Excavation. — Glacial    Action. — Active    Vol- 


canoes 


337 


CONTENTS. 


PAoa 
Vallev  op  I'liK  St.  Lawrence. — AltitudcH  uf  tho  Lakes  abovu  the 
Sea. — Lake  Superior. — Lake  Michigan.— Lake  Huron. — Lake  Erie. 
— Lake  Ontario.— Lake  Chatnplain. — Northern  Brim  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  Basin. — Its  Geological  Structure. — North  Shore  of  Lake 
Superior.— Structure  of  the  Country  at  the  Sources  of  the  MitiBis* 
sippi 348 

WiMPEo  OR  Saskatchewan  Valley. — Height  of  Lake  Winipeg. — 
Sea  River. — Katchewan  River. — Thousand  Lakes. — Portages. — 
River  Winipeg. — Red  River. — Saskatchewan  River 359 

MissiNiPi  Valley. — Its  Lakes. — Frog  Portage 363 

Mackenzie  River  Valley. — Methy  Portage. — Athabasca,  Elk,  or 
Red-deer  River. — Lesser  Slave  Lake. — Peace  River. — Slave  River. 
— River  of  the  Mountains. — Noh'hanne  Bute. — Great  Bear  Lake.    363 


Yukon  Valley. — Yukon  or  Kwichpack. — Volcanic  Chain  of  Alaska. 
— Coal. — Fossil  Bones 367 


No.  IL— CLIMATOLOGY. 

Snow  Line. — Ground  Ice. — Thermoinetrical  Observations  in  the  Val- 
ley of  the  St.  Lawrence. — Comparative  Temperature  of  the  two 
sides  of  the  Continent. — Phenomena  of  the  Seasons  at  Penetan- 
guishene  :  at  Fort  William  :  at  Fort  Vancouver. — Thermometrical 
Observations  in  the  Valley  of  the  Saskatchewan. — On  the  East  and 
West  sides  of  the  Continent  in  that  Parallel. — Phenomena  of  the 
Seasons  at  Cumberland  House ;  at  Carlton  House ;  at  Martin's 
Falls  on  Albany  River. — Thermometrical  Observations  on  the  Mis- 
sinipi,  and  in  the  same  Parallels  on  the  East  and  Wesi  Sides  of  the 
Continent. — Thermometrical  Observations  in  the  Valleys  of  the 
Mackenzie,  Yukon,  and  Pelly. — Progress  of  the  Seasons  at  Fort 
Franklin. — Thermometrical  Observations  on  the  Arctic  Seas. — 
General  Remarks. — Nocturnal  Radiation 372 


No.  III.— THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS 
NORTH  OF  THE  49TH  PARALLEL  OF  LATITUDE. 

Generic  and  Specific  Forms  of  Plants  decrease  in  Number  as  the  Lat- 
itude increases. — Analogy  between  Altitude  and  Increase  of  Lat- 
itude.— Culture  of  the  Vine. — Of  the  Cerealia. — Maize. — Wheat. 
— Oats. — Barley. — Potatoes. — Botanical  Districts. — Their  Physi- 
ognomy.— Woodland  District. — Barren  Grounds. — Prairies. — 
Rocky  Mountains. — Sitka. — Polar  Plants.— Arctic  Zone. — Trees 
and  Shrubs.— Table  of  Distribution  of  Species  in  three  several 
Zones. — Carices 408 


FAOI 


348 

359 
363 


a 


CONTEM'fct 


No.  1V.~LIST  OF  INSECTS. 


rAoi 


Note  on  Hytnenoptera  in  Arctic  North  America.— List  of  Coleoptera. 
— Orthoptera.— Neuroptrra. — Hymenoptura. —  Hcmiptera. — Hom- 
optera — Lepidoptera — Diptera 471 

No.  V—VOOABULARItrs. 

Esiiimo  Vocabulary. — Comparative  Table  of  the  Dialects  spoken  by 
the  Beering's  Sea  and  Labrador  Eskimos.— Vocabulary  of  the 
Kutchin  of  the  Yukon  or  Kutchi-Kutchi,  with  Chepcwyan  Syno- 
nyms.— Chepewyan  Vocabulary. — Dog-Rib  Vocabulary. — Fort 
Simpson  Dog-Rib. — "Mauvais  Monde"  Vocabulary.— Chepewyan 
and  Dog-Rib  Words 479 


363 


367 


WOODCUTS  AND  DIAGRAMS. 

Rocky  Mountains  at  the  Bend  of  the  Mackenzie 107 

Rock  by  the  River's  Side 113 

Hill  in  Bear  Lake  River 122 

Ramparts,  Mackenzie's  River,  Geological  Section 130 

Diagram  of  Rocks  in  Lat.  68°  10'  N 140 

Sandhills  on  the  Mackenzie,  Lat.  68°  50'  N 142 

Conical  Hill  near  Point  Encounter I44 

Torso  Rock jyj 


)72 


NOTICE. 

In  the  Indian  namcH  which  occur  in  the  following  narrative,  «  is  to  be  sounded 
like  00,  in  "  moon ;"  yu  an  in  "  yule,"  or  like  "  you ;"  and  i  as  in  "  ravine." 


08 


ARCTIC  SEARCHING  EXPEDITION. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Route  assigned  to  the  Expedition  under  Command  of  Sir  John  Franklin. — Names 
of  the  Officers. — Erebus  and  Terror. — Date  of  its  Sailing. — Last  Letters. — Sir 
John  Franklin's  Last  Official  Letter. — Last  Sight  of  the  Expedition. — Sir  John 
Ross  proposes  a  Search. — Discussion  of  various  Opinions  offered  respecting 
the  Fate  of  the  Expedition. — Plans  of  Search  adopted. — Main  Objects  of  th« 
Overland  Searching  Expedition. — Instructions  from  the  Admiralty. 

Heu  Majesty's  government  having  deemed  it  expedient  that 
a  further  attempt  should  be  made  for  the  accomplishment  of  a 
northwest  passage  by  sea  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  the 
*'  Erebus"  aud  •'  Terror"  were  fitted  cut  for  that  service,  and 
placed  under  the  command  of  Captain  Sir  John  Franklin,  K.C.H. 
He  was  directed  by  the  Admiralty  instructions,  dated  on  the  5th 
of  May,  1845,  to  proceed  with  all  dispatch  to  Lancaster  Sound, 
and,  passing  through  it,  to  push  on  to  the  westward,  in  the  lati- 
tude of  74^°,  without  loss  of  time  or  stopping  to  examine  any 
openings  to  the  northicard,  until  he  reached  the  longitude  of  Cape 
Walker,  which  is  situated  in  about  98°  west.  He  was  to  use 
every  effort  to  penetrate  to  the  southivard  and  westward  of  that 
point,  and  to  pursue  as  direct  a  course  for  Beering's  Straits  as 
circumstances  might  permit.  He  was  cautioned  not  to  attempt 
to  pass  by  the  western  extremity  of  Melville  Island,  until  he  had 
ascertained  that  a  permanent  barrier  of  ice  or  other  obstacle  closed 
the  prescribed  route.  In  the  event  of  not  being  able  to  penetrate 
to  the  westward,  he  was  to  enter  Wellington  Sound  in  his  second 
summer. 

He  was  further  directed  to  transmit  accounts  of  his  proceedings 
to  the  Admiralty,  by  means  of  the  natives  and  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  should  opportunities  oHer ;  and  also,  after  passing  the 
65th  meridian,  to  throw  overboard  daily  a  copper  cylinder,  con- 
taining a  paper  stating  the  ship's  position.     It  was  also  understood 


[ 


Ml 


14 


FRANKLIN'S  EXPEDITION. 


that  ho  would  cause  piles  of  stones  or  signal-posts  to  be  erected 
on  conspicuous  headlands  at  convenient  times,  though  the  instruc- 
tions do  not  contain  a  clause  to  that  effect.* 
The  following  officers  joined  the  expedition  : 


Erebus. 

Captain,  Sir  John  Franklin,  Kt. 

K.C.H. 
Commander,  James  Fitzjames. 
Lieutenant,  Graham  Gore. 
Lieut.,  H.  P.  D.  Le  Vesconte. 
Lieut.,  James  W.  Fairholme. 
Ice-Master,  James  Read. 
Surgeon,  Stephen  S.  Stanley. 
Paymaster,  C.  H.  Osmer. 
Assist.- Surg.,  H.  D.  S.  Goodsir. 
Sec.  Master,  Henry  F.  Collins. 


Terror. 

Captain,  Francis  R.  M.  Crozier. 
Lieutenant,  Edward  Little. 
Lieutenant,  George  H.  Hodgson. 
Lieutenant,  John  Irving. 
Ice-Master,  Thomas  Blanky. 
Surgeon,  John  S.  Peddie. 
Assist. -Surgeon,  A.  M "Donald. 
Sec.  Master,  Gillies  A.  Maclean. 
Clerk-in-Charge,  Edward  J.  H. 
Helpman. 


And  the  conjoined  crews  of  the  two  ships  amounted  to  130  souls. 
The  "  Erebus,"  originally  built  for  a  bomb-vessel,  and  therefore 
strongly  framed,  was  of  370  tons  measurement,  and  had  been  for- 
tified, in  1839,  after  the  most  approved  plan,  by  an  extra  or  double 
exterior  planking  and  diagonal  bracing  within,  for  Sir  James  C. 
Ross's  Antarctic  voyage,  from  which  she  returned  in  1843.  Hav- 
ing been  carefully  examined  and  refitted  for  Sir  John  Franklin, 
she  was  considered  to  be  as  strongly  prepared  to  resist  the  pressure 
of  the  ice  as  the  resources  of  science,  and  the  utmost  care  of  Mr. 
Rice,  the  skillful  master-shipwright  who  superintended  the  prep- 
arations, could  insure.  The  "  Terror,"  of  340  tons,  was  also 
constructed  for  a  bomb-vessel,  and  had  the  bluff  form,  capacious 
hold,  and  strong  framework  of  that  class  of  war  vessels.  When 
commanded  by  Captain  Sir  George  Back,  on  his  voyage  to  Re- 
pulse Bay  in  1836-7,  she  had  been  beset  for  more  than  eleven 
months  in  drifting  floes  of  ice,  and  exposed  to  every  variety  of  as- 
sault and  pressure  to  which  a  vessel  was  liable  in  such  a  dangerous 
position.  In  this  severe  and  lengthened  trial,  the  "  Terror"  had 
been  often  pressed  more  or  less  out  of  the  water,  or  thrown  over 
on  one  side,  and  had,  in  consequence  thereof,  sustained  some 

*  The  instructions  are  published  at  length  in  a  parliamentary  Blue 
Book,  and  all  known  particulars  respecting  the  expedition  have  been  com- 
municated from  time  to  time  to  the  public  by  the  same  channel.  The 
above  abstract  mentions  the  leading  points  which  would  direct  the  course 
of  the  expedition. 


^ 


f 


LAST   LETTERS 


15 


ue 
m- 
'he 
rse 


01 


damage,  particularly  in  the  stem  post.  All  defects,  however, 
were  made  good  in  1839,  when  she  sailed  for  the  Antarctic  Seas, 
under  the  command  of  Captain  Crozier,  the  second  officer  of  Sir 
James  C.  Ross's  expedition.  She  was  again  examined,  and  made 
as  strong  as  ever,  before  Captain  Crozier  took  the  command  of  her 
a  second  time  in  1845. 

The  best  plans  that  former  experience  could  suggest  for  venti- 
lating and  warming  the  ships  in  the  winter  were  adopted,  and 
full  supplies  of  every  requisite  for  Arctic  navigation  were  provided, 
including  an  ample  stock  of  warm  bedding,  clothing,  and  provi- 
sions, with  a  proportion  of  preserved  meats  and  pemican. 

The  expedition  sailed  from  England  on  the  19th  of  May,  1845, 
and,  early  in  July,  had  reached  Whalefish  Islands,  near  Disco, 
on  the  Greenland  coast  of  Davis's  Straits,  where,  having  found 
a  convenient  port,  the  transport  which  accompanied  it  was  cleared 
and  sent  home  to  England,  bringing  the  last  letters  that  have 
been  received  from  the  officers  or  crew.  The  following  extract 
of  a  letter,  from  Lieutenant  Fairholme,  of  the  "  Erebus,"  will 
serve  to  show  the  cheerful  anticipation  of  success  which  prevailed 
throughout  the  party,  and  the  happy  terms  on  which  they  were 
with  each,  other : 

"  We  have  anchored  in  a  narrow  channel  between  two  of  the 
islands,  protected  on  all  sides  by  land,  and  in  as  convenient  a 
place  for  our  purpose  as  could  possibly  be  found.  Here  we  are 
with  the  transport  lashed  alongside,  transferring  most  actively  all 
her  stores  to  the  two  ships.  I  hope  that  this  operation  will  be 
completed  by  to-morrow  night,  in  which  case  Wednesday  will  be 
devoted  to  swinging  the  ships  for  local  attraction,  and  I  suppose 
Thursday  will  see  us  under  way  with  our  heads  to  the  northward. 
We  have  had  the  observatory  up  here,  on  a  small  rock  on  which 
Parry  formerly  observed,  and  have  got  a  very  satisfactory  set  of 
magnetic  and  other  observations.  Of  our  prospects  we  know 
little  more  than  when  we  left  England,  but  look  forward  with 
anxiety  to  our  reaching  72°,  where  it  seems  we  are  likely  to 
meet  the  first  obstruction,  if  any  exists.  On  board  we  are  as 
comfortable  as  it  is  possible  to  be.  I  need  hardly  tell  you  how 
much  we  are  all  delighted  with  our  captain.  He  has,  I  am 
sure,  won  not  only  the  respect  but  the  love  of  every  person  on 
board  by  his  amiable  manner  and  kindness  to  all ;  and  his  influ- 
ence is  always  employed  for  some  good  purpose  both  among  the 


18 


FRANKLIN'S   EXPEDITION. 


officers  and  men.  He  has  been  most  successful  in  his  selection 
of  officers,  and  a  more  agreeable  set  could  hardly  be  found.  Sir 
John  is  in  much  better  health  than  when  we  left  England,  and 
really  looks  ten  years  younger.  He  takes  an  active  part  in  every 
thing  that  goes  on,  and  his  long  experience  in  such  services  as 
this  makes  hitu  a  most  valuable  adviser.  Julij  10th. — The  trans- 
port is  just  reported  clear,  so  I  hope  that  we  may  be  able  to  swing 
the  ships  to-morrow  and  get  away  on  Saturday.  We  are  very 
much  crowded  ;  in  fact,  not  an  inch  of  stowage  has  been  lost, 
and  the  decks  are  still  covered  with  casks,  &c.  Our  supply  of 
coals  has  encroached  seriously  on  the  ship's  stowage  ;  but  as  we 
consume  both  this  and  provisions  as  we  go,  the  evil  will  be  con- 
tinually lessening." 

Letters  from  most  of  the  other  officers,  written  in  a  similarly 
buoyant  and  hopeful  spirit,  were  received  in  England  at  the  same 
time  with  the  above.  An  extract  of  a  letter  from  Sir  John 
Franklin  himself  to  Lieutenant  Colonel  Sabine  deserves  to  be 
quoted,  as  expressing  his  own  opinion  of  his  resources,  and  also 
his  intention  of  remaining  out  should  he  fail  after  a  second  winter 
in  finding  an  outlet  to  the  southwestward  from  Barrow's  Strait. 
The  letter  is  dated  from  Whalefish  Islands,  on  the  9th  of  July, 
1845,  and,  after  noticing  that  the  "Erebus"  and  "Terror"  had 
on  board  provisions,  fuel,  clothing,  and  stores  for  three  years  com- 
plete, from  that  date,  adds,  "  I  hope  my  dear  wife  and  daughter 
will  not  be  over-anxious  if  we  should  not  return  by  the  time  they 
have  fixed  upon ;  and  I  must  beg  of  you  to  give  them  the  benefit 
of  your  advice  and  experience  when  that  time  arrives,  for  you 
know  well  that,  without  success  in  our  object,  even  after  the 
second  winter,  we  should  wish  to  try  some  other  channel  if  the 
state  of  our  provisions  and  the  health  of  the  crews  justify  it." 

The  following  is  the  last  official  letter  written  by  Sir  John 
Franklin  to  the  Admiralty. 

"  Her  Majesty's  Ship  '  Erebui,' 
Whalefish  Islands,  July  12,  1845 

"  Sir — I  have  the  honor  to  acquaint  you,  for  the  information  of  the 
Lords  CommisHioners  of  the  Admiralty,  that  Her  Majesty's  ships  '  Erebus' 
and  '  Terror,'  with  the  transport,  arrived  at  this  anchorage  on  the  4th  in- 
stant, having  had  a  passage  of  one  month  from  Stromness.  The  trans- 
port was  immediately  taken  alongside  this  ship,  that  she  might  be  more 
readily  cleared ;  and  we  have  been  constantly  employed  at  that  operation 
till  last  evening,  the  delay  having  been  caused  not  so  much  in  getting  the 
stores  transferred  to  either  of  the  ships,  as  in  making  the  ViAst  sto\vasf>  of 


\ 

1 


A 


i 


i 


w 


I.ATEHT   OFFiriAL  LKTrER. 


17 


1 


f^ 


them  belovr,  as  well  as  on  the  upper  deck.  The  ships  are  now  ooinpleto 
with  supplies  of  every  kind  for  three  years  :  they  are,  therefore,  very  deep ; 
but  happily  we  have  no  reason  to  expect  much  sea  as  we  proceed  fur- 
ther. 

"  The  magnetic  instruments  were  lauded  the  same  morning ;  so  also 
were  the  other  instruments  requisite  for  ascertaining  the  position  of  the 
observatory ;  and  it  is  satisfactory  to  find  that  the  results  of  the  observa- 
tions for  latitude  and  longitude  accord  very  nearly  with  those  assigned  to 
the  same  place  by  Sir  Edward  Parry.  Those  for  dip  and  variation  are 
equally  satisfactory,  which  were  made  by  Captain  Crozier  with  the  instru- 
ments belonging  to  the  '  Terror,'  and  by  Commander  James  with  those  of 
the  'Erebus.' 

"  The  ships  are  now  being  swung,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
dip  and  deviation  of  the  needle  on  board,  as  was  done  at  Greenhithe ; 
which  I  trust  will  be  completed  this  afternoon,  and  I  hope  to  be  able  to 
sail  in  the  night. 

"  The  governor  and  principal  persons  are  at  this  time  absent  from  Disco ; 
BO  that  I  have  not  been  able  to  receive  any  communication  from  head 
quarters  as  to  the  state  of  the  ice  to  the  north.  I  have,  however,  learned 
from  a  Danish  carpenter  in  charge  of  the  Esquimaux  at  these  islands,  that, 
though  the  winter  was  severe,  the  spring  was  not  later  than  usual,  nor 
was  the  ice  later  in  breaking  away  hereabout.  He  supposes,  also,  that  it 
is  now  loose  as  far  as  74°,  and  as  far  aa  Lancaster  Sound,  without  much 
obstruction. 

"  The  transport  will  sail  for  England  this  day.  I  shall  instruct  the 
agent,  Lieutenant  Griffiths,  to  proceed  to  Deptford,  and  report  his  arrival 
to  the  Secretary  of  the  Admiralty.  I  have  much  satisfaction  in  bearing 
my  testimony  to  the  careful  and  zealous  manner  in  which  Lieutenant 
Griffiths  has  performed  the  service  intrusted  to  him,  and  would  beg  to  re- 
commend him  as  an  officer  who  appears  to  have  seen  much  service,  to  the 
favorable  consideration  of  their  Lordships. 

"  It  is  unnecessary  to  assure  their  Lordships  of  the  energy  and  zeal  of 
Captain  Crozier,  Commander  Fitzjames,  and  of  the  officers  and  men  with 
whom  I  have  the  happiness  of  being  employed  on  this  service. 

"  I  have,  &c., 

"  John  Franklin, 

"The  Right  Hon.  H.  L.  Gary,  M.P.  "Captain. 

"&c.         &c.         &c." 


The  two  ships  were  seen  on  the  26th  of  the  same  month  (July) 
in  latitude,  74°  48'  N.,  longitude  66=*  13'  W.,  moored  to  an  ice- 
berg, waiting  for  a  favorable  opportunity  of  entering  or  rounding 
the  "  middle  ice"  and  crossing  to  Lancaster  Sound,  distant  in  a 
direct  westerly  line  from  their  position  about  220  geographical 
miles.  On  that  day  a  boat  from  the  discovery  ships,  manned  by 
seven  officers,  one  of  whom  was  Commander  Fitzjames,  boarded 
the  "  Prince  of  Wales,"  whaler,  Captain  Dannett.  They  were 
all  in  high  spirits  and  invited  Captain  Dannett  to  dine  with  Sir 


IS 


FRANKLIN'S  EXPEDITION. 


I  •  ' 


t'   : 


John  Franklin  on  the  following  day,  which  had  he  done,  he 
would  doubtless  have  been  the  bearer  of  letters  for  England,  but 
a  favorable  breeze  springing  up  he  separated  from  them.  The 
ice  was  then  heavy  but  loose,  and  the  officers  expressed  good 
hopes  of  soon  accomplishing  the  enterprise.  Captain  Dannett 
was  favored  with  very  fine  weather  during  the  three  following 
weeks,  and  thought  that  the  expedition  must  have  made  good 
progress.  This  was  the  last  sight  that  was  obtained  of  Frank- 
lin's ships. 

In  January,  1847,  a  year  and  a  half  after  the  above  date, 
Captain  Sir  John  Ross  addressed  a  letter  to  the  Admiralty, 
wherein  he  stated  his  conviction  that  the  discovery  ships  were 
frozen  up  at  the  western  end  of  Melville  Island,  from  whence 
their  return  would  be  forever  prevented  by  the  accumulation  of 
ice  behind  them,  and  volunteered  his  services  to  carry  relief  to 
the  crews.  Sir  John  also  laid  statements  of  his  apprehensions 
before  the  Royal  and  Geographical  Societies,  and,  the  public  at- 
tention being  thereby  roused,  several  writers  in  the  newspapers 
and  other  periodicals  published  their  sentiments  on  the  subject, 
a  variety  of  plans  of  relief  were  suggested,  and  many  volunteers 
came  forward  to  execute  them. 

The  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty,  though  judging 
that  the  second  winter  was  too  early  a  period  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin's absence  to  give  rise  to  well  founded  apprehensions  for  his 
safety,  lost  no  time  in  calling  for  the  opinions  of  several  naval 
officers  who  were  well  acquainted  with  Arctic  navigation,  and  in 
concerting  plans  of  relief,  to  be  carried  out  when  the  proper  time 
should  arrive. 

A  brief  review  of  the  replies  most  worthy  of  notice  may  help 
the  reader  to  form  a  judgment  of  the  plans  that  were  eventually 
adopted  by  the  Admiralty  for  the  discovery  and  relief  of  the  ab- 
sent voyagers.  It  is  convenient  to  consider  first  the  notions  of 
those  who  believe  that  Sir  John  Franklin  never  entered  Lancas- 
ter Sound,  either  because  the  ships  met  with  some  fatal  disaster  in 
Baffin's  Bay,  and  went  down  with  the  entire  loss  of  both  crews, 
or  that  Sir  John  endeavored  to  fulfill  the  purposes  of  the  expedi- 
tion by  taking  some  other  route  than  the  one  exclusively  marked 
out  for  him  by  his  instructions.  That  the  ships  were  not  sudden- 
ly wrecked  by  a  storm,  or  overwhelmed  by  the  pressure  of  th^j 


f 


! 

I 


VARIOUS  OPINIONS. 


I'J 


ice,  may  be  concluded  from  facts  gathered  from  the  records  of  the 
Davis's  Straits  whale-fishery,  by  which  wc  learn  that  of  the  many 
vessels  which  have  been  crushed  in  the  ice,  in  the  course  of  sev- 
eral centuries,  the  whole  or  greater  part  of  the  crews  have  almost 
always  escaped  with  their  boats.  It  is,  therefore,  scarcely  possi- 
ble to  believe  that  two  vessels  so  strongly  fortified  as  the  *'  Erebus" 
and  •'  Terror,"  and  found  by  previous  trials  to  be  capable  of  sus- 
taining so  enormous  a  pressure,  should  both  of  them  have  been 
go  suddenly  crushed  as  to  allow  no  time  for  active  officers  and 
men,  disciplined  and  prepared  for  emergencies  of  the  kind,  to  get 
out  their  boats.  And  having  done  so  they  would  have  had  little 
difficulty  in  reaching  one  of  the  many  whalers,  that  were  occu- 
pied in  the  pursuit  of  fish  in  those  seas  for  six  weeks  after  the 
discovery  ships  were  last  seen.  Moreover,  had  the  ships  been 
wrecked,  some  fragments  of  their  spars  or  hulls  would  have  been 
found  floating  by  the  whalers,  or  being  cast  on  the  eastern  or 
western  shores  of  the  bay,  would  have  been  reported  by  the 
Greenlanders  or  Eskimos.  Neither  are  any  severe  storms  record- 
ed as  having  occurred  then  or  there,  nor  did  any  unusual  calamity 
belall  the  fishing  vessels  that  year. 

With  respect  to  Sir  John  Franklin  having  chosen  to  enter 
Jones's  or  Smith's  Sounds  in  preference  to  Lancaster  Sound,  his 
known  habit  of  strict  adherence  to  his  instructions  is  a  sufficient 
answer,  and  the  extract  quoted  above  from  his  letter  to  Lieu- 
tenant Colonel  Sabine,  which  gives  his  latest  thoughts  on  the 
subject,  plainly  says  that  such  a  course  would  not  be  pursued 
until  a  second  winter  had  proved  the  impracticability  of  the  route 
laid  down  for  him.  This  point  is  mooted,  because  Mr.  Hamilton, 
surgeon  in  Orkney,  states  that  Sir  John,  when  dining  with  him 
on  the  last  day  that  he  passed  in  Great  Britain,  mentioned  his 
determination  of  trying  Jones's  Sound.  But  Sir  John's  commu- 
nication to  Colonel  Sabine  shows  that  this  could  be  meant  to  re- 
fer only  to  the  contingency  of  a  full  trial  by  Lancaster  Sound 
proving  fruitless.  Supposing  that,  contrary  to  all  former  experi- 
ence, he  had  found  the  mouth  of  Lancaster  Sound  so  barred  by 
ice  as  to  preclude  his  entrance,  then,  after  waiting  till  he  had 
become  convinced  that  it  would  remain  closed  for  the  season,  he 
might  have  tried  to  find  a  way,  by  Jones's  Sound,  into  Welling- 
ton Sound ;  but  in  such  a  case,  we  may  hold  it  as  certain  that 
he  would  have  erected  conspicuous  cairns,  and  deposited  memo- 


♦ 


20 


FRANKLIN'S  EXPEDITION. 


? 


randa  of  his  past  proceedings  and  future  intentions,  at  the  entrance 
of  Lancaster  Sound. 

Taking  it,  then,  for  granted  that  the  expedition  entered  Lan 
caster  Sound,  the  most  probable  conjecture  respecting  the  direction 
in  which  it  advanced  is  that  Sir  John,  literally  following  his  in- 
structions, did  not  stop  to  examine  any  openings  either  to  the 
northward  or  southward  of  Barrow's  Strait,  but  continued  to 
push  on  to  the  westward  until  he  reached  Cape  Walker,  in  lon- 
gitude 98°,  when  he  inclined  to  the  southwest,  and  steered  as 
directly  as  he  could  for  Beering's  Straits.  But  even  supposing 
that  the  state  of  the  ice  permitted  him  to  take  the  desired  route, 
and  to  turn  to  the  southwestward  by  the  first  opening  beyond 
the  98th  meridian,  we  are  ignorant  of  the  exact  position  of  that 
opening,  the  tract  between  Cape  Walker  and  Banks's  Land  being 
totally  unknown.  That  a  passage  to  the  southward  does  exist  in 
that  space,  and  terminates  between  Victoria  and  Wollaston  Lands 
in  Coronation  Gulf,  is  inferred  from  the  observed  setting  of  the 
flood  tide.  There  is,  it  is  true,  an  uncertainty  in  our  endeavors 
to  determine  the  directions  of  the  tides  in  these  narrow  seas,  where 
the  currents  are  influenced  by  prevailing  winds;  but  Mr.  Thomas 
Simpson,  who  was  an  acute  observer,  remarked  that  the  flood  tide 
brought  much  ice  into  Coronation  Gulf  round  the  west  end  of 
Victoria  Land,  and  facts  collected  on  three  visits  which  I  hava 
made  to  that  gulf  lead  me  to  concur  with  him.  Entirely  in  ac- 
cordance with  this  opinion  is  the  fact  noted  by  Sir  Edward  Parry, 
that  the  flood  tide  came  from  the  north  between  Cornwallis  and 
the  neighboring  islands,  and  that  the  ice  was  continually  setting 
round  the  >^'est  end  of  Melville  Island  and  passing  onward  to  the^ 
southeast. 

These  observations,  while  they  point  to  an  opening  to  the 
eastward  of  Banks's  Land,  may  be  adduced  as  an  argument 
against  the  existence  of  a  passage  directly  to  the  westward  be 
tween  it  and  Melville  Island ;  and,  though  they  are  not  con 
elusive,  they  are  supported  by  another  remark  of  Sir  Edward 
Parry's  that  he  thought  there  was  some  peculiar  obstruction  im- 
mediately to  the  west  of  that  island,  which  produced  a  permanent 
barrier  of  ice. 

But  wherever  the  opening  which  we  presume  to  exist  may  be 
situated,  the  channels  among  the  islands  are  probably  not  direct, 
and  may  be  intricate.    Vessels,  therefore,  having  pushed  into  one 


VARIOUS  OPINIONS 


81 


of  them,  would  be  exposed  to  the  ico  closing  in  behind  and  bar* 
ring  all  regress.  Sir  John  Ross,  whose  opinions  are  first  recorded 
in  the  parliamentary  Blue  Book,  believes  that  "  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin put  his  ships  into  the  drift  ice  at  the  western  end  of  Melville 
Island,"  and  that,  "  if  not  totally  lost,  they  must  have  been  car- 
ried by  the  ice,  which  is  known  to  drift  to  the  southward,  on 
land  (Banks's  Land)  seen  at  a  great  distance  in  that  direction,  and 
from  which  the  accumulation  of  ice  behind  them  will,"  says  he, 
'•  as  in  my  own  case,  forever  prevent  the  return  of  the  ships." 

Sir  W.  Edward  Parry  is  of  opinion  that  Sir  John  Franklin 
wojild  endeavor  "  to  get  to  the  southward  and  westward  before  he 
approached  the  southwestern  extremity  of  Melville  Island,  that 
is,  between  the  lOOth  and  110th  degree  of  longitude  :"  "how 
far  they  may  have  penetrated  to  the  southward  between  those 
meridians,  must  be  a  matter  of  speculation,  depending  on  the 
state  of  the  ice  and  the  existence  of  land  in  a  space  hitherto 
blank  in  our  maps."  "  Be  this  as  it  may,  I  (Sir  W.  E.  Parry) 
consider  it  not  improbable,  as  suggested  by  Dr.  King,  that  an 
attempt  will  be  made  by  them  to  fall  back  on  the  western  coast 
of  North  Somerset,  wherever  that  may  be  found,  as  being  the 
nearest  point  affording  a  hope  of  communication,  either  with 
whalers  or  with  ships  sent  expressly  in  search  of  the  expedition." 

Sir  James  C.  Ross  says  :  "  It  is  far  more  probable,  however, 
that  Sir  John  Franklin,  in  obedience  to  his  instructions,  would 
endeavor  to  push  the  ships  to  the  south  and  west  as  soon  as  they 
passed  Cape  Walker ;  and  the  consequence  of  such  a  measure, 
owing  to  the  known  prevalence  of  westerly  winds,  and  the  drift 
of  the  main  body  of  the  ice,  would  be  their  inevitable  embarrass- 
ment ;  and  if  he  persevered  in  that  direction,  which  he  probably 
would  do,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  stating  my  conviction,  that  he 
would  never  be  able  to  extricate  his  ships,  and  would  ultimately 
be  obliged  to  abandon  them.  It  is,  therefore,  in  latitude  73°  N. 
and  longitude  135°  W.  that  we  may  expect  to  find  them  involved 
in  the  ice,  or  shut  up  in  some  harbor." 

The  opinions  here  quoted  are  contingent  on  the  supposition,  that 
Sir  John  Franklin  found  the  state  of  the  ice  to  be  such  that  he 
could  take  the  routes  in  question  ;  but  the  several  officers  quoted 
admit  that,  in  the  event  of  no  opening  through  the  ice  in  a  west- 
erly or  southwesterly  direction  being  found.  Sir  John  would  at- 
tempt Wellington  Sound,  or  any  other  northern  opening  that  was 


83 


SEARCHING  EXPEDITIONS. 


accessible.  Commander  Fitzjames,  in  a  letter  dated  January, 
1845,  says:  "The  northwest  passage  is  certainly  to  be  gone 
through  by  Barrow's  Straits,  but  whether  south  or  north  of  Par- 
ry's Group  remains  to  be  proved.  I  am  for  going  far  north,  edg- 
ing northwest  till  in  longitude  140°  W.,  if  possible."  Mr.  John 
Barrow,  to  whom  this  letter  was  addressed,  appends  to  it  the  fol- 
lowing memorandum :  "  Captain  Fitzjames  was  much  inclined  to 
try  the  passage  to  the  northward  of  Parry's  Islands,  and  he  would, 
no  doubt,  endeavor  to  persuade  Sir  John  Franklin  to  pursue  that 
course,  if  they  failed  to  get  to  the  southward." 

My  own  opinion,  submitted  to  the  Admiralty  in  compliance 
with  their  commands,  was  substantially  the  same  with  that  of 
Sir  James  Clark  Ross,  though  formed  independently  ;  and  I 
further  suggested  that,  in  the  event  of  accident  to  the  ships,  or 
their  abandonment  in  the  ice,  the  members  of  the  expedition 
would  make  either  for  Lancaster  Sound  to  meet  the  whalers,  or 
Mackenzie  River,  to  seek  relief  at  the  Hudson's  Bay  posts,  as 
they  judged  either  of  these  places  most  easy  of  attainment.* 

After  deliberately  weighing  these  and  other  suggestions,  and 
fully  considering  the  numerous  plans  submitted  to  them,  the  Ad- 
miralty determined  that,  if  no  intelligence  of  the  missing  ships 
arrived  by  the  close  of  autumn,  1847,  they  would  send  out  three 
several  searching  expeditions — one  to  Lancaster  Sound,  another 
down  the  Mackenzie  River,  and  the  third  to  Beering's  Straits. 

The  object  of  the  first,  and  the  most  important  of  the  three, 
was  to  follow  up  the  route  supposed  to  have  been  pursued  by  Sir 
John  Franklin ;  and,  by  searching  diligently  for  any  signal-posts 
he  might  have  erected,  to  trace  him  out,  and  carry  the  required 
relief  to  his  exhausted  crews.  Sir  James  Clark  Ross  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  this  expedition,  consisting  of  the  "  En- 
terprise" and  "  Investigator ;"  and,  as  his  plan  of  proceeding  bears 
upon  my  own  instructions,  I  give  it  at  length  :  ,  ■:    ' 

"  As  vessels  destined  to  follow  the  track  of  the  expedition  must,  neces- 
sarily, encounter  the  same  difficulties,  and  be  liable  to  the  same  severe 


[*  Since  the  publication  of  the  English  edition  of  this  work,  the  return 
of  the  American  Arctic  Expedition  (Oct.,  1851),  has  brought  intelligence 
proving  that  Sir  John  Franklin's  expedition  was  at  Beeohy  Cape,  at  the 
Entrance  of  Wellington  Sound,  from  January  1,  to  April  3,  1846,  at  least. 
The  graves  of  three  members  of  his  party,  bearing  these  dates,  were  dis- 
covered at  that  spot. — ^Am.  Pub.1 


1 


'* 


,7'/    rf> 


SIR  JAMES  C.  ROBci'd  PLAN  OF  SEARCH. 


as 


•eturn 

gence 

,t  the 

east. 

dis- 


:*  -^ 


pressure  from  the  great  body  of  tho  ice  they  must  paHs  through  in  their 
way  to  Lancaster  Sound,  it  ia  desirable  that  two  shipti,  of  not  less  than 
500  tons,  be  purchased  for  this  service,  and  fortified  and  equipped,  in  every 
respect  as  were  the  '  Erebus'  and  '  Terror,'  for  tlie  Antartic  Seas. 

"  Each  Nhip  should,  in  addition,  be  supplied  with  a  small  vessel  or 
launch  of  about  20  tons,  which  she  could  hoist  in,  to  be  fitted  with  a  steam- 
engine  and  boiler  of  ten-horse  power,  for  a  purpose  to  be  hereafter  noticed. 

"  The  ships  should  sail  at  the  end  of  April  next,  and  proceed  to  Lan- 
caster Sound,  with  as  little  delay  as  possible,  carefully  searching  both 
shores  of  that  extensive  inlet,  and  of  Barrow's  Strait,  and  then  progress  to 
the  westward. 

"  Should  the  period  at  which  they  arrive  in  Barrow's  Strait  admit  of  it, 
Wellington  Channel  should  next  be  examined,  and  tho  coast  between  Capo 
Clarence  and  Cape  Walker  explored,  either  in  the  ships  or  by  boats,  as 
may  at  the  time  appear  most  advisable.  As  this  coast  has  been  generally 
found  encumbered  with  ice,  it  is  not  desirable  that  both  ships  should  pro- 
ceed so  far  along  it  as  to  hazard  their  getting  beset  there  and  shut  up  for 
the  winter ;  but  in  the  event  of  finding  a  convenient  harbor  near  Garnici 
Bay  or  Cape  Eennell,  it  would  be  a  good  position  in  which  to  secure  ont 
of  the  ships  for  the  winter. 

"  From  this  position  the  coast  line  might  be  explored,  as  far  as  it  ex- 
tends to  the  westward,  by  detached  parties  early  in  the  spring,  as  well  a& 
the  western  coast  of  Boothia,  a  considerable  distance  to  the  southward , 
and  at  a  more  advanced  period  of  the  season  the  whole  distance  to  Cape 
Nicolai  might  be  completed. 

"  A  second  party  might  be  sent  to  the  southwest  as  far  as  practicable, 
and  a  third  to  the  northwest,  or  in  any  other  direction  deemed  advisable 
at  the  time. 

"  As  soon  as  the  formation  of  water  along  the  coast,  between  the  land 
and  main  body  of  the  ice  admitted,  the  small  steam-launch  should  be  dis- 
patched into  Lancaster  Sound,  to  communicate  with  the  whale-ships  at 
the  usual  time  of  their  arrival  in  those  regions,  by  which  means  informa- 
tion of  the  safety  or  return  of  Sir  John  Franklin  might  be  conveyed  to  the 
ships  before  their  liberation  from  their  winter  quarters,  as  well  as  any 
further  instructions  the  Lords  Commissioners  might  be  pleased  to  send  for 
their  future  guidance. 

"  The  easternmost  vessel  having  been  safely  secured  in  winter  quarters, 
the  other  ship  should  proceed  alone  to  the  westward,  and  endeavor  to 
reach  Winter  Harbor  in  Melville  Island,  or  some  convenient  port  in  Banks's 
Land,  in  which  to  pass  the  winter. 

"  From  this  point,  also,  parties  should  be  dispatched  early  in  spring,  be- 
fore the  breaking  up  of  the  ice.  The  first  should  trace  the  western  coast 
of  Banks's  Land,  and  proceeding  to  Cape  Bathurst,  or  some  other  conspic- 
uous point  of  vhe  continent,  previously  agreed  on  with  Sir  John  Richard- 
son, reach  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  settlement  of  Fort  Good  Hope  on 
the  Mackenzie,  whence  they  may  travel  southward  by  the  usual  route  of 
the  traders  to  York  Factory,  and  thence  to  England. 

"  The  second  party  should  explore  the  eastern  shore  of  Banks's  Land, 
and,  making  for  Cape  Krusenstem,  communicate  with  Sir  John  Eichard- 
Ron's  party  on  its  descending  the  Coppermine  River,  and  either  assist  him 


.:% 


»* 


M  PLAN  OF  SEARCH  Arx)rTKO. 

in  completing  the  exumination  of  Wollaston  and  Victoria  Land,  or  return 
to  England  by  any  route  he  should  direct. 

'*  These  two  parties  would  pass  over  that  space  in  which  most  probably 
the  ships  have  become  involved  (if  at  all),  and  would,  therefore,  have  the 
best  chance  of  communicating  to  Sir  John  Franklin  information  of  th0 
measures  that  have  been  adopted  for  his  relief,  and  of  directing  him  to  the 
beat  point  to  proceed,  if  he  bhould  consider  it  necessary  to  abandon  his  ships. 

"  Other  parties  may  bo  dispatched,  as  might  appear  desirable  to  the 
commander  of  the  expedition,  according  to  circumstances ;  but  the  steam* 
launches  should  certainly  be  employed  to  keep  up  the  communication  be- 
tween the  ships,  to  transmit  such  information  for  the  guidance  of  each 
other  as  might  be  necessary  for  the  safety  and  success  of  the  undertaking. 

(Signed)  "  James  C.  Eoss, 

"  Captain,  R.N. 
"  Athenaum,  2  December,  1847." 


By  a  subsequent  arruugcmcnt  betweeu  Sir  Jamus  Ross  and 
myself,  under  the  sanction  of  the  Admiralty,  I  undertook  to  de- 
posit pemican  at  Fort  Good  Hope  and  Point  Separation  on  the 
Mackenzie,  and  Capes  Bathurst,  Parry,  Krusenstern,  and  Hearne, 
on  the  sea-coast,  for  the  use  of  Sir  James  Ross's  detached  parties. 

The  Beering's  Straits  expedition  was  composed  of  the  "  Her- 
ald," Captain  Kellet,  then  employed  in  surveying  the  Pacific 
coasts  of  America,  and  the  "  Plover,"  Commander  Moore.  The 
vessels  were  expected  to  arrive  in  Beering's  Straits  about  the  Ist 
of  July,  1848,  and  were  directed  to  "  proceed  along  the  American 
coast  as  far  as  possible,  consistent  with  the  certainty  of  prevent- 
ing the  ships  being  beset  by  the  ice."  A  harbor  was  to  be  sought 
for  the  "  Plover"  within  the  Straits,  to  which  that  vessel  was  to 
be  conducted ;  and  two  whale-boats  were  to  go  on  to  the  east- 
ward in  search  of  the  missing  voyagers,  and  to  communicate,  if 
possible,  with  the  Mackenzie  River  party.  The  "  Plover"  was 
fitted  out  in  the  Thames  in  December,  1847  ;  but  having  been 
found  to  leak  when  she  went  to  sea,  was  compelled  to  put  into 
Plymouth  for  repair,  and  did  not  finally  leave  England  until  Feb- 
ruary, 1848.  This  tardy  departure,  conjoined  with  her  dull  sail- 
ing, prevented  her  from  passing  Beering's  Straits  at  all  in  1848; 
but  she  wintered  near  Cape  Tschukotskoi,  on  the  Asiatic  coast, 
just  outside  of  the  Straits. 

The  "Herald"  visited  Kotzebue  Sound,  repassed  the  Straits 
before  the  arrival  of  the  "  Plover,"  and  returned  to  winter  in 
South  America,  with  the  intention  of  going  northward  again  next 
reason.  '  , 


OUJECl'  OF  THE  OVERLAND  EXPHIHTION. 


2.' 


ras  to 

ea8t- 

ite,  if 

-was 
been 

into 
Feb- 

sail- 
848; 

oast, 

Itraits 
ler  in 

next 


The  main  object  of  the  searching  party  iutrusletl  to  my  charge, 
was  to  trace  the  coast  between  the  Mucken/io  and  Coppenniiio 
llivors,  and  the  shores  of  Victoria  and  WoUaston  Lands  lying 
opposite  to  Capo  Kruscnstern.  In  a  preceding  page  I  have  ad- 
duced reasons  for  bcj<'v  ng  that  there  is  a  passage  to  the  north- 
ward iietween  \hpwi  lands ;  and  if  so,  its  position  makes  it  the 
most  dire<^  route  from  the  continent  to  the  unknown  tract  inter- 
posed between  Capo  Walker  and  Banks's  Land,  into  which  Sir 
John  Franklin  was  expressly  ordered  to  carry  his  ships.  Should 
he  have  done  so,  and  his  egress  by  the  way  he  entered  be  barred 
by  the  ice  closing  in  behind  him  as  already  suggested,  there  re- 
mained a  probability  that  the  annual  progression  of  the  ice  south- 
ward would  eventually  carry  the  ships  into  Coronation  Gulf,  or, 
if  abandoned  befort  that  event,  their  crews  were  to  be  sought  for 
on  their  way  to  the  continent. 

At  the  time  when  Sir  John  Franklin  left  England,  two  other 
openings  from  the  north  into  the  sea  washing  the  continental 
shores  were  supposed  to  exist.  The  most  westerly  of  these  is  be- 
tween Boothia  and  Victoria  Land,  and  it  was  part  of  Sir  James 
Ross's  plan  to  examine  the  >vholo  western  side  of  Boothia  and 
North  Somerset  by  one  of  his  steam-barges. 

The  other  supposed  entrance  was  by  Regent's  Inlet.  Dcasc 
and  Simpson  had  left  only  a  small  space  unsurveyed  between  that 
inlet  and  the  sea,  which  was  known  to  afibrd  in  good  seasons  a 
passage  all  the  way  to  Beering's  Straits ;  and  this  might  have 
recommended  the  route  by  Regent's  Inlet  for  trial.  But,  exclu- 
sive of  its  being  absolutely  prohibited  by  Sir  John  Franklin's  in- 
structions, Sir  Edward  Parry  and  Sir  James  RosS;  on  whose  opin- 
ions Sir  John  placed  deservedly  the  greatest  reliance,  were  de- 
cidedly averse  to  his  attemping  a  passage  in  that  direction  ;  and 
it  was  known  that  Sir  John  Franklin  had  resolved  on  trying  all 
the  other  openings  before  he  entered  Regent's  Inlet,  which  was 
to  be  his  last  resource.  It  fortunately  happened  before  any  of  the 
searching  expeditions  were  fmally  organized,  that  the  non-exist- 
ence of  a  passage  through  that  inlet  was  fully  ascertained. 

Mr.  John  Rae,  a  Chief  Trader  in  the  service  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  left  Fort  Churchill  in  the  beginning  of  the  sum- 
mer of  1846,  with  two  boats,  for  the  express  purpose  of  complet- 
ing the  survey  of  Regent's  Inlet.  He  arrived  in  Repulse  Bay 
in  the  month  of  August  of  that  year,  and  immediately  crossed  an 

B 


S6 


BUllVEY  OF  PRINCE  REGENTS  INLET. 


isthmus,  forty-three  miles  wide,  to  the  inlet,  taking  one  boat  with 
hira.  Finding  that  the  season  was  too  far  advanced  for  him  to 
complete  the  survey  that  year,  he  determined,  with  a  boldness 
and  confidence  in  his  own  resources  that  has  never  been  surpassed, 
to  winter  in  Repulse  Bay,  and  to  finish  his  survey  of  Regent's 
Inlet  on  the  ice  next  spring ;  so  that  he  might  be  able  to  return 
to  Churchill  and  York  Factory  by  open  water  in  the  summer  of 

1847.  He  therefore  recrossed  the  isthmus  again  with  his  boat, 
and  set  about  collecting  provisions  and  fuel  for  a  ten  months'  win- 
ter. To  one  less  experienced  and  hardy,  the  desolate  shores  of 
Repulse  Bay  would  have  forbidden  such  an  attempt.  They 
yielded  neithev  drift-wood  nor  shrubby  plants  of  any  kind ;  but  Mr. 
Rae  employed  part  of  his  men  to  gather  the  withered  stems  of 
the  Andromeda  tetragona,  a  small  herbaceou9»plant  which  grew 
in  abundance  on  the  rocks,  and  to  pile  it  in  cocks  like  hay :  others 
he  set  to  build  a  house  of  stone  and  earth,  large  enough  to  shelter 
his  party,  amounting  in  all  to  sixteen ;  while  he  himself  and  his 
Eskimo  interpreter  were  occupied  in  killing  deer  for  winter  con- 
sumption. He  succeeded  in  laying  up  a  sufficient  stock  of  venison, 
and  kept  his  people  in  health  and  strength  for  next  year's  opera- 
tions, though  not  in  comfort,  for  the  chinmey  was  so  badly  con- 
structed for  ventilation,  that  when  the  fire  was  lighted  it  was 
necessary  to  open  the  door,  and  thus  to  reduce  the  temperature  of 
the  apartment,  nearly  to  that  of  the  external  air.  The  fire  was, 
therefore,  used  as  seldom  as  possible,  and  only  for  cooking  or  melt- 
ing snow  to  drink.  In  the  spring  he  completed  the  survey  of 
Prince  Regent's  Inlet  on  foot,  thereby  proving  that  no  passage  ex- 
isted through  it,  and  confirming  the  Eskimo  report,  first  made  to 
Sir  Edward  Parry,  and  afterward  to  Sir  John  Ross.  A  party 
of  Eskimo,  who  resided  near  Mr.  Rae  in  the  winter,  informed 
him,  through  his  interpreter,  that  they  had  not  seen  Franklin's 
ships,  thereby  excludii..  \he  Gulf  of  Boothia  from  the  list  of 
places  to  be  searched. 

Having  thus  mentioned  the  opinions  most  worthy  of  note,  re- 
specting the  quarters  in  which  search  was  to  be  made,  the  plans 
of  search  adopted  by  the  Admiralty  after  duly  weighing  a  great 
variety  of  suggestions,  and  the  extent  of  coast  and  parts  of  the 
Arctic  Sea  embraced  in  the  three  expeditions  of  the  summer  of 

1848,  I  subjoin  the  instructions  I  received  from  the  Admiralty : 


J 


^i 


re- 

llans 

treat 

the 

br  of 


INSTRUCTIONS  FROM  THE  ADMIRALTY. 


27 


Instructions  to  Sir  John  Richardson,  M.D.,  \6th  March,  1848.      By  the 
Commissioners  for  executing  the  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral,  Sfc. 

"  Whereas,  we  think  fit  that  you  should  be  employed  on  an  overland  ex- 
pedition in  search  of  Her  Majesty's  ships  'Erebus'  and  '  Terror,'  under  the 
command  of  Captain  Sir  John  Franklin,  which  ships  are  engaged  in  a  voy- 
age of  discovery  in  the  Arctic  Seas,  you  are  hereby  required  and  directed  to 
take  under  your  orders  Mr.  Rae,  who  has  been  selected  to  accompany  you, 
and  to  leave  England  on  the  25th  instant,  by  the  mail  steamer  for  Halifax 
in  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  York ;  and  on  your  arrival  at  the  latter  place,  you 
are  to  proce«d  immediately  to  Montreal,  for  the  purpose  of  conferring  with 
Sir  George  Simpson,  Governor  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  Settlements, 
and  making  arrangements  with  him  for  your  future  supplies  and  commu- 
nications. 

"  You  should  next  travel  to  Penetanguishene,  on  Lake  Huron,  and  from 
thence,  by  a  steamer,  which  sails  on  the  1st  and  15th  of  every  month  of 
open  water,  to  Saut  Ste.  Marie,  at  the  fuot  of  Lake  Superior,  and  there 
embark  in  a  canoe,  which,  with  its  crew,  will  have  been  provided  for  you, 
by  that  time,  by  Sir  George  Simpson. 

"Following  the  usual  canoe  route  by  Fort  "William,  Rainy  Lake,  the 
Lake  of  the  Woods,  Lake  Winipeg,  and  the  Saskatchewan  River,  it  is 
hoped  that  you  will  overtake  the  boats  now  under  charge  of  Mr.  Bell,  in 
July,  1848,  somewhere  near  Isle  a  la  Crosse,  or  perhaps  the  Methy  Port- 
age. 

"  You  will  then  send  the  canoe  with  its  crew  back  to  Canada,  and  having 
stowed  the  four  boats  for  their  sea  voyage,  you  will  go  on  as  rapidly  as 
you  can  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie ;  leaving  Mr.  Bell  to  follow  with 
the  heavier  laden  barge,  to  turn  off  at  Great  Bear  Lake,  and  erect  your 
winter  residence  at  Fort  Confidence,  establish  fisheries,  and  send  out 
hunters. 

"  Making  a  moderate  allowance  for  unavoidable  detention  by  ice,  thick 
fogs,  and  storms,  the  examination  of  the  coast  between  the  Mackenzie  and 
the  Coppermine  Rivers  will  probably  occupy  30  days  ;  but  you  can  not  calcu- 
late to  be  able  to  keep  the  sea  later  than  the  15th  of  September,  for,  from  the 
beginning  of  that  month,  the  young  ice  covers  the  sea  almost  every  night, 
and  very  greatly  impedes  the  boats,  until  the  day  is  well  advanced. 

"  If  you  reach  the  sea  in  the  first  week  of  August,  it  is  hoped  you  will 
be  able  to  make  the  complete  voyage  to  the  Coppermine  River,  and  also  to 
coast  a  considerable  part  of  the  western  and  southern  shores  of  Wollaston 
Land,  and  to  ascend  the  Coppermine  to  some  convenient  point,  where  the 
boats  can  be  left  with  the  provisions  ready  for  the  next  year's  voyage ;  and 
you  will  instruct  Mr.  Bell  to  send  two  hunters  to  the  banks  of  the  river  to 
provide  food  for  the  party  on  the  route  to  Fort  Confidence,  and  thus  spare 
you  any  further  consumption  of  the  pemican  reserved  for  the  following 
Bumrper. 

"  As  it  may  happen,  however,  from  your  late  arrival  on  the  coast,  or 
subsequent  unexpected  detentions,  that  you  can  not  with  safety  attempt 
to  reach  the  Coppermine,  you  have  our  full  permission  in  such  a  case  to 
return  to  Fort  Good  Hope,  on  the  Mackenzie,  there  to  deposit  two  of  the 
boats,  with  all  the  sea  stores,  and  to  proceed  with  the  other  two  boats, 
and  the  whole  of  the  crows,  to  winter  quarters  on  Great  Bear  Lake. 


n 


INSTRUCTIONS  FROM  THE  ADMIRALTY 


"And  you  havfe  also  our  permission  to  deviate  from  the  line  of  route 
along  the  coast,  should  you  receive  accounts  from  the  Eskimos,  which  may 
appear  credible,  of  the  crews  of  the  'Erebus'  and  'Terror,'  or  some  part  of 
them,  being  in  some  other  direction. 

"  For  the  purpose  of  more  widely  extending  your  search,  you  are  at  lib- 
erty to  leave  Mr.  Rae  and  a  party  of  volunteers  to  winter  on  the  coast,  if, 
by  the  establishment  of  a  sufficient  iSshery,  or  by  killing  a  number  of  deer 
or  musk  oxen,  you  may  be  able  to  lay  up  provisions  enough  for  them  until 
you  can  rejoin  them  next  summer. 

"  As  you  have  been  informed  by  Captain  Sir  James  Ross,  ^f  Her  Maj- 
esty's ship  '  Enterprise,'  who  is  about  to  be  employed  on  a  similar  search 
in  another  direction,  of  the  probable  directions  in  which  the  parties  he  will 
send  out  toward  the  continent  will  travel,  you  are  to  leave  a  deposit  of 
pemican  for  their  use  at  the  following  points — ^namely.  Point  Separation, 
Cape  Bathurst,  Cape  Parry,  and  Cape  Krusenstern ;  and  as  Sir  James  Ross 
is  desirous  that  some  pemican  should  be  stored  at  Fort  Good  Hope,  for  the 
use  of  a  party  which  he  purposes  sending  thither  in  the  spring  of  1849, 
you  are  to  make  the  necessary  arrangements  with  Sir  George  Simpson  for 
that  purpose,  as  his  directions  to  that  effect  must  be  sent  early  enough  to 
meet  the  Company's  brigade  of  Mackenzie  River  boats  at  Methy  Portage, 
in  July,  1848. 

"  Should  it  appear  necessary  to  continue  the  search  a  second  summer 
(1849),  and  should  the  boats  have  been  housed  on  the  Coppermine,  you 
are  to  descend  that  river,  on  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  in  June,  1849,  and 
to  examine  the  passages  between  Wollaston  and  Banks's  and  Victoria 
Lands,  so  as  to  cross  the  routes  of  some  of  Sir  James  C.  Ross's  detached 
parties,  and  to  return  to  Great  Bear  Lake  in  September,  1849,  and  with- 
draw the  whole  party  from  thence  to  winter  on  Great  Slave  Lake,  which 
would  be  as  far  south  as  you  will  have  a  prospect  of  traveling  before  the 
close  of  the  river  navigation. 

"  "hould  you  have  found  it  necessary  to  return  to  the  Mackenzie  (Sep- 
temb  ■',  1848),  instead  of  pr.shing  on  to  the  Coppermine,  the  search  in  the 
sumiuer  of  1849  would,  of  course,  have  to  be  commenced  from  the  former 
river  again;  but  should  circumstances  render  it  practicable  and  desirable 
to  send  some  of  the  party  down  the  Coppermine  with  one  or  two  boats, 
you  are  at  liberty  to  do  so. 

"A  passage  for  yourself  and  Mr.  Rae  will  be  provided  in  the  'America,' 
British  and  North  American  mail-steamer,  which  sails  from  Liverpool  on 
the  25th  of  March,  and  you  will  receive  a  letter  of  credit  on  Her  Majesty's 
Consul  at  New  York  for  the  amount  of  the  expense  of  your  journey  from 
New  York  to  Saut  Ste.  Marie,  and  the  carriage  of  the  instruments,  &c. 

"And  in  the  event  of  intelligence  of  the  'Erebus'  and  'Terror'  reaching 
England  after  your  departure,  a  communication  will  be  made  to  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company  to  ascertain  the  most  expeditious  route  to  forward  your 
recall. 

"We  consider  it  scarcely  necessary  to  furnish  you  with  any  instructions 
contingent  on  a  successful  search  after  the  above-mentioned  expedition,  or 
any  parties  belonging  to  it.  The  circumstances  of  the  case,  and  your  own 
local  knowledge  and  experience,  will  best  point  out  the  means  to  be  adopt- 
ed for  the  speedy  transmission  to  this  country  of  intelligence  to  the  above 


a 


> 
on. 


T' 


I'' 


ma 
or 
m 


INSTRUCTIONS  FROM  THE  ADMIRALTY. 


29 


efTect,  as  well  as  of  aiding  and  directing  in  the  return  of  any  such  parties 
to  England. 

"  We  are  only  anxious  that  the  search  so  laudably  undertaken  by  you 
and  your  colleagues  should  not  be  unnecessarily  or  hazardously  prolonged ; 
and  while  we  are  confident  that  no  pains  or  labor  will  be  spared  in  the  ex- 
ecution of  this  service,  we  fear  lest  the  zeal  and  anxiety  of  the  party  so 
employed  may  carry  them  further  than  would  be  otherwise  prudent. 

"It  is  on  this  account  you  are  to  understand  that  your  search  is  not  to 
be  prolonged  after  the  winter  of  1849,  and  which  will  be  passed  on  the  Great 
Slave  Lake ;  but  that,  at  the  earliest  practical  moment  after  the  breaking 
up  of  the  weather  in  the  spring  of  1850,  you  will  take  such  steps  for  the 
return  of  the  party  under  your  orders  to  England  as  circumstances  may 
render  expedient. 

"  It  must  be  supposed  that  the  instructions  now  afforded  you  can 
scarcely  meet  every  contingency  that  may  arise  out  of  a  service  of  the 
above  description ;  but  reposing,  as  we  do,  the  utmost  confidence  in  your 
discretion  and  judgment,  you  are  not  only  at  liberty  to  deviate  from  any 
point  of  them  that  may  seem  at  variance  with  the  objects  of  the  expedi- 
tion, but  you  are  further  empowered  to  take  such  other  steps  as  shall  be 
desirable  at  the  time,  and  which  are  not  provided  for  in  these  orders. 
"  Given  under  our  hands,  16th  March,  1848. 

(Signed)  "Auckland. 

"J.  W.  D.  DUNDAS. 

"  To  Sir  John  Richardson,  M.D.,  &c. 
"  By  conamand,  &c. 

(Signed)     "W.  A.  B.  Hamilton." 


Ko 


I 


CHAPTER    II. 

Overland  Searching  Expedition. — Routes  through  the  Interior. — Hudson's  Bay 
Ship?. — Pemican. — Boats. — Boat  Party  leaves  England. — Arrives  at  Winter 
Quarters. — Volunteers. — Mr.  John  Rae  appointed  to  the  Expedition. — The  Au- 
thor and  Mr.  Rae  sail  from  England. — Land  at  New  York. — Proceed  to  Mon- 
treal and  La  Chine. — Canoe-Men. — Saut  Ste.  Marie. — Voyage  to  the  North. — 
Reach  Cumberland  House. 

The  preceding  pages  contain  an  exposition  of  the  objects  of  the 
expedition,  with  a  general  outline  of  the  course  to  be  pursued 
after  leaving  the  Mackenzie ;  but  as  that  great  river  can  be  at- 
tained only  by  a  long  and  laborious  lake  and  river  navigation,  it 
is  proper  that  I  should  introduce  the  narrative  by  a  brief  account 
of  that  first  stage  of  our  overland  journey.  There  are  two  routes 
to  the  Mackenzie,  one  of  which,  traced  at  an  early  period  by  the 
Canadian  fur  companies,  passes  through  Lakes  Huron  and  Supe- 
rior, the  Kamenistikwoya,  or  Dog  River,  the  Juake  of  the  Woods, 
Rainy  Lake,  Lake  Winipeg,  Cedar  Lake,  the  Saskatchewan 
River,  Beaver  and  Half-moon  Lakes,  Churchill  or  English  River, 
Isle  k  la  Crosse,  Buffalo  and  Methy  Lakes  to  the  Methy  Portage, 
and  the  Clear-water  or  Little  Athabasca  River,  one  of  the  af- 
fluents of  the  Mackenzie.  From  thence  there  is  a  continuous 
water-course  to  the  sea,  through  the  Elk  or  Athabasca  River, 
Athabasca  Lake,  Slave  River  and  Lake,  and  the  JV^ackenzie 
proper. 

The  length  of  this  interior  navigation  from  Montreal  to  the 
Arctic  Sea  is,  in  round  numbers,  four  thousand  four  hundred 
miles,  of  which  sixteen  hundred  miles  are  performed  on  the  Mac- 
kenzie and  its  afRuents,  from  Methy  Portage  northward,  and  in 
which  the  only  interruptions  to  boat  navigation  are  a  few  cas- 
cades and  rapids  in  Clear-water  and  Slave  Rivers. 

During  the  existence  of  the  Northwest,  X-Y,  and  other  fur 
companies  trading  from  Canada,  supplies  were  conveyed  to  their 
northern  posts  by  the  way  of  the  Ottawa  River  and  great  Canada 
lakes ;  but  they  reached  the  distant  establishments  on  the  Mac- 
kenzie only  in  the  second  summer,  having  been  deposited  in  the 


^ 


t- 


ROUTES  THROUGH  THE  INTP:RI0R. 


31 


i 


first  year  at  the  depot  on  Rainy  River.  Owing  to  the  shallow- 
ness of  the  streams,  and  badness  of  the  portagre  roads  over  the- 
heights  between  Lake  Superior  and  Rainy  Lake,  the  transport 
of  goods  requires  to  be  performed  in  canoes,  with  much  manual 
labor,  and  is,  consequently,  very  expensive.  On  this  account  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  who  are  now  the  sole  possessors  of  the 
northern  fur  trade,  no  longer  take  their  trading  goods  from  Cana- 
da, but  send  them  by  the  shorter  and  cheaper  way  of  Hudson's 
Bay ;  though  they  still  employ  two  or  three  canoes  on  the  Lake 
Superior  route,  to  accommodate  the  Governor  in  his  annual  jour- 
neys from  his  residence  at  La  Chine  to  Norway  House,  and  for 
the  transport  of  newly-hired  servants  to  the  interior,  or  for  bring- 
ing down  officers  coming  out  on  furlough,  and  men  whose  period 
of  service  has  expired.  No  repairs  having  of  late  years  been 
made  on  the  portage  roads,  they  have  very  much  deteriorated, 
and  are  truly  execrable. 

The  distance  between  York  Factory,  in  Hudson's  Bay,  and 
Norway  House,  situated  near  the  northeast  corner  of  Lake  Wini- 
peg,  does  not  much  exceed  three  hundred  miles ;  and  as  the  navi- 
gation, though  much  interrupted  by  rapids  and  cascades,  admits, 
in  the  majority  of  seasons,  of  boats  carrying  a  cargo  oi'  between 
fifty  and  sixty  hundred-weight,  it  ofTers  a  much  more  economical 
approach  to  the  interior  of  the  fur  countries  than  the  other;  since 
one  of  these  boats  may  be  managed  by  the  same  crew  that  is 
required  for  a  canoe  carrying  only  twenty  hundred-weight.  The 
Hudson's  Bay  ships  are  generally  two  in  number;  one  of  them 
being  employed  in  taking  supplies  to  Moose  Factory,  at  the  bot- 
tom of  James's  Bay,  and  the  other  to  York  Factory,  in  latitude 
57°  N,,  longitude  921°  W.,  on  the  west  coast  of  Hudson's  Bay. 
They  sail  annually  from  the  Thames  on  the  first  Saturday  in 
June,  and,  after  touching  at  the  Orkneys,  to  receive  laborers  for 
the  Company's  service,  proceed  on  their  voyage  to  Hudson's 
Straits.  The  York  Factory  ship  has  dropped  her  anchor  at  the 
mouth  of  Hayes  River  as  early  as  the  5th  of  Augu.st,  and  as  late 
as  the  beginning  of  September,  A  tardy  arrival  is  very  incon- 
venient, both  in  respect  of  forwarding  goods  into  the  interior,  and 
also  with  regard  to  the  return  of  the  ship  to  England,  there  being 
in  such  a  case  scarcely  time  for  the  embarkation  of  the  cargo  of 
furs  and  the  passage  of  Hudson's  Straits  before  the  winter  sets  in. 

This  brief  notice  of  the  modes  of  communication  with  Rupert's 


33 


THE  GOVERNOR  OF  RUPERT'S  LAND. 


;  I 


Land — for  so  the  possessions  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  are 
named — is  given,  to  explain  some  parts  of  the  plan  of  the  expe- 
dition, and  particularly  to  show  why  the  stores  and  men  were 
sent  out  by  ships  which  sailed  in  June,  1847,  although  the  expe- 
diency of  searching  expeditions  was  not  considered  by  the  Admi- 
ralty to  be  established  until  the  last  of  the  whalers  came  in  at  the 
close  of  that  season,  without  bringing  tidings  of  the  discovery  ships. 
It  was  arranged  that  in  that  case,  the  officers  were  to  leave  En- 
gland early  in  184S,  and,  traveling  as  rapidly  as  they  could  through 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  were  to  overtake  the  party  con- 
veying the  stores  in  the  vicinity  of  Methy  Portage. 

In  April,  1847,  I  had  the  advantage  of  a  personal  interview 
with  Sir  George  Simpson,  Governor-in-chief  of  Rupert's  Land, 
who  was  then  on  a  visit  to  England,  and  of  concerting  with  him 
the  measures  necessary  for  the  future  progress  of  the  expedition  ; 
and  I  may  state  here  that  he  entered  warmly  into  the  projects 
for  the  relief  of  his  old  acquaintance  Sir  John  Franklin  ;  and 
from  him  I  received  the  kindest  personal  attention,  and  that  sup- 
port which  his  thorough  knowledge  of  the  resources  of  the  coun- 
try and  his  position  as  Governor  enabled  him  so  effectively  to 
bestow.  He  informed  me  that  the  stock  of  provisions  at  the 
various  posts  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  territories  was  unusually  low, 
through  the  failure  of  the  bison  hunts  on  the  Saskatchewan,  and 
that  it  would  be  necessary  to  carry  out  pemican  from  this  coun- 
try, adequate  not  only  to  the  ulterior  purposes  of  the  voyage  in 
the  Arctic  Sea,  but  also  to  the  support  of  the  party  during  the 
interior  navigation  in  1847  and  1848.  I,  therefore,  obtained 
authority  from  the  Admiralty  to  manufacture,  forthwith,  the 
reqCiisite  quantity  of  that  kind  of  food  in  Clarence  Yard  ;  and  as 
I  shall  have  frequent  occasion  to  allude  to  it  in  the  subsequent 
narrative,  it  may  be  well  to  describe  in  this  place  the  mode  of  its 
preparation. 

The  round  or  buttock  of  beef  of  the  best  quality,  having  been 
cut  into  thin  steaks,  from  which  the  fat  and  membranous  parts 
were  pared  away,  was  dried  in  a  malt  kiln  over  an  oak  fire,  until 
its  moisture  was  entirely  dissipated,  and  the  fibre  of  the  meat 
became  friable.  It  M'as  then  ground  in  a  malt  mill,  when  it 
resembled  finely  grated  meat.  Being  next  mixed  with  nearly  an 
equal  weight  of  beef-suet  or  lard,  the  preparation  of  [nix  a  pemican 
was  complete ;  but  to  render  it  more  agreeable  to  the  unaccus- 


f\ 


PEMIUAN. 


33 


tomed  palate,  a  proportion  of  the  best  Zante  currants  was  added 
to  part  of  it,  and  part  was  sweetened  with  sugar.  Both  these 
kinds  were  much  approved  of  in  the  sequel  by  the  consumers,  but 
more  especially  that  to  which  the  sugar  had  been  added.  After 
the  ingredients  were  well  incorporated  by  stirring,  they  were  trans- 
ferred to  tin  canisters,  capable  of  containing  85  lbs.  each  ;  and, 
having  been  firmly  rammed  down  and  allowed  to  contract  further 
by  cooling,  the  air  was  completely  expelled  and  excluded  by  fill- 
ing the  canister  to  the  brim  with  melted  lard,  through  a  small 
hole  left  in  the  end,  which  was  then  covered  with  a  piece  of  tin, 
and  soldered  up.  Finally,  the  canister  was  painted  and  lettered 
according  to  its  contents.  The  total  quantity  of  pemican  thus 
made  was  17,424  lbs.,  at  a  cost  of  Is.  l^cl.  a  pound.*  But  the 
expense  was  somewhat  greater  than  it  would  otherwise  have 
been  from  the  inexperience  of  the  laborers,  who  required  to  be 
trained,  and  from  the  necessity  of  buying  meat  in  the  London 
market  at  a  rate  above  the  contract  price,  occasioned  by  the  bul- 
locks slaughtered  by  the  contractor  for  the  naval  force  at  Ports- 
mouth being  inadequate  to  the  supply  of  the  required  number  of 
rounds.  Various  temporary  expedients  were  also  resorted  to  in 
drying  part  of  the  meat,  the  malt  kiln  and  the  whole  Clarence 
Yard  establishment  being  at  that  time  fully  occupied  night  and 
day  in  preparing  flour  and  biscuit  for  the  relief  of  the  famishing 
population  of  Ireland.     By  the  suggestions  of  Messrs.  Davis  and 


*  Particulars  of  the  estimated  expense  of  pemican,  manufactured  in  tho 
Bioyal  Clarence  Victualing  Yard,  in  Midsummer  quarter,  1847  : 

£.      s.    d.      £.     8.     d. 
Fresh  beef  35,651  lbs.  at  6^d.  per  lb.      979   10     1 
Lard  ....    7,549   "    at  88«.  per  cwt.    296   11     4 
Currants  .     1,008   "    at  84«.  per  cwt.      37   16     0 
Sugar  ...       280   "    at  31s.  2rf.  per  cwt.     3   17   11 

1,317  15     4 

Oak  slab  46  fms.  at  228.  6rf.  per  load     47     5     0 

Hire  for  laborers 59     8     8 

Hire  of  kiln  and  cartage 8     1     0 

114  14     8 

1,432  10     0 
Deduct  for  scraps  of  fat  sold 35  18     1 

1,396  11   11 
Quantity  of  pemican  manufactured  17,424  lbs.;  average  cost  per  lb. 
la.  7\d. 

B* 


M 


BOATS. 


!!  t? 


Grant,  the  intelligent  chief  officers  of  the  Victualling  Yard,  and 
their  constant  personal  superintendence,  every  difficulty  was  ob- 
viated. 

As  the  meat  in  drying  loses  more  than  three-fourths  of  its 
original  weight,  the  quantity  required  was  considerable,  being 
35,651  lbs.  ;*  and  the  sudden  abstraction  of  more  than  one  thou- 
sand rounds  of  beef  from  Leadenhall  Market  occasioned  specula- 
tion  among  the  dealers,  and  a  rise  in  the  price  of  a  penny  per 
pound,  with  an  equally  sudden  fall  when  the  extra  demand  was 
found  to  be  very  temporary. 

The  natives  dry  their  venison  by  exposing  the  thin  slices  to  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  on  a  stage,  under  which  a  small  fire  is  kept,  more 
for  the  purpose  of  driving  away  the  flies  by  the  smoke  than  for 
promoting  exsiccation ;  and  then  they  pound  it  between  two  stones 
on  a  bison  hide.  In  this  process  the  pounded  meat  is  contaminated 
by  a  greater  or  smaller  admixture  of  hair  and  other  impurities. 
The  fat,  which  is  generally  the  suet  of  the  bison,  is  added  by  the 
traders,  who  purchase  it  separately  from  the  natives,  and  they 
complete  the  process  by  sewing  up  the  pemican  in  a  bag  of  un- 
dressed hide  with  the  hairy  side  outward.  Each  of  these  bags 
weighs  90  lbs.,  and  obtains  from  the  Canadian  voyagers  the  de- 
signation of  "  un  taureau."  A  superior  pemican  is  produced  by 
mixing  finely  powdered  meat,  sifted  from  impurities,  with  marrow 
fat,  and  the  dried  fruit  of  the  Amelanchier. 

By  order  of  the  Admiralty,  four  boats  were  built ;  two  of  them 
in  Portsmouth  Dock  Yard,  and  two  in  Camper's  Yard  at  Gosport. 
These  boats,  to  fit  them  for  river  navigation,  were  required  to  be 
of  as  small  a  draught  of  water  as  was  consistent  with  the  power 
of  carrying  a  cargo  of  at  least  two  tons  ;  to  have  the  head  and 
stern  equally  sharp,  like  a  whale-boat,  that  they  might  be  steered 
with  a  sweep  oar  when  running  rapids ;  and  to  be  of  as  light  a 
weight  as  possible,  for  more  easy  transportation  across  the  numer- 
ous portages  on  the  route,  and  especially  the  formidable  one  be- 
tween Methy  Lake  and  Clear-water  River.  They  were  also  to 
be  as  good  sea-boats  as  a  compliance  with  the  other  requisites 
would  allow.  It  is  manifest  that  the  invention  of  a  form  of  boat 
possessing  such  various  and  in  some  respects  antagonistic  qualities 
would  task  the  skill  of  the  constructor,  and  I  felt  much  indebted 
to  William  Rice,  Esq.,  Assistant  Master  Builder  of  Portsmouth 
*  By  drying  this  was  reduced  to  about  8000  lbs. 


% 


BOATS'  CUEWS. 


35 


tec 


Yard,  for  the  care  and  skill  with  which  he  worked  out  a  success- 
ful result.  The  Company's  boats,  or  barges,  as  they  term  them, 
are  generally  about  30  feet  long  from  stem  to  stern-post,  8  feet 
wide,  stoutly  framed  and  planked,  and  are  capable  of  carrying 
seventy  packages  of  90  lbs.  each,  with  a  crew  of  eight  men.  The 
thickness  of  the  planks  of  these  boats  is  such  that  thoy  sustain 
with  little  injury  a  severe  blow  against  a  rock,  to  which  they  are 
much  exposed  in  descending  the  rapids ;  but  their  weight  being 
proportionally  great,  they  are  transported  with  much  labor  across 
the  ordinary  portages,  and  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  this  operation 
altogether  at  Methy  Portage  by  keeping  a  relay  of  boats  at  each 
terminus.  Moreover,  these  boats  resemble  the  London  river 
barges  in  the  great  rake  of  the  stem  and  stern,  by  which  they 
are  better  fitted  for  the  descent  of  a  rapid,  but  from  the  flatness 
of  their  floors  they  are  leewardly  and  bad  sea-boats. 

Two  of  the  expedition  boats  measured  30  feet  from  the  fore 
part  of  the  stem  to  the  after  part  of  the  stern-post,  6  feet  in  breadth 
of  beam,  and  2  feet  10  inches  in  depth  ;  and  each  of  them  weighed 
65  cwt.,  or,  including  fittings,  masts,  sails,  oars,  boat-hook,  anchor, 
lockers,  and  tools,  half  a  ton.  The  other  two  boats  measured  28 
feet  in  length,  5  feet  6  inches  in  width,  2  feet  8  inches  in  depth  ; 
and  weighed  5^  cwt.,  or,  with  the  movable  fittings  and  equipment, 
9  cwt.  They  were  all  chnker-built  of  well-seasoned  Norway  fir 
planks  Y*a  of  an  inch  thick  ;  ashen  floors  placed  9  inches  apart ; 
stem,  stern-posts,  and  knees  of  English  oak ;  and  gunwales  of 
rock-elm.  To  admit  of  their  stowing  the  requisite  cargo,  they 
were  necessarily  very  flat-floored,  but  screws  and  bolts  were  fitted 
to  the  kelson,  by  which  a  false  keel  might  be  readily  bolted  on 
before  they  reached  the  Arctic  Sea,  so  as  to  render  them  more 
weatherly.  The  larger  boats  when  quite  empty  drew  7^  inches 
of  water,  and,  when  loaded  with  two  tons  but  without  a  crew, 
14|^  inches.  They  were  constructed  of  two  sizes,  that  the  smaller 
might  stow  within  the  larger  ones  during  the  passage  across  the 
Atlantic. 

For  the  voyage  on  the  Arctic  Sea,  a  crew  of  five  men  to  each 
boat  was  considered  sufficient,  but  for  river  navigation  a  bowman 
and  steersman  experienced  in  the  art  of  running  rapids  were  re- 
quired in  addition.  Five  seamen  and  fifteen  sappers  and  miners 
were  selected  in  the  month  of  May,  for  the  expedition,  from  a 
number  of  volunteers.     They  were  all  men  of  good  physical  pow- 


36 


EMBARKATION. 


ers,  and,  with  one  exception,  bore  excellent  characters  in  their 
respective  services.  The  solitary  exception  was  one  of  the  sap- 
pers and  miners  who  had  repeatedly  appeared  on  the  defaulters' 
list  for  drunkenness,  but  as  he  was  reported  to  be  in  other  respects 
a  good  and  willing  workman,  and  I  knew  that  he  would  have  no 
means  of  obtaining  intoxicating  drinks  in  Rupert's  Land,  I  yielded 
to  his  request  that  I  would  allow  him  an  opportunity  of  retrieving 
his  character.  Few  seamen  were  employed,  since  I  knew  from 
experience  that  as  a  class  they  march  badly,  particularly  vi'hen 
carrying  a  load,  and  the  bulk  of  the  party  was  composecl  of  sap- 
pers and  miners,  because  that  corps  contains  a  large  proportion 
of  intelligent  artisans.  Of  the  men  selected,  six  were  joiners  or 
sawyers,  and  four  were  blacksmiths,  armorers,  or  engineers,  who 
could  be  useful  for  repairing  the  boats,  working  up  iron,  construct- 
ing the  buildings  of  our  winter  residence,  or  making  the  furniture. 

Every  thing  was  ready  before  the  appointed  day ;  and  the  boats 
and  stores,  having  been  sent  round  from  Portsmouth  to  the  Thames, 
were  embarked  with  the  expedition  men  on  board  the  "  Prince  of 
Wales"  and  "  Westminster,"  bound  to  York  Factory,  ti;  j  exigences 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  trade  of  that  year  requiring  tv^o  ships  to  go 
to  that  port.  The  stores  consisted  of  1 98  canisters  of  pemican, 
each  weighing  85  lbs.,  10  bags  of  flour,  amounting  in  all  to  8  cwt., 
5  bags  of  sugar,  weighing  4'  cwt.,  2  of  tea,  weighing  88  lbs.,  3 
of  chocolate,  weighing  2  cwt.,  10  sides  of  bacon,  amounting  to  4i 
cwt.,  and  6  cwt.  of  biscuit ;  also  400  rounds  of  ball  cartridge,  90 
lbs.  of  small  shot,  and  120  lbs.  of  fine  po'Vfler  in  four  boat  maga- 
zines. In  the  arm-chests  and  lockers  ol  the  boats,  there  were 
stowed  a  musket  fitted  with  a  percussion  lock  for  each  man,  with 
a  serrated  bayonet  that  could  be  used  as  a  saw ;  also  a  complete 
double  set  of  tools  for  making  or  repairing  a  boat,  a  tent  for  each 
boat's  crew,  towing-lines,  anchors,  and  one  seine  net. 

Each  man  was  provided  with  a  Flushing  jacket  and  trowsers, 
a  stout  blue  Guernsey  frock,  a  waterproof  over-coat,  and  a  pair 
of  leggings.  Instructions  were  also  given  that  they  should  be 
furnished  in  winter  with  such  moccasins  and  leather  coats  as  the 
nature  of  their  employment  should  render  necessary.  Could  the 
expedition  have  depended  on  procuring  supplies  of  provision  at 
the  Company's  posts  during  their  progress  through  the  interior, 
and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  pemican  at  one  of  the  northern  depots 
for  the  sea  voyage,  the  boats  would  have  been  lightly  laden,  and 


'  i 


i» 


1 


8T0RES   LA 


n. 


87 


jrs, 
jail 

be 

he 

[he 

at 

|or, 

>ts 

Ind 


n% 


a  quick  advance  into  the  interior  rn  ;ht  h  tvo  hc^n  anticipated. 
But  such  not  being  the  case,  it  was  i  'ccteary  t-  employ  one  of 
the  Company's  barges  to  assist  in  the  transport  and  Governor 
Sir  George  Simpson  undertook  to  provide  one,  and  to  ci  age  a 
proper  crew  in  Rupert's  Land,  together  with  bowmen  ai"'  steers- 
men for  the  expedition  boats.  He  also  agreed  to  select  .  om  the 
Company's  stores  a  complete  assortment  of  nets  and  other  neces- 
saries for  the  use  of  the  party  in  the  winter  of  1847-8.* 

The  Company's  ships  sailed  from  the  Thames  on  the  15th  of 
June,  1847,  and,  being  much  delayed  by  ice  in  IJudson's  Straits, 
had  a  long  j^assage  ;  so  that  the  "  Prince  of  Wales"  did  not  cross 
the  bar  of  Hayes  River  till  the  25th  of  August,  nor  the  '•  West- 
minster" until  five  days  later ;  and  the  8th  of  September  arrived 
before  the  expedition  stores  were  landed.  Sir  George  Simpson, 
on  his  annual  visit  to  the  Company's  depot  at  Norway  House, 
had  engaged  a  guide  or  river  pilot,  with  the  requisite  number  of 
bowmen,  steersmen,  and  fishermen,  and  placed  the  whole  under 
the  superintendence  of  Mr.  John  Bell,  chief  trader,  who,  having 
resided  many  years  on  the  Mackenzie,  was  intimately  acquainted 
vith  the  natives  inhabiting  that  part  of  the  country.  Notwith- 
standing the  high  wages  offered,  being  much  in  advance  of  the 
rate  ordinarily  paid  by  the  Company,  and  though  none  of  these 
men  were  required  to  extend  their  services  beyond  the  winter 
quarters  of  the  party  in  1848,  there  was  a  scarcity  of  volunteers ; 
and  several  of  the  steersmen,  that  were,  from  the  necessity  of  the 
case,  engaged,  were  men  of  little  experience.  None  of  them  were 
acquainted  with  the  neighborhood  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  and  they 
all  anticipated  with  more  or  less  apprehension  a  season  of  extreme 
hardship  in  that  northern  region.  Mr.  Bell's  party  consisted  of 
twenty  Europeans,  a  guide,  and  sixteen  Company's  voyagers,  to- 
gether with  the  wives  t  of  three  of  the  latter,  and  two  children  ; 
making  in  all,  with  himself  and  two  of  his  own  children,  forty-five 
individuals,  embarked  in  five  boats.  Had  the  ships  arrived  early, 
there  was  a  possibility  of  the  party  reaching  Isle  d  la  Crosse  before 
the  navigation  closed,  which,  in  that  district,  may  be  expected  to 

*  See  Appendix. 

t  It  is  desirable  to  have  two  or  three  females  at  every  post  in  the  in- 
terior for  washing,  makmg,  and  mending  the  people's  clothes  and  moccas- 
sins,  netting  snow-shoes,  making  and  repairing  fishing  nets,  and  other 
services  of  a  similar  nature. 


'it 


i 


M  WINTER  UUARTER8. 

occur  about  the  20th  of  October.  But  tho  very  late  date  at  which 
the  stores  were  disembarked  precluded  such  a  hope ;  and  tho  ex- 
treme dryness  of  the  season,  and  consequent  lowness  of  the  rivers 
between  York  Factory  and  Lako  Winipeg,  obliged  Mr.  Bell  to 
leave  a  quantity  of  the  pemican  and  some  other  packages  at  York 
Factory,  that  he  might  reduce  the  draught  of  his  boats. 

These  facts  were  communicated  to  me  un  the  return  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  ships  to  England  in  October;  and  in  February, 
1848,  I  heard  by  letters  forwarded  through  Canada,  that  Mr. 
Bell  and  his  party  had,  from  the  causes  specified,  made  slow  pro- 
gress ;  that  the  boats  had  been  often  stranded  and  broken  in  the 
shallow  waters,  causing  frequent  detention  for  repairs ;  and  that 
the  party  was  overtaken  by  winter  in  Cedar  Lako.  Mr.  Bell 
forthwith  housed  the  boats,  constructed  a  store-house  for  the  goods, 
left  several  men  to  take  care  of  them,  and  such  of  the  women  and 
children  as  were  unable  to  travel  over  the  snow.  This  being 
done,  he  set  out  with  the  bulk  of  the  party  for  Cumberland  House, 
and  reached  it  on  the  eighth  day  after  leaving  Cedar  Lake.  His 
first  care  was  to  establish  a  fishery,  which  he  did  on  Beaver  Lake, 
two  days'  walk  further  north  ;  and  having  sent  a  division  of  the 
men  thither,  the  others  were  distributed  to  the  several  winter  em- 
ployments of  cutting  firewood,  driving  sledges  with  meat  or  fish, 
and  such-like  occupations.  The  unforeseen  stoppage  of  the  boats 
occasioned  a  large  consumption  of  the  pemican  destined  for  the 
sea  voyage,  but  was  attended  by  no  other  bad  consequences,  and 
the  deficiency  was  amply  made  up  in  spring  through  the  exertions 
of  the  gentlemen  in  charge  of  the  Company's  provision  posts  on 
the  Saskatchewan ;  so  that  Mr.  Bell,  when  he  resumed  his  voyage 
northward  in  the  summer  of  1848,  was  enabled  to  take  with  him 
as  much  of  that  kind  of  food  as  his  boats  could  stow. 

While  the  body  of  the  party  was  thus  passing  the  winter  at 
Cumberland  House  and  its  vicinity,  I  was  almost  daily  receiving 
letters  from  ofllicers  of  various  ranks  in  the  army  and  navy,  and 
from  civilians  of  different  stations  in  life,  expressing  an  ardent  de- 
sire for  employment  in  the  expedition.  It  may  interest  the  reader 
to  know  that  among  the  applicants,  there  were  two  clergymen, 
one  justice  of  peace  for  a  Welsh  county,  several  country  gentle- 
men, and  some  scientific  foreigners,  all  evidently  imbued  with  a 
generous  love  of  enterprise,  and  a  humane  desire  to  be  the  means 
of  carrying  relief  to  a  large  body  of  their  fellow  creatures.     But 


f 


DKr.VRTLRK  IKO.M  KNgL.\M», 


39 


'I 


as  long  as  there  reinainetl  a  hope  of  the  return  of  the  discovery 
ships  in  the  autumn  of  1847,  it  was  not  thought  necessary  to  take 
any  steps  for  the  appointment  of  a  second  officer  to  the  party 
M'hich  T.  was  to  6ommand.     In  November,  however,  when  the 
last  whalers  from  Davis's  Straits  had  come  in,  I  suggested  to  the 
late  Lord  Auckland,  then  the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  that 
Mr.  John  liae,  chief  trader  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  was 
fully  qualified  for  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  service  on  which  wo 
were  to  be  employed.     He  had  resided  upward  of  fifteen  years  in 
Prince  Rupert's  Land,  was  thoroughly  versed  in  all  the  methods 
of  developing  and  turning  to  advantage  the  natural  products  of 
the  country,  a  skillful  hunter,  expert  in  expedients  for  tempering 
the  severity  of  the  climate,  an  accurate  observer  with  the  sextant 
and  other  instruiit  :nts  usually  employed  to  determine  the  latitude 
and  longitude,  or  the  variations  and  dip  of  the  magnetic  needle, 
and  had  just  brought  to  a  successful  conclusion,  under  circum- 
stances of  very  unusual  privation,  an  expedition  of  diacovery  fitted 
out  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  for  the  purpose  of  exploring 
the  limits  of  Regent's  Inlet      Lord  Auckland  highly  approved  of 
my  suggestion,  and  Mr.  Rae  was  appointed,  with  the  assent  of 
the  Governor  and  Committee  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

Mr.  Rae  and  I  left  Liverpool  on  the  25th  of  March,  1848,  in 
the  North  American  mail  steam-packet  "  Ihbernia,"  and  landed 
at  New  York  on  the  morning  of  the  10th  uf  April.  In  addition 
to  our  personal  baggage,  we  took  with  us  a  few  very  portable 
astronomical  instruments  required  for  determining  our  positions  ; 
and  four  pocket  chronometers,  one  of  them  being  the  property  of 
Mr.  Frodsham,  which  had  been  used  on  the  several  expeditions 
of  Sir  W.  E.  Parry  and  Sir  John  Ross,  and  which  he  wished  to 
lend  gratuitously  for  service  in  the  present  enterprise.  We  had 
also  a  few  meteorological  instruments,  and  some  others  for  de- 
termining questions  in  magnetism,  that  shall  be  more  particularly 
described  hereafter,  when  their  employment  comes  to  be  men- 
tioned. An  ample  supply  of  paper  for  botanical  purposes,  a  quan- 
tity of  stationery,  a  small  selection  of  books,  a  medicine  chest,  a 
canteen,  a  compendious  cooking  apparatus,  and  a  few  tins  of 
pemican,  completed  our  baggage,  which  weighed  in  the  aggre- 
gate, above  4000  lbs. 

Mr.  Barclay,  the  British  consul,  assisted  with  much  kindness 
in  expediting  our  departure  from  New  York.     An  order  from  tlie 


40 


LAND  AT  NEW  YORK.-REACH  MONTREAL. 


United  States  Treasury  directed  that  our  baggage  should  not  be 
inspected  by  the  custom-house  agents,  and  it  was  without  delay 
consigned  to  the  care  of  Messrs.  Wells  and  Co.,  forwarders,  who 
contracted  to  send  it  to  BufTalo,  by  railroad,  and  from  thence  to 
Detroit  and  Saut  Sainte  Marie,  by  the  first  steamboat,  which 
was  advertised  to  sail  from  Detroit  on  the  21st  of  April.  Imme- 
diately on  landing,  the  chronometers  were  placed  in  the  hands  of 
Mr.  Blount,  of  Water-street,  that  he  might  ascertain  their  rate 
by  comparison  with  the  astronomical  clock  in  the  observatory. 
For  this  service  Mr.  Blount  would  receive  no  remuneration,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  said  that  he  was  glad  of  the  opportunity  it  af- 
forded him  of  showing  his  sense  of  the  courtesy  he  had  experienced 
from  the  hydrographer  of  the  British  Admiralty. 

We  received  the  chronometers  next  day,  and  embarked  in  the 
evening  on  board  the  "  Empire,"  for  Albany  and  Troy,  with  the 
view  of  proceeding,  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  to  Montreal, 
where  the  canoe-men  engaged  for  us  by  Sir  George  Simpson  were 
ordered  to  rendezvous. 

We  waited  one  day  at  Whitehall,  for  the  complete  disruption 
of  the  ice  on  Lake  Champlain*,  and  did  not  reach  Montreal  till 
the  fourth  day  after  leaving  New  York.  Sir  George  Simpson 
received  us,  with  his  usual  kindness  and  hospitality,  at  his  resi- 
dence in  La  Chine,  and  expedited  our  arrangements  by  all  the 
means  in  his  power ;  but  two  days  were  spent  in  collecting  the 
voyagers  t  who  were  engaged  as  our  canoe-men.  Four  of  them, 
with  the  levity  of  their  class,  were  absent  at  the  time  finally  fixed 
for  our  departure,  thereby,  in  terms  of  their  agreements,  incurring 
fines,  which  were  afterward  levied  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

The  steamers  commenced  running  on  the  St.  Lawrence  on 
the  18th  of  April;  we  embarked  on  the  19th,  reached  Buffalo 
on  the  21st,  Detroit  on  the  23d,  and  Saut  Ste.  Marie,  at  the  outlet 
of  Lake  Superior,  on  the  29th,  where  we  again  found  ourselves 
in  advance  of  the  season,  the  lake  being  covered  with  drift  ice.J 

=*  The  ice  broke  up  on  Lake  Champlain  on  the  13th  of  April.  On  the 
previous  day  a  steamer  was  prevented  from  reaching  Whitehall  by  drift 
ice  filling  a  narrow  passage  of  the  lake. 

t  The  Canadian  term  "voyageurs"  is  usually  employed  to  designate 
these  men,  as  that  is  the  language  in  which  they  are  addressed ;  but  there 
seems  to  be  no  reason  why  they  should  not  be  called  "  voyagers,"  or  "  ca- 
noe-men," in  an  English  work. 

t  In  the  instructions,  the  route  by  Penetanguishene  is  specified  for  the 


f^ 


1 


In  the 

drift 

;nate 
Ithere 
ca- 

Ir  the 


CANQE  MEN.— REACH  CUMBERLAND  HOUSE.  41 

At  the  Hudson's  Bay  House,  the  residence  of  Chief  Factor 
Ballenden,  we  found  two  "north  canoes,"  made  ready  for  us,  by 
direction  of  Sir  George  Simpson,  and,  having  engaged  four  addi- 
tional men  to  supply  the  place  of  an  equal  number  who  had  fail- 
ed to  appear  at  La  Chine,  our  crews  now  consisted  of 

First  Canoe. 

Thomas  Karahonton  {dit  Gros  Thomas),  an  Iroquois  guide. 

Laxard  Tacanajaze Iroquois. 

Thomas  Nahanajaze 

Fran9ois  Monogon 

Thomas  Anackera 

Sauveur  St.  Martin Canadian. 

Thomas  Cadrant Half-breed. 

Joseph  Dinduvaut 

Second  Canoe, 

Chariot  Arahota Iroquois. 

Louis  Taranta " 

Ignace  Atawackon " 

Ignace  Sataskatchi " 

Apoquash Chippeway. 

Miskiash " 

Piquatchiash  (Peter) " 

Two  days  were  occupied  in  re-packing  our  baggage,  instru- 
ments, and  provisions,  in  cases  weighing  90  lbs.  each  (being  the 
established  size  for  the  portages) ;  in  which,  and  in  all  other 
matters  connected  with  our  equipment  and  comfort,  we  experi- 
enced great  assistance  and  personal  kindness  from  Mr.  Ballenden. 
On  the  2d  of  May,  1851,  we  quitted  his  hospitable  roof,  but  it 
was  the  4th  before  the  ice  on  the  lake  broke  up,  and  permitted 
us  to  pass  the  portal  of  the  lake  formed  by  Gros  Cap  and  Point 
Iroquois. 

We  accomplished  the  navigation  of  the  lake  on  the  12tli  by 
arriving  at  Fort  William,  attained  the  summit  of  the  water-shed 
which  separates  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Winipeg  valleys  on  the 
18th*,  the  mouth  of  the  River  Winipeg  on  the  29th,  Norway 
House,  near  the  efflux  of  Nelson  River,  on  the  5th  of  June,  and 
Cumberland  House,  on  the  Saskatchewan,  on  the  13th;  our 

expedition  to  take  ;  but  the  steamer  from  that  port  to  Saut  Ste.  Marie 
was  not  advertised  to  start  for  three  weeks  later  than  our  time. 

*  Dog  Lake,  near  the  sununit  of  this  water-shed,  broke  up  only  on  the 
eve  of  our  arrival ;  an  Indian  whom  we  met  on  the  Kamenistikwoya,  which 
flows  from  it,  having  crossed  it  on  the  preceding  day  over  the  ice. 


42 


MR.  BELL  LEAVES  WINTER  QUARTERS. 


i 


\' 


i-.f 


passage  through  Lake  Winipeg  having  been  much  delayed  by 
ice,  from  which  we  did  not  disengage  ourselves  till  the  9th. 

We  learned  at  Cumberland  House,  that  Mr.  Bell  had  given 
the  boats  a  thorough  repair  at  Cedar  Lake  in  the  spring,  had 
brought  them  and  the  stores  up  on  the  first  opening  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan, and  was  now  a  fortnight  in  advance  of  us  on  his 
way  to  Methy  Portage.  The  bulk  of  his  party  had  been  main- 
tained at  Beaver  Lake  on  fish,  but  some  having  wintered  in 
Cedar  Lake,  to  look  after  the  stores,  and  the  fishery  there  having 
failed,  there  had  been  an  unavoidable  consumption  of  the  pemi- 
can  destined  for  the  sea-voyage.  The  provision  posts  on  the  up- 
per part  of  the  Saskatchewan  had  fortunately  been  able  to  re- 
place what  was  consumed,  and  Mr.  Bell  had  started  from  Cum- 
berland House  with  his  boats  fully  laden. 

He  had  left  two  men  of  the  English  party  behind,  who  were 
unequal  to  the  labors  of  the  voyage  ;  one  of  them,  because  of  an 
injury  received  in  the  hand  early  in  the  spring,  and  the  other 
owing  to  a  recurrence  of  pains  in  the  bones,  with  which  he  had 
formerly  been  afflicted.  After  carefully  examining  these  men,  I 
decided  upon  sending  them  to  York  Factory  by  the  first  convey- 
ance which  offered,  that  they  might  return  to  England  in  Sep- 
tember, in  the  Hudson's  Bay  annual  ship. 

Having  thus  briefly  touched  on  the  line  of  route  pursued  by  us 
in  a  journey  of  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty  statute 
miles,  from  New  York  to  the  wintering  place  of  the  boat-party,* 
I  shall  detail  the  events  of  the  remainder  of  the  voyage  in  form 
of  a  daily  journal.  To  have  given  a  full  account  of  the  country 
traveled  through  between  New  York  and  the  Saskatchewan, 
would  have  swelled  the  work  to  an  inconvenient  size ;  and  I 
must,  therefore,  refer  the  reader,  who  wishes  to  have  a  physical 
description  of  that  part  of  the  continent,  to  Sir  Charles  L yell's 
accounts  of  his  recent  visits  to  the  United  States,,  to  Professor 


*  New  York  to  La  Chine 500  miles. 

La  Chine  to  Buffalo 372  " 

Buffalo  to  Detroit 230  " 

Detroit  to  Saut  Ste.  Marie 400  " 

Saut  Ste.  Marie  to  Fort  William 370  " 

Fort  William  to  Cumberland  House  (Franklin's  sec- 
ond journey) 1,018  " 

2,880  " 


!  ! 


SHORES  OF   liAKE  SUrERIOR. 


43 


u 
u 


Agassiz's  (lescription  of  Lake  Superior,  and  to  Major  Long's  voy- 
age to  the  St.  Peter's,  Red  River,  and  River  Winipcg.  The 
Appendix  to  the  present  work  also  contains  a  summary  of  the 
physical  geography  of  North  America,  wherein  the  lake  basins 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  \Vinij)eg  or  Saskatchewan  are  particu- 
larly noticed.  This  may  be  consulted  by  the  reader  before  he 
enters  upon  the  narrative  of  the  voyage,  and  I  shall  give  in  this 
place  a  few  remarks,  by  way  of  preface  to  the  botanical  and  geo- 
logical notices  which  follow  in  the  journal. 

On  the  bluff  granitic  promontories  and  bold  acclivities  which 
form  the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  the  forest  is  composed 
of  the  white  spruce,  balsam  fir,  Weymouth  pine,  American  larch, 
and  canoe  birch,  with,  near  the  edge  of  the  lake  and  on  the 
banks  of  streams,  that  pleasant  intermixture  of  mountain  maple 
and  dogwood*  which  imparts  such  a  varied  and  rich  gradation 
of  orange  and  red  tints  to  the  autumnal  landscape.  Other  trees 
exist,  but  not  in  sufficient  numbers  to  give  a  character  to  the 
scenery.  Oaks  are  scarce,  and  beech  disappears  to  the  south  of 
the  lake.  The  American  yew,  which  does  not  rise  into  a  tree 
like  its  European  namesake,  is  the  common  underwood  of  the 
more  fertile  spots,  where  it  grows  under  the  shade  to  the  height 
of  three  or  four  feet,  in  slender  bush-like  t^igs.  On  the  low 
sandstone  islands  deciduous  trees,  such  as  the  poplars  and  maples, 
abound,  with  the  nine-bark  spiraea,  cockspuv  thorns,  willows, 
plums,  cherries,  and  mountain-ash.t  When  we  entered  the  lake 
on  the  4th  of  May,  large  accumulations  of  drift  snow  on  the 
beaches  tjhowed  the  lateness  of  the  season  ;  none  of  the  deciduous 
trees  had  as  yet  budded  :  and  the  precocious  catkins  of  a  silvery 
willow  [Salix  Candida),  with  the  humble  flowers  of  a  few  Saxi- 
frages and  UvularisB,  gave  the  only  promises  of  spring. 

In  various  parts  of  the  lake,  the  gorges  lying  between  the  jut- 
ting bluffs  of  granite  or  slate  are  filled  with  deposits  of  sand  rising 
in  four  or  five  successive  terraces  to  the  height  of  more  than  a 
hundred  feet  above  the  present  surface  of  the  water.  Mr.  Logan 
has  measured  some  of  the  most  remarkable,  and  Professor  Agassiz 

*  ^bics  alba,  Mies  balsamea,  Pinua  strobus,  Larix  amcricana^  Betula 
pnpyracca,  Acer  nion/anuwj,  and  Cornus  alba. 

t  Populus  tremuloides  et  balsamifera ;  Acer;  Spirea  opulifolia ;  CrcB- 
trgus  criis-galli,  punctata,  glandulosa,  et  coccinca  j  Prunus  amerirana  ; 
Ccrasus  pumila,  nigra,  pennsylvanica,  virginiana,  et  scrotina ;  Pyrus 
amcricana. 


44 


SHORES  OF  LAKE  SUPERIOR. 


devotes  an  interesting  chapter  to  the  discussion  of  their  or  gin  ; 
in  which  he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  they  were  formed  by 
the  waters  of  the  lake  itself,  and  have  been  raised,  aX  various 
intervals,  from  the  beach  to  their  present  levels,  by  the  agency 
of  the  innumerable  trap  dikes  which  cross  the  rocks  in  many 
directions. 

Near  Cape  Choyye,  on  the  south  side  of  Michipicoten  Bay,  a 
small  gorge  between  two  points  of  granite  is  filled,  to  the  height 
of  twenty-five  feet  above  the  water,  with  rolled  stones  and  peb- 
bles. These  rounded  stones  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  hogshead 
to  a  hen's  egg,  and  form  a  steeply  shelving  beach,  with  a  flat 
terraced  summit,  the  larger  boulders  being  next  the  water,  and 
the  smaller  pebbles  highest  up.  As  the  cove  is  sheltered  from 
high  waves,  the  terrace  could  not  be  thrown  up  by  the  waters  of 
the  lake  standing  at  their  present  height ;  nor  can  it  be  owing  to 
the  pressure  of  ice.  since  that  would  not  graduate  the  pebbles. 

At  Michipicoten  River  we  had  a  curious  illustration  of  the 
ngency  of  frost,  on  the  outlet  of  the  stream.  During  the  summer, 
when  the  waters  are  low,  the  waves  of  the  lake  throw  a  sandy 
bar  across  the  mouth  of  the  river.  In  winter  this  bar  freezes 
into  a  solid  rock  and  closes  the  chaimel,  but  as  the  spring  ad- 
vances the  stream  acts  upon  it  and  cuts  a  passage.  At  the  time 
of  our  visit,  on  May  7th,  the  river  was  in  flood,  and  the  bar  re- 
mained hard,  but  was  cleft  by  a  narrow  channel  with  precipitous 
sides  like  sandstone  clifls,  and  a  cascade  one  foot  high  existed. 
This  fall,  which  was  five  or  six  feet  high  when  the  river  broke, 
would,  we  were  told,  entirely  disappear  in  a  few  days. 

The  north  coast  of  Michipicoten  Bay  is  the  boldest  and  most 
rugged  of  the  shores  of  the  lake,  and  apparently  the  least  capable 
of  cultivation.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  about  eight  hundred  feet, 
and  for  twenty-five  miles  comes  so  precipitously  down  to  the  water 
that  there  is  no  safe  landing  for  a  boat.  On  much  of  the  crags 
the  forest  was  destroyed  by  fire,  many  years  ago,  and  with  it  the 
soil,  presenting  a  scene  of  desolation  and  barrenness  not  exceeded 
on  the  frozen  confines  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  few  dwarf  1  oes 
that  cling  to  the  crevices  of  the  rocks,  struggling,  as  it  were,  be- 
tween life  and  death,  add  to  the  dreariness  of  the  prospect  rather 
than  relieve  it,  and  wreaths  of  drift  snow  lining  many  of  the  re- 
cesses, at  the  time  when  we  passed,  though  it  was  in  the  second 
-week  of  the  glorious  month  of  May,  gave  a  most  unfavorable 


f 


r 


WATEK-SFIED. 


45 


crags 
it  the 
;eeded 
t  f^es 
re,  be- 
rather 
Ihe  re- 
iecond 
)rable 


impression  of  the  land  and  its  climate.  Professor  Agassi/  has 
pointed  out  the  sub-arctic  character  of  the  vegetation  of  Lake 
Superior,  by  a  lengthened  comparison  with  the  sub-alpine  tracts 
of  Switzerland ;  but  this  is  due  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  rather 
than  to  the  elevation  or  northern  position  of  the  district ;  for  as 
we  advance  to  the  north  at  an  equal  elevation  above  the  sea,  but 
more  to  the  westward,  so  as  to  enter  on  silurian  or  newer  deposits 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  Rainy  River,  wo 
find  cacti  and  forests  having  a  more  southern  aspect. 

The  ascent  to  the  summit  of  the  water-shed  between  Lakes 
Superior  and  Winipeg,  by  the  Kamenistikwoya  River,  is  made 
by  about  forty  portages,  in  which  the  whole  or  part  of  a  canoe's 
lading  is  carried  on  the  men's  shoulders ;  and  a  greater  number 
occur  in  the  descent  to  the  Winipeg.  The  summit  of  the  water- 
shed is  an  uneven,  swampy,  granitic  country,  so  much  intersected 
in  every  direction  by  lakes  that  the  water  surface  considerably 
exceeds  that  of  the  dry  land.  Its  mean  elevation  above  Lake 
Superior  is  about  eight  hundred  feet,  and  the  granite  knolls  and 
sand-banks,  which  vary  its  surface,  do  not  rise  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  or  two  hundred  feet  beyond  that  general  level, 
though  their  altitude  above  the  river  valleys  which  surround 
them  is  occasionally  greater,  giving  the  district  a  hilly  aspect. 
The  highest  of  these  eminences  does  not  overtop  Thunder  Mount- 
ain and  some  other  basalt-capped  promontories  on  Lake  Superior, 
and  had  not  the  silurian  strata,  which,  judging  by  the  patches 
which  remain,  once  covered  the  gneiss  and  granitic  rocks  nearly 
to  their  summits  been  removed,  the  country  would  have  been 
almost  level,  and  would  have  formed  part  of  the  rolling  eastern 
slope  of  the  continent,  above  whose  plain  the  highest  of  the  hills 
on  Lake  Superior  scarcely  rises.  The  summit  of  this  water-shed 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin,  commencing  toward  the  Labrador 
coast,  runs  south  52°  west,  or  about  southwest  half-west  at  the 
distance  of  rather  more  than  two  hundred  miles  from  ,ne  water- 
course, until  it  comes  opposite  to  that  elbow  of  the  line  of  the 
great  lakes  which  Lake  Erie  forms  ;  it  then  takes  a  north  51° 
west  course,  or  about  northwesjt  half-west,  toward  the  northeast 
end  of  Lake  Winipeg,  and  onward  from  thence  in  the  same  di- 
rection to  Coronation  Gulf  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  anjjle  at 
which  the  two  arms  of  this  extensive  water-shed  (but  no  where 
mountain  ridge)  meet  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Ontario  is  with- 


46 


THOUSAND  ISLANDS  LAKE. 


in  half  a  point  of  a  right  one,  and  the  character  of  the  surface  is 
every  where  the  same,  bearing,  in  the  ramifications  and  conjunc- 
tions of  its  narrow  valleys  filled  with  water,  no  distant  resem- 
blance to  the  fiords  of  the  Norway  coast.  Such  a  preponderance 
of  fresh  water  coupied  with  the  tardy  melting  of  the  ice  in  spring, 
makes  a  late  summer,  and  augments  the  severity  of  the  cli- 
mate beyond  that  which  is  due  to  the  northern  position  of  the 
district. 

Though  the  whole  tract  is  most  unfavorable  for  agriculture, 
much  of  the  scenery  abounds  in  picturesque  beauty.  Of  this  we 
have  an  instance  in  the  Thousand  Islands  Lake,  which  forms  the 
funnel-shaped  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario.  At  this  place  the  pyrogen- 
ous  rocks,  denuded  of  newer  deposits,  cross  the  river  to  form  a 
junction  with  the  lofty  highlands  of  the  northern  counties  of  New 
York.  The  round-backed,  wooded  hummocks  of  granite  which 
constitute  the  more  than  thousand  islets  of  this  expanse  of  water, 
are  grouped  into  long  vistas,  which  are  alternately  disclosed  and 
shut  in  as  we  glide  smoothly  and  rapidly  among  them,  in  one  of 
the  powerful  steamers,  that  carry  on  the  passenger  traffic  of  the 
lakes.  The  inferior  fertility  of  this  granite  belt  has  deferred  the 
sweeping  operations  of  the  settler's  ax ;  the  few  farm-steadings 
scattered  along  the  shore  enhance  the  beauty  of  the  forest ;  and 
the  eye  of  the  traveler  finds  a  pleasant  relief  in  contemplating 
the  scenery,  after  having  dwelt  on  the  monotonous  succession  of 
treeless  clearances  lower  down  the  river.  Sooner  or  later,  how- 
ever, the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  the  Thousand  Isles  will  be  studded 
with  the  summer  retreats  of  the  wealthy  citizens  of  the  adjacent 
States,  and  the  incongruities  of  taste  will  mar  the  fair  face  of 
nature. 

On  the  summit  of  the  canoe-route  between  Lakes  Superior  and 
Winipeg,  a  sheet  of  water  bearing  the  analogous  appellation  of 
Thousand  Lakes,  is  also  studded  with  knolls  of  granite,  forming 
islets ;  but  low  mural  precipices  are  more  common  there ;  and 
there  is,  moreover,  an  intermixture  of  accumulations  of  sand,  such 
as  are  commonly  found  on  the  summit  of  the  water-shed,  along 
its  whole  range.  The  general  scenery  of  this  lake  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  Thousand  Islands ;  but  though  the  elevation  above 
the  sea  does  not  exceed  fourteen  hundred  feet,  the  voyagers  say 
that  frosts  occur  on  its  shores  almost  every  morning  throughout 
the  summer, 


I 


LAKE  WINIPEG. 


47 


Silurian  strata  occur  on  both  flanks  of  both  arms  of  the  water- 
shed above  spoken  of,  to  a  greater  or  smaller  extent  throughout 
their  whole  length.*  When  we  descend  to  Lake  Winipeg  we 
come  upon  epidotic  slates,  conglomerates,  sandstones,  and  trap 
rocks,  similar  to  those  which  occur  on  the  northern  acclivity  of 
the  Lake  Superior  basin ;  and  after  passing  the  straits  of  Lake 
Winipeg,  we  have  the  granite  rocks  on  the  east  shore,  and  silurian 
rocks  (chiefly  bird's-eye  limestone)  on  the  west  and  north,  the 
basin  of  the  lake  being  mostly  excavated  in  the  limestone.  The 
two  formations  approach  nearest  to  each  other  at  the  straits  in 
question,  where  the  limestone,  sandstone,  epidotic  slates,  green 
quartz-rock,  greenstone,  gneiss,  and  granite  occur  in  the  close 
neighborhood  of  each  other. 

The  eastern  coast-line  of  Lake  Winipeg  is,  in  general,  swampy, 
with  granite  knolls  rising  through  the  soil,  but  not  to  such  a  height 
as  to  render  the  scenery  hilly.  The  pine-forest  skirts  the  shore  at 
the  distance  of  two  or  three  miles,  covering  gently-rising  lands,  and 
the  breadth  of  continuous  lake-surface  seems  to  be  in  process  of 
diminution,  in  the  following  way.  A  bank  of  sand  is  first  drifted 
up,  in  the  line  of  a  chain  of  rocks  which  may  happen  to  lie  across 
the  mouth  of  an  inlet  or  deep  bay.  Carices,  balsam-poplars,  and 
willows  speedily  take  root  therein,  and  the  basin  which  lies  be- 
hind, cut  ofT  from  the  parent  lake,  is  gradually  converted  into  a 
marsh  by  the  luxuriant  growth  of  aquatic  plants.  The  sweet 
gale  next  appears  on  its  borders,  and  drift-wood,  much  of  it  rotten 
and  comminuted,  is  thrown  up  on  the  exterior  bank,  together  with 
some  roots  and  stems  of  larger  trees.  The  first  spring  storm  cov- 
ers these  with  sand,  and,  in  a  few  weeks,  the  vigorous  vegetation 
of  a  short  but  active  summer  binds  the  whole  together  by  a  net- 
work of  the  roots  of  bents  and  willows.  Quantities  of  drift-sand 
pass  before  the  high  winds  into  the  swamp  behind,  and,  weighing 
down  the  flags  and  willow-branches,  prepare  a  fit  soil  for  suc- 
ceeding crops.  During  the  winter  of  this  climate,  all  remains 
fixed  as  the  summer  left  it,  and  as  the  next  season  is  far  advanced 
before  the  bank  thaws,  little  of  it  washes  back  into  the  water,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  every  gale  blowing  from  the  lake  brings  a  fresh 

*  A  Pentamcrus  very  like  P.  Knightii,  was  gathered  by  Dr.  Bigsby  on 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and  presented  by  him  to  the  British  Museum.  He 
probably  found  it  in  some  of  the  western  arms  of  the  lake,  the  islands  in 
the  more  easterly  part  being  mostly  granite. 


t^ 


48 


LAKE  VVIXII'EG. 


supply  of  sand  from  the  shoals  which  are  continually  forming 
along  the  shore.  The  floods  raised  by  melted  snows  cut  narrow 
channels  through  the  frozen  beach,  by  which  the  ponds  behind 
are  drained  of  their  superfluous  waters.  As  the  soil  gradually 
acquires  depth,  the  balsam-poplars  and  aspens  overpower  the 
willows,  which,  however,  continue  to  form  a  line  of  demarkation 
between  the  lake  and  the  encroaching  forest. 

Considerable  sheets  of  water  are  also  cut  off  on  the  northwest 
side  of  the  lake,  where  the  bird's-eye  limestone  forms  the  whole 
of  the  coast.  Very  recently  this  corner  was  deeply  indented  by 
narrow,  branching  bays,  whose  outer  points  were  limestone  clifls. 
Under  the  action  of  frost,  the  thin  horizontal  beds  of  this  stone 
split  up,  crevices  are  formed  perpendicularly,  large  blocks  are  de- 
tached, and  the  clifi'  is  rapidly  overthrown,  soon  becoming  masked 
by  its  own  ruins.  In  a  season  or  two  the  slabs  break  into  small 
fragments,  which  are  tossed  up  by  the  waves  across  the  neck  of 
the  bay  into  the  form  of  narrow  ridge-like  beaches,  from  twenty 
to  thirty  feet  high.  Mud  and  vegetable  matter  gradually  fill  up 
the  pieces  of  water  thus  secluded ;  a  willow  swamp  is  formed  ; 
and  when  the  ground  is  somewhat  consolidated,  the  willows  are 
replaced  by  a  grove  of  aspens.*  Near  the  First  and  Second 
Rocky  Points.t  the  various  stages  of  this  process  may  be  inspect- 
ed, from  the  rich  alluvial  flat  covered  with  trees  and  bounded  by 
clifls  that  once  overhung  the  water,  to  the  pond  recently  cut  ofl 
by  a  naked  barrier  of  limestone,  pebbles,  and  slabs,  discharging 
its  spring  floods  into  the  lake,  by  a  narrow  though  rapid  stream. 
In  some  exposed  places  the  pressure  of  the  ice,  or  power  of  the 
waves  in  heavy  gales,  has  forced  the  limestone  fragments  into  the 
woods,  and  heaped  them  round  the  stems  of  trees,  some  of  which 
are  dying  a  lingering  death ;  while  others,  that  have  been  dead 
for  many  years,  testify  to  their  former  vitality,  and  the  mode  in 
which  they  have  perished,  by  their  upright  stems,  crowned  by  the 
decorticated  and  lichen-covered  branches  which  protrude  from  the 
stony  bank.     The  analogy  between  the  entombment  of  living 

*  The  fact  of  the  formation  of  theae  detached  ponds,  marshes,  and 
alluvial  flats,  points  either  to  a  gradual  elevation  of  the  district,  or  to 
an  enlargement  of  the  outlet  of  the  lake,  producing  a  subsidence  of  its 
waters. 

t  The  strata  at  these  points  contain  many  gigantic  orthoceratites,  some 
of  which  have  been  described  by  Mr.  Stokes  in  the  Geological  Transac-. 
tions. 


4 
I 


RAINY    LAKE.— H01TLUI:KS. 


49 


forming 
narrow 
behind 
adually 
ver  the 
rkation 

rthwest 
}  whole 
ited  by 
le  clifls. 
is  stone 
are  de- 
masked 
to  small 
neck  of 
twenty 
y  fill  up 
formed  ; 
ows  are 
Second 
inspect- 
ided  by 
cut  oil 
Iharging 
[stream, 
of  the 
nto  the 
which 
n  dead 
ode  in 
by  the 
om  the 
living 


trees,  in  their  erect  position,  to  the  stems  ol'  stgi/Jaricn,  which  rise 
through  different  layers  in  the  coal-measures,  is  obvious.* 

The  action  of  the  ice  in  pushing  boulders  into  the  woods  was 
observed  at  an  earlier  period  of  our  voyage,  and  is  noticed  in  the 
following  terms  in  my  journal :  "In  the  first  part  of  our  course 
through  Rainy  Lake  we  followed  a  rocky  channel,  which  was  in 
many  places  shallow,  and  varied  in  breadth  from  a  mile,  down  to 
a  few  yards.  Some  long  arms  stretch  out  to  the  right  and  left 
of  the  route,  and  particularly  one  to  the  eastward,  into  which  a 
fork  of  Sturgeon  River  is  said  to  enter.  There  is  considerable 
current  in  these  narrows.  The  first  expanse  of  water  wo  trav- 
ersed is  six  miles  across,  and  the  second  is  fully  wider.  They  are 
connected  by  a  rocky  channel,  on  whose  shores  many  boulders  are 
curiously  piled  up  eight  or  ten  feet  above  the  rocks  on  which  they 
rest.  Other  boulders  lie  in  lines  among  the  trees  near  the  shore. 
They  have  been  thrust  up,  many  of  them  very  recently,  by  the 
pressure  of  the  ice,  since  the  channel  is  too  narrow  for  the  wind 
to  raise  waves  powerful  enough  to  move  such  stones." 

The  granite  and  gneiss  which  form  the  east  shore  of  Lake 
Winipeg,  strike  ofT  at  its  northeast  corner,  and,  passing  to  the 
north  of  Moose  Lake,  go  on  to  Beaver  Lake,  where  the  canoe- 
route  again  touches  upon  them.  At  some  distance  to  the  west- 
ward of  them  the  Saskatchewan,  which  is  the  principal  feeder  of 
Lake  Winipeg,  flows  through  a  flat  limestone  country,  which  is 
full  of  lakes,  the  reticulating  branches  of  the  river,  and  mud-banks ; 
it  has  in  fact  all  the  characters  of  a  delta,  though  the  divisions  of 
the  stream  unite  into  one  channel  before  entering  the  lake.  This 
flat  district  extends  nearly  to  the  forks  of  the  river,  above  which 
the  prairie  lands  commence.  Pine  Island  Lake,  Muddy  Lake, 
Cross  Lake,  and  Cedar  Lake,  where  the  boats  were  arrested  by 
ice  in  1848,  are  dilatations  of  the  Saskatchewan,  and  when  the 
water  rises  a  very  few  feet,  the  whole  district  is  flooded ;  which 
commonly  occurs  on  the  snow  melting  in  spring.  Some  way  to 
the  south  lies  an  eminence  of  considerable  height,  named  by  the 


kes,  and 
It,  or  to 
|e  of  its 


ransaci 


*  If  one  of  the  spruce  firs  included  in  the  limestone  debris,  had  its  top 
broken  off,  and  a  layer  of  mud  were  deposited  over  all,  we  should  have  the 
counterpart  of  a  sketch  of  Sir  Henry  de  la  Beche's  Manual  (p.  407).  Thf 
thick  and  fleshy  rhizomata  of  the  Calla  palustris,  marked  with  the  cica- 
trices of  fallen  leaves,  and  which  are  abundant  in  these  waters,  bear  nr 
very  distant  resemblance  to  stigmariee. 


so 


VE^r/rATlOiN  ON  THK  HHOHKH  OF  I.AKK   VVIMI'i;<i. 


Crees  Wnqmskeow-watdd*  and  by  the  Canadians  2Sas<ji(iaii. 
It  separates  Winepegoos  Lake,  and  Red-Deer  Lake  and  River 
from  the  bed  of  the  Saskatchewan.  I  am  ignorant  oi'  its  geolog- 
ical structure,  not  having  visited  it. 

With  respect  to  the  forests:  The  white  or  sweet  cedar  (Cm- 
pressus  thymdes)  disappears  on  the  south  side  of  Rainy  Lake, 
within  the  American  boundary  line.  The  Weymouth  pine,  va- 
rious maples,  cockspur  thorns,  and  the  fern-leaved  Coniptonia, 
reach  the  southern  slope  of  the  Winipeg  basin.  Oaks  extend  to 
the  islands  and  narrows  of  that  lake.  The  elm,  ash,  arbor  vitse 
and  ash-leaved  maple  terminate  on  the  banks  of  the  Saskatche- 
wan. The  "wild  rice,"  or  Folic  avoine]  of  the  voyagers  and 
traders,  grows  abundantly  in  the  district  between  Lakes  Superior 
and  Winipeg.  This  grain  resembles  rice  in  its  qualities,  but  has 
a  sweeter  taste.  Though  small,  it  swells  much  in  cooking,  and 
is  nourishing,  but  its  black  husk  renders  it  uninviting  in  its  natu- 
ral state.  In  favorable  seasons  it  aftbrds  sustenance  to  a  populous 
tribe  of  Indians,  but  the  supply  is  uncertain,  depending  greatly 
on  the  height  of  the  waters.  In  harvest  time  the  natives  row 
their  canoes  among  the  grass,  and,  bending  its  ears  over  the  gun- 
wale, thresh  out  the  grain,  which  separates  readily.  They  then 
lay  it  by  for  use  in  neatly-woven  rush  baskets.  This  grass  finds 
its  northern  limit  on  Lake  Winipeg,  and  it  is  common  in  the 
western  waters  of  the  more  northern  of  the  United  States ;  but 
how  far  south  it  extends,  I  have  not  been  able  to  learn.  Stra- 
chey,  in  his  "  Historie  of  Travaille  in  Virginia,"  speaks  of  a 
'•  graine  called  Nattowine,  which  groweth  as  bents  do  in  mead- 
owes.  The  seeds  are  not  much  unlike  rice,  though  much  small- 
er;  these  they  use  for  a  deyntie  bread,  buttered  with  deere's  suet." 
(p.  118).  It  is  possible  that  he  may  refer  to  a  smaller  species 
{JS.  Jluitans)  of  the  same  genus,  which  is  known  to  abound  in 
Georgia ;  but  the  seed  of  that  could  scarcely  be  collected  in  suffi- 
cient quantity.  The  hop-plant  {Humulus  lupulus)  reaches  the 
south  end  of  Lake  Winipeg,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Simpson,  yields 
flowers  plentifully  in  the  Red  River  colony.  We  observed  it  in 
the  autumn  of  1849,  growing  luxuriantly  on  the  banks  of  the 
Karaenistikwoya,  and  connecting  the  lower  branches  of  the  trees 

*  Wapiis,  strait ;   Ke-ow,  woods  ;  Watchi,  hill :  the  signification  being, 
"a  pa-ris  through  woods  on  a  hill." 

t  l^izanm  titfVntini  L.,  or  Hydrnpyrum  csrulentum  of  Link. 


1 


,>)^, 


CHIPPEWAYS  AND  CRBE8. 


01 


tasfjuinii. 
tid  River 
Is  geolop- 

idar  {Cu- 
tty Lake, 
pine,  va- 
jniptonia, 
extend  to 
fbor  vitffi 
askatche- 
infcrs  and 
J  Superior 
s,  but  has 
king,  and 
I  its  natu- 
popnlous 
g  greatly 
tives  row 
the  gun- 
'hey  then 
rass  finds 
n  in  the 
ites ;  but 
Stra- 
aks  of  a 
in  mead- 
3h  small- 
e's  suet." 
sr  species 
jound  in 
in  suffi- 
ches  the 
>n,  yields 
ired  it  in 
s  of  the 
the  trees 

on  being, 


with  elegant  festoons  of  fragrant  flowers.  An  opinion  prevailed 
among  the  traders  that  Lord  Selkirk  introduced  it  into  this  neigh- 
borhood when  he  took  possession  of  the  Northwest  Company's 
post  of  Fort  William,  upward  of  thirty  years  ago  ;  but  the  plant 
is  indigenous  to  America,  and  grows  abundantly  in  the  Raton 
Pass,  lying  on  the  37rh  parallel,  at  the  height  of  eight  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea,  as  well  as  in  many  localities  of  the  northern 
States.  Throughont  the  canoe-route  from  Lake  Superior  to  Lake 
Winipeg,  no  district  shows  such  fertility  as  the  banks  of  Rainy 
River.  In  autumn,  especially,  the  various  maples,  oaks,  su- 
machs, ampelopsis,  cornel  bushes,  and  other  trees  and  shrubs 
whose  leaves  before  they  fall  assume  glowing  tints  of  orange  and 
red,  render  the  woodland  views  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  fniest 
that  1  have  seen  elsewhere  on  the  American  continent,  from  Flor- 
ida northward.  Nor  are  showy  asters  helianthi,  lophanthi,  gen- 
tianece,  physostegice,  irides,  and  many  other  gay  flowers,  wanting 
to  complete  the  adornment  of  its  banks. 

From  Saut  Ste.  Marie  to  the  Saskatchewan,  and  the  banks  of 
Churchill  River,  the  native  inhabitants  term  themselves  In-nin- 
yu-wiik  or  Ey-thinyu-ivuk,  and  are  members  of  a  nation  which 
formerly  extended  southward  to  the  Delaware.  That  part  of 
this  widely  spread  people  which  occupies  the  north  side  of  Lake 
Huron,  the  whole  border  of  Lake  Superior,  and  the  country  be- 
tween it  and  the  south  end  of  Lake  Winipeg,  call  themselves 
Ochipeiva,  written  also  Ojibbeway,  or  Chippeway ;  *  and  the 
more  northerly  division,  who  name  themselves  Nathe-ivytvithin- 
yu,  are  the  Crees  of  the  traders,  and  Knistenaux  of  French  writers 
In  a  subsequent  chapter  I  shall  speak  more  particularly  of  tht 
place  which  this  people  hold  among  the  aboriginal  nations.  At 
present,  I  wish  merely  to  point  out  some  of  the  circumstances 
which  have  tended  to  work  out  a  difference  in  the  moral  charac- 
ter of  these  two  tribes,  essentially  the  same  people  in  language 
and  manners.  The  Crees  have  now  for  more  than  twenty-six 
years  been  under  the  undivided  control  and  paternal  government 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and  are  wholly  dependent  on  them 
for  ammunition,  European  clothing,  and  other  things  which  have 
become  necessaries.  No  spirituous  liquors  are  distributed  to  them, 
and  schoolmasters  and  missionaries  are  encouraged  and  aided  by 

*  They  are  the  Sauteurs  or  Saulteaiuo  of  the  Canadians,  and  Sotoos  of 
the  fur  traders. 


n 


OHIPPEWAYB. 


the  Company,  to  introduce  anions  them  the  elements  of  religion 
and  civilization.  One  vilhi^u  has  been  established  near  the  d^pot 
at  Norway  House,  and  another  at  the  Pus  on  the  Saskatchewan, 
each  havini;  a  church,  and  school-house,  and  a  considerable  space 
of  cultivated  ground.  The  conduct  of  the  people  is  quiet  and  in- 
oHi^nsive  ;  war  is  unknown  in  the  Crec  district ;  and  the  Com- 
pany's officers  fnid  little  difficulty  in  hiring  the  young  men  as 
occasional  laborers. 

The  case  is  otherwise  with  the  Chippcways,  who  live  within 
the  Company's  territories.  The  vicinity  of  the  rival  United  States 
Fur  Company's  establishments ;  the  vigorous  competition  which 
is  carried  on  between  them  and  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  in 
prosecution  of  which  spirituous  liquors  are  dispensed  by  both  par- 
ties liberally  to  the  i»ativcs ;  and  the  abundance  of  Folle  avaine 
on  Rainy  River  and  the  River  Winipeg,  with  the  plentiful  sup- 
ply of  sturgeon  obtained  from  these  waters,  rendering  the  natives 
independent  of  either  party,  have  had  a  demoralizing  effect,  and 
neither  Protestant  nor  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  have  been 
able  to  make  any  impression  upon  them.  One  party  of  these  In- 
dians, from  whom  we  purchased  a  supply  of  sturgeon  on  Rainy 
River,  are  briefly  characterized  in  my  notes,  made  on  the  spot, 
as  being  "  fat,  saucy,  dirty,  and  odorous."  A  Roman  Catholic 
church,  erected  some  years  ago  on  the  banks  of  the  Winipeg,  has 
been  abandoned,  with  the  clearing  around  it,  on  account  of  the 
want  of  success  of  the  priest  in  his  endeavors  to  convert  the  natives ; 
and  neither  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  nor  the  United  States 
people  have  been  able  to  extinguish  the  deadly  feud  existing  be- 
tween the  Chippeways  and  Sioux,  nor  to  restrain  their  war  parties. 

Very  recently  the  Chippeways  of  Lake  Superior,  through  some 
oversight  in  the  Canadian  government  in  not  making  arrange- 
ments with  them  at  the  proper  time,  organized  a  war  party  against 
the  mining  village  of  Mica  Bay,  containing  more  than  a  hundred 
male  inhabitants.  In  passing  through  Lake  Superior  we  were 
pleased  with  the  flourishing  appearance  of  this  village,  containing 
many  nicely  white-washed  houses,  grouped  in  terraces  on  the  steep 
bank  of  the  lake.  The  mines  were  worked  by  a  company,  under 
a  grant  from  the  Canadian  legislature,  who,  at  the  same  period, 
made  many  other  similar  grants  of  mining  localities  on  the  lake, 
without  previously  purchasing  the  Indian  rights.  As  the  game 
is  nearly  extinct  on  the  borders  of  the  lake,  the  natives  subsist 


\ 


AITAC'K   ON    MICA    UAY. 


M 


some 


steep 
under 
)eriod, 

lake, 
game 
ubsist 


4 


chiefly  by  the  fisheries  ;  and  the  vicinity  of  the  mining  est.ihhsh- 
nientd  was  hkely  to  be  heuericial  to  them  rather  than  injiirioiiH, 
by  luoviihntj  a  market  lor  their  fish.  lint  when  they  helieUl 
party  alter  party  of  white  men  erowdinfjf  to  their  hind;*,  eajrer  to 
take  possession  of  their  lots  by  erectinjf  buildings,  and  iiupiisitively 
examining  every  clilf,  they  acquired  exasperated  ideas  of  the  value 
of  their  rocks.  For  two  summers  they  descended  in  larpe  bodies 
to  fcjaut  Ste.  Marie,  expecting  payment,  and,  being  disappointed, 
thought  tliey  were  trifled  with.  They  determined,  therelore,  in 
council,  to  bring  matters  to  a  crisis  by  expelling  tlie  aggressors, 
and,  ill  the  autumn  of  1H19,  made  a  descent  upon  Mica  Bay,  and 
drove  away  the  miners  and  their  families.  To  repel  this  attack 
a  regiment  was  ordered  up  from  Canada,  at  an  expense  which 
would  have  paid  the  Indians  again  and  again  :  but  a  small  part 
of  the  force  only  reached  Mica  Bay,  to  find  the  Chippeways  gone ; 
the  rest  were  driven  back  to  Saut  Ste.  Marie  by  stormy  weather, 
not  without  very  severe  sufiering,  leading,  I  have  been  informed, 
to  loss  of  life. 


'€. 


CHAPTER   III. 

Pine  Island  Lake. — Silurian  Strata. — Sturgeon  River. — Progress  of  Spring. — 
Beaver  Lake. — Isle  a  la  Cro.sse  Brigade. — Ridge  River. — Native  Schoolmaster 
and  hi.s  Family. — Two  kinds  of  Sturgeon. — Native  Medicines. — Bald  Eagles. — 
Pelicans. — Black-bcUiod  and  Cayeime  Toms. — Cranes. — Frog  Portace. — Mis- 
sinipi  or  Churchill  River. — Its  Lake-like  Character. — Poisonous  Plants  and 
Native  Medicines. — Athabasca  Brigade. — Sand-Hy  Lake. — The  Country  changes 
its  Aspect. — Bull-dog  Fly. — Isle  k  la  Crosse  Lake. — Its  Altitude  above  the  Sea. 
— Length  of  the  Missinipi. — Isle  il  la  Crosse  Fort. — Roman  Catholic  Mission. — 
Deep  Ri\er. — Canada  Lynx. — Buffalo  Lake. — Methy  River  and  Lake. — Mur- 
rain among  the  Horses. — Burbot  or  La  Loche. — A  Mink. — Methy  Portage. — 
Join  Mr.  Bell  and  his  Party. 

We  left  Cumberland  House  at  4  a.m.,  on  the  14th  of  June, 
but  had  not  passed  above  three  miles  through  Pine  Island  Lake, 
before  we  were  compelled  to  seek  shelter  on  a  small  island  by  a 
violent  thunder  storm,  bringing  with  it  torrents  of  rain.  The  rain 
moderating  after  a  few  hours,  we  resumed  our  voyage ;  but  the 
high  wind  continuing  and  raising  the  waves,  our  progress  was 
slow,  and  the  day's  voyage  did  not  exceed  twenty-two  miles.  In 
the  part  of  the  lake  where  we  encamped  the  limestone  (silurian*) 
rises,  in  successive  outcrops,  to  the  height  of  thirty  feet  above  the 
water,  the  strike  of  the  beds  being  about  southwest  by  west,  and 
northeast  by  east,  or  at  right  angles  to  the  general  line  of  direc- 
tion of  the  gneiss  and  granite  formation,  which  lies  to  the  east- 
ward.    Many  boulders  of  granite  and  trap  rocks  are  scattered 

*  Some  fragments  of  large  Orthocerata,  and  a  specimen  of  Receptacu- 
lites  neptunii.  point  to  the  bird's-eye  and  Trenton  limestones  as  occurring 
in  this  neighborhood.  Mr.  Woodward  says  of  the  latter  specimen,  "  The 
only  wood-cut  in  the  New  York  State  Surveys  at  all  resembling  your  en- 
gine-turned fossil,  is  a  very  rude  representation  of  part  of  a  circular  disk, 
with  radiating  and  concentric  (not  engine)  turned  lines.  It  is  called  Uph- 
anteria  chcmungcnsis,  and  is  supposed  to  be  a  marine  plant  (p.  183,  Van- 
uxem).  A  fossil  much  like  yours  is  figured  by  De  France  in  the  Diction- 
naire  des  Sciences  Naturelles  under  the  name  of  Rcccptaculitcs  neptuni,  from 
Chimay,  in  the  Pays  Bas.  This  is  certainly  the  same  genus.  De  Blain- 
ville  also  describes  it  in  his  Actinologie  at  the  end  of  the  corals,  but  offers 
no  opinion  respecting  its  affinities.  I  should  compare  it  with  Eschadites 
Konigi  of  Murchison's  upper  silurian.  but  that  was  originally  Bpherical 
and  hollow." 


.; 


:; 


i 
^ 


STURGEON    RIVEU. 


55 


over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  far  beyond  the  reach  of  any  modem 
means  of  transport. 

Thunder  and  heavy  rain  detained  us  in  our  encampment  the 
whole  of  the  following  day ;  but  some  improvement  in  the  weather 
taking  place  at  midnight.,  we  embarked,  and  at  one  in  the  morn- 
ing of  the  1 6th  entered  Sturgeon  River,  named  by  the  voyagers, 
on  account  of  its  many  bad  rapids,  "  JLa  Riviere  Maligne."  We 
made  two  portages,  and  an  hour  after  noon  reached  Beaver  Lake. 
The  entire  bed  of  the  river  consisLs  of  limestone,  sometimes  lying 
in  nearly  horizontal  layers  more  or  less  fissured  ;  in  other  places 
broken  up  into  large  looso  slabs,  lilted  up  and  riding  on  each 
other.  Boulders  of  granite  occur  iii  various  parts  of  the  river, 
some  of  them  of  considerable  magnitude,  and  rising  high  out  of 
the  water.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  river  the  banks  are  sandy,  a 
considerable  deposit  of  dry,  light  soil  overlies  the  limestone,  and 
vegetation  is  early  and  vigorous. 

When  we  left  Lake  Superior,  in  the  middle  of  May,  the  de- 
ciduous trees  gave  little  promise  of  life ;  and,  in  ascending  the 
Kamenistikwoya,  we  were  glad  to  let  the  eye  dwell  upon  the 
groves  of  aspens  which  skirt  the  streams  in  that  undulating  and 
rocky  district,  and  which,  when  well  massed,  gave  a  pleasing  va- 
riety to  the  wintry  aspect  of  the  landscape — the  silvery  hue  of 
their  leafless  branches  and  young  stems  contrasting  well  with  the 
sombre  green  of  the  spruce  fir,  which  forms  the  bulk  of  the  forest. 
On  the  27th  of  May,  while  ascending  Church  Reach  of  Rainy 
Kiver,  we  had  been  cheered  by  the  lovely  yellowish  hue  of  the 
aspens  just  unfolding  their  young  leaves ;  but  the  ice,  lingering 
on  Lake  Winipeg,  when  we  crossed  it,  had  kept  down  the  tem- 
perature, spring  had  not  yet  assumed  its  sway,  and  the  trees  were 
leafless.  Now,  the  season  seemed  to  be  striding  onward  rapidly, 
and  the  tender  foliage  was  trembling  on  all  sides  in  the  bright 
sunshine.  It  was  in  a  patch  of  burnt  woods  in  this  vicinity  that, 
in  the  year  1820,  I  discovered  the  beautiful  Eutoca  Franklinii, 
now  so  common  an  ornament  of  our  gardens. 

Constantly,  since  the  1st  of  June,  the  song  of  the  Fringilla 
leucophrys  has  been  heard  day  and  night,  and  so  loudly,  in  the 
stillness  of  the  latter  season,  as  to  deprive  us  at  first  of  rest.  It 
whistles  the  first  bar  of  "  Oh  dear,  what  can  the  matter  be  I"  in 
a  clear  tone,  as  if  played  on  a  piccolo  fife ;  and,  though  the  dis- 
tinctness of  the  notes  rendered  them  at  first  very  pleasing,  yet,  as 


C6 


HK.WKR   LAKE. 


they  haunted  us  up  \o  the  Arctic  circle,  and  were  loudest  at  mid 
night,  we  came  to  wish  occasionally  that  the  cheerful  little  song- 
ster would  time  his  serenade  belter.  It  is  a  curious  illustration 
of  the  indifference  of  the  native  population  to  almost  every  animal 
that  does  not  yield  food  or  fur,  or  otherwise  contribute  to  their 
comfort  or  discomfort,  that  none  of  the  Iroquois  or  Chippeways 
of  our  company  knew  the  bird  by  sight,  and  they  all  declared 
boldly  that  no  one  ever  saw  it.  We  were,  however,  enabled,  after 
a  little  trouble,  to  identify  the  songster,  his  song,  and  breeding- 
place.  The  nest  is  framed  of  grass,  and  placed  on  the  ground 
under  shelter  of  some  small  inequality ;  the  eggs,  five  in  number, 
are  grayish,  or  purplish-white,  thickly  spotted  with  brown  ;  and 
the  male  hides  himself  in  a  neighboring  bush  while  he  serenades 
his  mate. 

At  the  outlet  of  Beaver  Lake,  and  at  several  succeeding  points 
on  both  sides  of  the  canoe-route,  the  thin,  slaty  limestone  forms 
cliffs,  thirty  or  ibrty  feet  high  ;  but  about  the  middle  of  the  lake, 
there  is  a  small  island  of  greenstone.  Beyond  this  we  again 
touched  upon  the  granite  rocks  which  we  had  left  at  the  north- 
east corner  of  Lake  Winipeg,  bearing  from  this  place  about  east 
82°  south. 

At  the  entrance  of  Ridge  River  we  met  Mr.  MKenzie,  Jan., 
in  charge  of  a  brigade  of  boats,  carrying  out  the  furs  of  the  Isle 
a  la  Crosse  district,  and  were  glad  to  obtain  from  him  tidings  of 
Mr.  Bell,  who  was  advancing  prosperously,  though  he  had  been 
stopped  for  three  days  by  ice,  on  the  lake  which  we  had  just 
crossed.  The  Missinipi,  or  Churchill  River,  Mr.  M'Kenzie  told 
us,  did  not  open  till  the  6th  of  the  present  month,  though  in 
common  years  it  seldon.  continues  frozen  beyond  the  1st. 

Soon  after  parting  with  this  gentleman,  we  met  the  school- 
master of  Lac  La  Ronge  district,  who,  with  his  wife  and  four 
children,  were  on  their  way  to  pass  the  summer  with  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Hunter,  Episcopal  clergyman  at  the  Pas.  Both  husband  and 
wife  are  half-breeds,  and  both  are  lively,  active,  and  intelligent. 
The  family  party  were  traveling  in  a  small  canoe,  which  the  hus- 
band paddled  on  the  water,  and  carried  over  the  portages  with 
their  light  luggage.  For  their  subsistence,  they  depended  on  such 
fish  and  wild-fowl  as  they  could  kill  on  the  route ;  and  the  lady 
was  very  grateful  for  a  small  supply  of  tea,  sugar,  and  flour 
which  we  gave  her.     The  young  ones  bore  the  assaults  of  the 


■St 


-fi 


TWO  KINDS  OF  STURGEON. 


67 


m 


I 


musquitoes  with  a  stoical  indifference,  as  an  inevitable  evil,  that 
had  belonged  to  every  summer  of  their  lives,  and  from  which  no 
part  of  the  world,  as  far  as  they  knew,  was  exempt.  At  the 
Ridge  Portage,  where  we  encamped  for  the  night,  the  rock  is 
gneiss,  resembhng  mica-slate,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  mica  that 
enters  into  its  composition. 

On  the  17th,  we  came  early  to  a  long  and  strong  rapid,  bear- 
ing the  same  appellation  with  the  preceding  portage,  and  which 
is  said  to  be  the  highest  point  to  which  sturgeon  ascend  in  this 
river ;  and  it  is  most  probably  the  northern  limit  of  the  range  of 
that  fish,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  situated 
in  about  54^-  degrees  of  north  latitude.  We  noticed  two  species 
of  this  fish  in  the  Saskatchewan  River  system.  One  of  these  is 
described  in  the  Fauna  Boreali- Americana  under  the  name  of 
Accipenser  rupertianus,  and  has  a  tapering,  acute  snout.  It 
seldom  exceeds  ten  or  fifteen  pounds  in  weight.  The  other  is 
the  Nameyu  of  the  Crees,  and  has  not  been  hitherto  described. 
It  very  commonly  weighs  ninety  pounds,  and  attains  the  weight 
of  one  hundred  and  thirty.  Its  snout  is  short  and  blunt,  being 
only  one  third  of  the  length  of  the  entire  head  ;  its  nasal  barbels 
are  short,  its  shields  small  and  remote,  and  the  ventral  rows  are 
absent.  Its  caudal  is  less  oblique  than  that  of  the  smaller  kind, 
the  upper  lobe  being  proportionally  shorter.  This  species  ascends 
the  Winipeg  River  as  high  as  the  outlet  of  Rainy  Lake  :  and 
the  smaller  kind  is  occasionally,  though  rarely,  taken  also  in  that 
locality,  but,  in  general,  it  seems  to  be  unable  to  surmount  the 
cascade  at  the  outlet  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  The  rocks  here 
are  granite,  and  a  mountain-green  chlorite  slate,  similar  to  that 
which  occurs  so  abundantly  on  the  north  side  of  the  Lake  Super- 
ior basin  ;  the  latter,  under  the  action  of  the  weather,  forms  a 
tenacious  clayey  soil.  A  hornblende-slate  occupies  the  bed  of  the 
river,  and  rises,  on  each  bank,  into  rounded  knolls  and  low  cliffs. 
The  inequalities  of  the  country  here,  as  well  as  its  vegetation,  are 
very  similar  to  that  on  the  Kamenistikwoya,  where  the  same 
formation  exists. 

The  woods,  being  now  in  full  but  still  tender  foliage,  were 
beautiful.  The  graceful  birch,  in  particular,  attracted  attention 
by  its  white  stem,  light  green  spray,  and  pendent,  golden  catkins. 
Willows  of  a  darker  foliage  lined  the  river  bank  ;  and  the  back- 
ground was  covered  with  dark  green  pines,  intermixed  with  patches 


58 


NATIVE   MEDICINES.-SUCKING  CARP. 


of  lively  aspen,  and  here  and  there  a  tapering  larch,  gay  with 
its  minute  tufts  of  crimson  flowers,  and  young  pale  green  leaves. 
The  balsam  poplar,  with  a  silvery  foliage  though  an  ungainly 
stem,  and  the  dank  elder,  disputed  the  stand  at  intervals  with 
the  willows ;  among  which  the  purple  twigs  of  the  dog-wood  con- 
tributed effectively  to  add  variety  and  harmony  to  the  colors  of 
spring. 

The  Actaa  alba  grows  abundantly  here ;  it  is  called  by  the 
Canadians  le  racine  d'ours^  and  by  the  Crees,  musqua-7nitsu-m 
(bears'  food).  A  decoction  of  its  roots  and  of  the  tops  of  the 
spruce  fir  is  used  as  a  drink  in  stomachic  complaints.  The  Aco- 
rus  calamus  is  another  of  the  indigenous  plants  that  enter  into 
the  native  pharmacopoeia,  and  is  used  as  a  remedy  in  colic.  About 
the  size  of  a  small  pea  of  the  root,  dried  before  the  fire  or  in  the 
sun,  is  a  dose  for  an  adult,  and  the  pain  is  said  to  be  removed 
soon  after  it  is  masticated  and  swallowed.  When  administered 
to  children,  the  root  is  rasped,  and  the  filings  swallowed  in  a  glass 
of  water,  or  of  weak  tea  with  sugar.  A  drop  of  the  juice  of  the 
recent  root  is  dropped  into  inflamed  eyes,  and  the  remedy  is  said 
to  be  an  effectual  though  a  painful  one.  I  have  never  seen  it 
tried.  The  Cree  name  of  this  plant  is  watchuske  mitsu-in,  or 
"  that  which  the  musk-rat  eats." 

At  breakfast-time  we  crossed  the  Carp  Portage,  where  there  is 
a  shelving  cascade  over  granite  rocks.  The  gray  sucking  carp 
{Catastomus  hudsonius)  was  busy  spawning  in  the  eddies,  and 
our  voyagers  killed  several  with  poles.  Two  miles  above  the 
portage  there  are  some  steeply  rounded  sandy  knolls  clothed  with 
spruce  trees,  being  the  second  or  high  bank  of  the  river,  which  is 
elevated  above  all  floods  of  the  present  epoch.  In  some  places 
granite  rocks  show  through  sand,  heaped  round  their  base.  The 
frequent  occurrence  of  accumulations  of  sand  in  this  granite  and 
gneiss  district,  near  the  water-sheds  of  contiguous  river  systems, 
has  been  already  noticed.  In  the  course  of  the  forenoon  we  passed 
the  Birch  lightening-place  {Demi-charge  du  bouleau),  where  a 
slaty  sienite  or  greenstone  occurs,  the  beds  being  inclined  to  the 
east- northeast  at  an  angle  of  45°  ;  and  an  hour  afterward  we 
crossed  the  Birch  Portage,  five  hundred  and  forty  paces  long. 
The  rocks  there  are  porphyritic  granite,  portions  of  which  are  in 
thin  beds,  and  are  therefore  to  be  entitled  gneiss. 

The  river  has  the  character  peculiar  to  the  district,  that  is,  it 


I 


I 


HALF-MOON    LAKE.— BALU   EAGLEH. 


59 


is,  it 


is  formed  of  branching  lake-like  expansions  without  perceptible 
current,  connected  by  falls  or  rapids  occasioning  portages,  or  by 
narrow  straits  through  which  there  flows  a  strong  stream.  At 
four  in  the  aflerrioon  we  crossed  the  Island  Portage,  where  the 
rock  is  a  fine-grained,  laminated  granite  or  gneiss,  containing  no- 
dules or  crystals  of  quartz,  which  do  not  decay  so  fast  as  the  rest 
of  the  stone,  and  consequently  project  from  its  surface  :  the  layers 
are  contorted.  In  1825,  which  was  a  season  of  flood,  this  islet 
was  under  water,  and  our  canoes  ascended  among  the  bushes. 

Two  hours  later  we  passed  the  Pine  Portage  {Pwtage  des 
Epinettes),  and  entered  Half-Moon  Lake  {^Liic  Mi-rond*).     At 
this  portage  the  rocks  are  granite,  greenstone,  and  black  basalt, 
or  hornblende-rock,  containing  a  few  scales  of  mica,  and  a  very 
few  garnets.     The  length  of  the  portage  is  two  hundred  yards. 
At  our  encampment  on  a  small  island  in  Half-Moon  Lake  the 
gneiss  lay  in  vertical  layers,  having  a  north  and  south  strike.    A 
few  garnets  were  scattered  through  the  stone.     This  piece  of 
water,  and  Pelican  and  Woody  Lakes,  which  adjoin  it,  are  full 
of  fish,  and  they  are  consequently  haunted  by  large  bodies  of  peli- 
cans, and  several  pairs  of  white-headed  eagles  {Halifeetits  albicil- 
la).    This  fishing  eagle  abounds  in  the  watery  districts  of  Rupert's 
Land  ;  and  a  nest  may  be  looked  for  within  every  twenty  or  thirty 
miles.     Each  pair  of  birds  seems  to  appropriate  a  certain  range 
of  country  on  which  they  suffer  no  intruders  of  their  own  species 
to  encroach ;  but  the  nest  of  the  osprey  is  often  placed  at  no  great 
distance  from  that  of  the  oagle,  which  has  no  disinclination  to 
avail  itself  of  the  greater  activity  of  the  smaller  bird,  though  of 
itself  it  is  by  no  means  a  bad  fisher.     The  eagle  may  be  known 
from  afar,  as  it  sits  in  a  peculiarly  erect  position,  motionless,  on 
the  dead  top  of  a  lofty  fir,  overhanging  some  rapid  abounding  in 
fish.     Not  unfrequently  a  raven  looks  quietly  on  from  a  neigh- 
boring tree,  hoping  that  some  crumb  may  escape  from  the  claws 
of  the  tyrant  of  the  waters.     Some  of  our  voyagers  had  the  curi- 
osity to  visit  an  eagle's  nest,  which  was  built,  on  the  cleft  sum- 
mit of  a  balsam  poplar,  of  sticks,  many  of  them  as  thick  as  a  man's 
wrist      It  contained  two  young  birds,  well-fledged,  with  a  good 
store  of  fish,  in  a  very  odoriferous  condition.     While  the  men 
were  climbing  the  tree  the  female  parent  hovered  close  round, 
and  threatened  an  attack  on  the  invaders ;  but  the  mala,  who  is 
*  Called  by  mistake  Lac  Heron  in  Franklin's  Overland  Journey*. 


60 


TELICANS.-BLACK  UKI.LIKI)   AM)  CAYENNE  TERNS'. 


of  much  smaller  size,  kept  aloof,  making  circles  high  in  the  air. 
The  heads  and  tails  olboth  were  white. 

The  pelican,  as  it  assembles  in  flocks,  and  is  very  voracious, 
destroys  still  larger  quantities  of  fish  than  the  eagle.  It  is  the 
Pelicanus  ti-achyrhf/ndnia  o[  syatemsitic  ornithologists,  and  ranges 
as  far  north  as  Great  Slave  Lake,  in  latitude  60 '^-61°  North. 
These  birds  generally  choose  a  rapid  for  the  scene  of  their  exploits, 
and,  commencing  at  the  upper  end,  sufler  themselves  to  float  down 
with  the  current,  fishing  as  they  go  with  great  success,  particu- 
larly in  the  eddies.  When  satiated,  and  with  full  pouches,  they 
stand  on  a  rock  or  boulder  which  rises  out  of  the  water,  and  air 
themselves,  keeping  their  half-bent  wings  raised  from  their  sides, 
after  the  manner  of  vultures  and  other  gross  feeders.  Their 
pouches  are  frequently  so  crammed  with  fish  that  they  can  not 
rise  into  the  air  until  they  have  relieved  themselves  from  the  load, 
and  on  the  unexpected  approach  of  a  canoe  they  stoop  down,  and, 
drawing  the  bill  between  their  legs,  turn  out  the  fish.  They  seem 
to  be  unable  to  accomplish  this  feat  when  swimming,  so  that  then 
they  are  easily  overtaken,  and  may  be  caught  alive,  or  killed  with 
the  blow  of  a  paddle.  If  they  are  near  the  beach  when  danger 
threatens,  they  will  land  to  get  rid  of  the  fish  more  quickly. 
They  fly  heavily,  and  generally  low,  in  small  flocks  of  from  eight 
to  twenty  individuals,  marshaled,  not  in  the  cunei-lorm  order  of 
wild  geese,  but  in  a  line  abreast,  or  slightly  en  echeUun;  and  their 
snow-white  ^^lumage  with  black-tipped  wings,  combined  with  their 
great  size,  gives  them  an  imposing  appearance.  Exceeding  the 
fishing  eagle  and  the  swan  in  bulk,  they  are  the  largest  birds  in 
the  country.  Their  eggs  are  deposited  on  rocky  islets  among 
strong  rapids,  where  they  can  not  be  easily  approached  by  man 
or  beasts  of  prey.  The  species  is  named  from  a  ridge  or  crest 
which  rises  from  the  middle  line  of  the  upper  mandible  of  the 
male  ;  sometimes  from  its  whole  length,  when  it  is  generally  un- 
even ;  and  sometimes  from  a  short  part  only,  when  it  is  semicir- 
cular and  smooth-edged. 

The  black-bellied  tern  {Hydrochelidon  nigra)  is  also  abundant 
on  these  waters,  and  ranges  northward  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
Mackenzie.  And  the  Cayenne  tern  [Sterna  cayana)  is  common 
in  this  quarter  and  onward  to  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle  ;  but  not- 
withstanding Mr.  Rae's  expertness  as  a  fowler,  and  eagerness  to 
procure  me  a  specimen,  the  extreme  wariness  of  the  bird  frustra- 


\\ 


jint 
he 
Lon 
lot- 
to 
ra- 


1 


li 


I 


I 
I' 


CRANES. 


61 


ted  all  his  endeavors  until  this  day,  when  he  brought  one  down, 
and  gave  me  an  opportunity  of  examining  it,  which  I  was  glad  to 
do,  since  from  want  of  a  northern  specimen  the  bird  was  not  no- 
ticed in  the  Fauna  Borcali- Americana.  Mr.  Audubon  mentions 
the  great  difficulty  of  shooting  this  bird,  and  he  succeeded  in  do- 
ing so  only  by  employing  several  boats  to  approach  its  haunts  in 
diflferent  directions.  Albert,  our  Eskimo  interpreter,  told  me  that 
it  does  not  visit  Hudson's  Bay. 

I  was  also  indebted  to  Mr.  Rae's  gun  fbr  specimens  of  the 
brown  crane  {Gncs  ca9iadensis).  Mr.  Audubon,  who  is  so  com- 
petent an  authority  on  all  questions  relating  to  American  birds, 
and  whose  recent  death  all  lovers  of  natural  history  deplore,  was  of 
opinion,  in  common  with  many  other  onnthologists,  that  the  brown 
crane  is  merely  the  young  of  the  large  white  crane  {Grus  amer- 
icana)  ;  but,  though  I  concede  that  the  young  of  the  latter  are 
gray,  I  think  that  the  broivn  species  is  distinct ;  first,  because  it  is 
generally  of  larger  dimensions  than  the  white  bird,  and  secondly, 
because  it  breeds  on  the  lower  parts  of  the  Mackenzie  and  near  the 
Arctic  coasts,  where  the  Grus  america?ia  is  unknown.  As  far 
as  I  could  ascertain,  the  latter  bird  does  not  go  much  further 
north  than  Great  Slave  Lake.  At  Fort  aux  Liards,  on  the 
River  of  the  Mountains,  large  flocks  of  cranes  pass  continually  to 
the  westward,  from  the  17th  to  the  20th  of  September  ;  the  gray 
and  white  birds  being  in  different  bands,  and  the  former  of  small- 
er size,  like  young  birds.  Very  rarely  during  the  summer  a  flock 
of  white  cranes  passes  over  Fort  Simpson,  in  latitude  62°  N. 
The  brown  cranes,  on  the  other  hand,  which  frequent  the  banks 
of  the  Mackenzie  from  Fort  Norman,  in  latitude  65°  N.,  down 
to  the  sea-coast,  are  generally  in  pairs.  They  are  in  the  habit  of 
dancing  round  each  other  very  gracefully  on  the  sand-banks  of 
the  river.* 

June  18th. — About  three  hours  after  embarking  we  «.  ^ne  to 
the  Pelican  lightening-place  {Demi-charge  de  chetauque),  and  by 
breakfast-time  we  had  crossed  the  three  portages  of  Woody  Lake. 
A  micaceous  gneiss  or  mica-slate  rock  prevails  at  these  portages. 
A  family  of  Cree  Indians,  who  were  encamped  on  one  of  the 
many  islands  which  adorn  the  scenery  of  Woody  Lake,  exchanged 

*  Much  of  this  information  I  received  from  Murdoch  MacPherson,  Esq., 
who,  during  twenty  years'  residence  on  the  Mackenzie,  became  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  all  its  feathered  and  ferine  inhabitants. 


•3 


MIS8IN1P1  OR  CHURCHILL  RIVER. 


f 


fish  for  tobacco,  and  enabled  us  to  vary  the  diet  of  our  voyagers, 
an  indulgence  which  pleases  them  greatly ;  for,  though  they  gen- 
erally prefer  pork  or  pemican  to  fish,  they  relish  the  latter  occa- 
sionally. At  five  we  crossed  the  Frog  Portage,  or  Portage  de 
Traite  of  the  Canadians,  and  encamped  on  the  banks  of  the  Mis- 
sinipi  or  Churchill  River,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  small 
outpost  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.* 

No  change  of  formation  takes  place  in  passing  from  the  Sas- 
katchewan River  system  to  that  of  the  Missinipi.  The  Frog 
Portage  is  low,  and  Churchill  River,  in  seasons  of  flood,  some- 
times overflows  it,  and  discharges  some  of  its  superfluous  waters 
into  the  Woody  Lake.t  The  general  level  of  the  country  lor  some 
distance,  or  down  to  the  lower  end  of  Half-Moon  Lake  varies 
little ;  but  in  this  and  in  Pelican  Lake  there  are  a  few  conical 
eminences,  which  rise  several  hundred  feet  above  the  water.  We 
did  not  approach  them  sufficiently  near  for  examination. 

Frog  Portage  is  the  most  northerly  point  of  the  Saskatchewan 
basin,  and  lies  in  55°  26'  N.  latitude,  103°  20'  W.  longitude. 
Below  it  there  is  a  remarkable  parallelism  in  the  courses  of 
Churchill  and  Saskatchewan  rivers,  both  streams  inclining  to  the 
northeast  in  their  passage  through  the  "  intermediate  primitive 
range,"  the  district  from  whence  they  receive  lateral  supplies  be- 
ing at  the  same  time  very  greatly  narrowed.  Several  other  con- 
siderable streams  run  near  them,  and  parallel  to  them,  but  do  not 
originate  so  far  to  the  westward.  In  their  widely  spreading  up- 
per branches,  and  their  restricted  trunks,  they  resemble  trees. 
As  they  are  not  separated  high  on  the  prairie  slopes  by  an  ele- 
vated water-shed,  they  may  be  considered,  in  reasoning  upon  the 
direction  of  the  force  which  excavated  their  basins,  as  one  great 
system,  having  an  eastern  direction  and  outlet,  interposed  between 
tho  Missouri  and  Mackenzie,  which  discharge  themselves  respect- 
ively into  southern  and  northern  seas. 

The  Churchill  River  is  the  boundary  between  the  Chepewyans 

*  The  Cree  term  Missinipi  signifies  "much  water,"  and  is  analogous  to 

iiat  of  Mississippi,  which  means  "great  river;"  nipi  being  water,  and 

ipi  river.     The  Canadians  call  it  English  River,  because  on  it  the  early 

lur-traders  from  Canada  encountered  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  people 

ascending  from  their  principal  depot  at  Fort  Churchill. 

t  About  forty  years  ago,  in  a  season  remembered  especially  for  the  land- 
floods,  a  gentleman  was  drowned  on  the  Frog  Portage,  by  his  canoe  over- 
setting against  a  tree,  as  he  was  passing  from  Churchill  River. 


i 


i 


MI8SINIP1  OR  CHURCHILL   RIVER. 


6S 


rans 

lis  to 
J  and 
karly 
[ople 

md- 
»ver- 


^ 


and  Crees,  but  a  few  of  the  latter  frequent  its  borders,  resorting 
to  Lac  la  Rouge  and  hla  a  la  Crosse  posts,  along  with  the  Che- 
pewyans,  for  their  supplies. 

On  June  the  19th,  a  fog  detained  us  at  our  encampment  to  a 
later  hour  than  usual ;  when  being  unwilling  to  lose  all  the  morn- 
ing, we  went  some  distance  in  the  thick  weather  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  post-master,  who  was  acquainted  with  every  rock  in 
the  neighborhood.  As  the  sun  rose  higher  the  atmosphere  cleared, 
and  we  ascended  the  Great  Rapid  by  its  southern  channel,  mak- 
ing a  portage  part  of  the  way,  and  poling  up  the  remainder.  A 
recent  grave  with  its  wooden  cross,  marked  the  burial-place  of  one 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  servants,  who  was  drowned  here 
last  year.     His  body  was  thrown  out  a  little  below  the  rapid. 

We  next  crossed  the  Rapid  lightening-place,  and  afterward 
mounted  four  several  rapids,  connected  with  the  Barrel  Portage. 
In  the  afternoon  the  Island  Portage  was  made,  where  the  river, 
being  pent  in  for  a  short  space  between  high,  even,  rocky  banks, 
is  there  only  five  or  six  hundred  yards  wide,  and  has  a  strong  cur- 
rent, requiring  much  exertion  from  the  canoe-men  in  paddling 
round  the  headlands.  Elsewhere,  except  at  the  rapids  during 
this  day's  voyage,  Churchill  River  has  more  the  character  of  a 
lake.  In  the  evening  we  crossed  the  portage  of  the  Rapid  River, 
one  hundred  and  sixty  paces  long,  which  has  its  name  from  a 
tributary  stream  on  which  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  a 
post,  that  is  visible  from  the  canoe-route.  Afterward  we  passed 
the  lightening-place  of  the  Rapid  River,  and  encamped  five  or 
six  miles  further  on,  at  half-past  eight  o'clock. 

Our  Iroquois,  being  tired  with  the  day's  journey,  and  longing 
for  a  fair  wind  to  ease  their  arms,  frequently,  in  the  course  of  the 
afternoon,  scattered  a  little  water  from  the  blades  of  their  pad- 
dles as  an  offering  to  La  Vieille,  who  presides  over  the  winds. 
The  Canadian  voyagers,  ever  ready  to  adopt  the  Indian  supersti- 
tions, often  resort  to  the  same  practice,  though  it  is  probable  that 
they  give  only  partial  credence  to  it.  Formerly  the  English  ship- 
men,  on  their  way  to  the  White  Sea,  landed  regularly  in  Lap- 
land to  purchase  a  wind  from  the  witches  residing  near  North 
Cape ;  and  the  rudeness  and  fears  of  Frobisher's  companions  in 
plucking  off  the  boots  or  trowsers  of  a  poor  old  Eskimo  woman  on 
the  Labrador  coast,  to  see  if  her  feet  were  cloven,  will  be  remem- 
bered by  readers  of  Arctic  voyages. 


CHURCHlLIi   RIVER. 


I 


Thoughout  the  duy's  voyage,  the  primitive  formation  continued 
In  several  places  we  observed  micaceous  slate,  traversf  d  by  large 
veins  of  granite,  and  alternating  with  beds  of  the  same,  also  gneiss 
in  thick  beds,  with  its  layers  much  contorted.  Below  the  Great 
Rapid  there  are  many  blufT  granite  rocks,  and  some  precipices 
thirty  or  forty  leet  high,  the  higher  knolls  rising  probably  from 
two  to  three  hundred  feet  above  the  water.  At  the  Great  Rapid 
a  greenstone-slate  stained  with  iron  occurs.  At  the  Barrel  Port- 
age, a  mile  or  two  further  on,  where  the  river  makes  a  sharp 
bend,  beds  of  chlorite-slate  occupy  its  channel  for  two  miles,  hav- 
ing a  northeast  and  southwest  strike,  and  a  southerly  dip  of  60° 
or  70°.  Beds  of  greenstone-slate  are  interlf  aved  with  it.  Above 
the  Island  Portage  a  sienite  occurs  which  contains  an  imbedded 
mineral ;  and  at  the  Rapid  River  Portage,  mica-slate,  passing 
into  gneiss,  prevails,  the  beds  having  a  southwest  and  northeast 
strike.  The  granite  veins  here  have  a  general  direction  nearly 
coincident  with  that  of  the  beds,  but  they  are  waved  up  and 
down.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  veins  the  layers  of  slate  are  much 
contorted,  following  the  curvatures  of  the  veins  closely.  At  the 
lightening-place  of  the  Rapid  River,  there  is  a  fine  precipice  of 
granite  fifty  feet  high,  which  is  traversed  obliquely  from  top  to 
bottom  by  two  magnificent  veins  of  fl  3h-colored  porphyry-granite. 
Five  miles  further  on  there  are  precipices  of  granite  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  high. 

The  country  in  this  neighborhood  is  hilly,  and  a  few  miles 
back  froto  the  river  the  summits  of  the  eminences  appear  to  the 
eye  to  rise  four  hundred  or  perhaps  five  hundred  feet  above  the 
river.  The  resemblance  of  the  whole  district  to  Winipeg  River 
is  perfect,  and  the  general  ^spect  of  the  country  is  much  like  that 
of  the  north  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  though  the  water  basin  is 
not  so  deeply  excavated. 

An  hour  and  a  half  after  starting  on  the  morning  of  the  20th, 
we  crossed  the  Mountain  Portage,  one  hundred  paces  long,  where 
the  rock  is  horneblende-slate.  At  Little  Rock  Portage,  a  short 
way  further  on,  the  thin  slaty  beds  have  a  northeast  and  south- 
west strike.  Above  this,  a  dilatation  of  the  river,  named  Otter 
Lake,  leads  to  the  Otter  Portage,  of  three  hundred  paces,  made 
over  mica-slate.  The  beach  there  is  strewed  with  fragments  of 
a  crystalline  augitic  greenstone,  showing  that  that  rock  is  not  far 
distant. 


BLAi'K-BKAK   IHLANUB  LAKE. 


M 


From  a  party  of  Chepewyans  who  were  encamped  on  the  Otter 
Lake,  we  procuretl  a  fjuantity  of  a  small  white  root,  about  the 
thickneKS  of  a  ^ooho  quill,  which  had  an  aprceablo  nutty  flavor. 
1  ascertuiucd  that  it  was  the  root  of  the  Siunt  lincare.  The 
poisonous  roots  of  Cicuta  rirosa,  mnculata,  and  bulbffera,  are 
often  mistaken  for  the  edible  one,  and  have  proved  fatal  to  sev- 
eral laborers  in  the  Company's  service.  The  natives  distiiijruish 
the  proper  kit\d  by  the  last  year's  stem,  which  has  the  rays  of  its 
umbel  ribbed  or  anfrled,  while  the  Cicutce  have  round  and  smooth 
fiower-slalks.  When  the  plant  has  put  out  its  leaves  by  which 
it  is  most  easily  identified,  the  roots  lose  their  crispness  and  be- 
come woody.  The  edible  root  is  named  uskotask  by  the  Crees, 
and  queue  de  rat  by  the  Canadians.  The  poisonous  kinds  are 
called  manito-skatask,  and  by  the  voyagers  carrotte  de  Mweau, 
after  a  man  who  died  from  eating  them. 

The  Heuchcra  Ricliardsonii,  which  abounds  on  the  rocks  of 
this  river,  is  one  of  the  native  medicines,  its  astringent  root  being 
chewed  and  applied  as  a  vulnerary  to  wounds  and  sores.  Its 
Cree  name  is  ^wc/ip  quaoW'Utchepi.  The  leaves  of  the  Ledum 
palusfre  are  also  chewed  and  applied  to  burns,  which  are  said  to 
heal  rapidly  under  its  influence.  The  cake  of  chewed  leaves  is 
left  adhering  to  the  sore  until  it  falls  off. 

In  the  course  of  the  forenoon  we  ascended  four  rapids,  occasion- 
ing short  portages,  then  the  Great  Devil's  Portage,  of  fourteen 
hundred  paces ;  and  in  the  afternoon  several  other  rapids  were 
passed,  among  which  were  the  Steep  Bank,  Little  Rock,  and 
Trout  portages.  At  the  Steep  Bank  Portage  {Portage  de6 
JEcores),  which  is  one  hundred  and  sixty  paces  long,  gneiss  and 
mica-slate  occur  interleaved  irregularly  with  each  other,  and  in- 
tersected in  every  direction  by  reticulating  quartz  veins  ;  the  pre- 
vailing rock  in  the  neighborhood  being  gneiss,  and  the  hills  low 
and  barren. 

June  21st. — Soon  after  starting  we  crossed  the  Thicket  Port- 
age {Portage  des  Haliers)  of  three  hunded  and  sixty  paces,  and 
entered  Black-bear  Islands  Lake,  a  very  irregular  piece  of  water, 
intersected  by  long  promontories  and  clusters  of  islands.  After 
four  hours*  paddling  therein  we  came  to  a  rapid,  considered  by 
the  guide  as  the  middle  of  the  lake ;  in  three  hours  more  we 
came  to  another  strong  rapid,  and  after  another  three  hours  to 
the  Broken-Canoe  Portage,  which  is  at  the  upper  end  of  this 


i 


60 


THE  ATHABASCA    BRIOAP£.-HNAKB  KIVER. 


dilatation  of  the  river.  Granite  is  the  prevailing  rock  in  the 
lake,  uud  one  ol'  the  small  islands  consists  of  large  balls  of  that 
stone,  piled  on  each  other  like  cannon  shot  in  an  arsenal.  They 
might  bo  taken  for  boulders  wore  they  not  heaped  up  in  a  conical 
form  and  all  of  one  kind  of  stone  ;  and  they  have  obviously  re- 
ceived their  present  form  by  the  setter  parts  of  the  rock  having 
crumbled  and  fallen  away.  At  Thicket  Portage  and  the  lower 
end  of  the  lake,  the  granite  is  associated  with  greenstone  slate ; 
and  at  Broken-Canoe  Portage,  above  the  lake,  a  laminated  stone 
exists,  whose  vertical  layers  are  about  an  inch  think,  and  have  a 
north  and  south  strike,  being  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  ridges 
of  the  rock.  This  stone  is  composed  of  flesh-colored  quartz,  with 
thin  layers  of  duck-green  chlorite,  and  no  felspar.  It  ought  per- 
haps to  be  considered  as  a  variety  of  gneiss. 

Later  in  the  afternoon  we  came  to  the  Birch  and  Pin  Port- 
ages, on  the  last  of  which  we  encamped.  The  granite  rocks  here 
are  covered  by  a  high  bank  of  sand  and  gravel,  filled  with  boulders. 

June  22d. — Embarking  early,  we  passed  through  Sand-fiy 
Lake,  and  afterward  Serpent  Lake,  in  which  we  met  the  Atha- 
basca brigade  of  boats,  under  charge  of  Chief  Trader  Armitinger. 
This  gentleman  informed  us  that  he  met  Mr.  Bell  with  our  boats 
on  the  19th,  on  which  day  they  would  arrive  at  Isle  a  la  Crosse. 
The  aspect  of  the  country  changes  suddenly  on  entering  these 
lakes.  The  rising  grounds  have  a  more  even  outline,  and  one 
long  low  range  rises  over  another,  as  the  country  recedes  from 
the  borders  of  the  water,  where  it  is  generally  low  and  swampy. 
The  trees  near  the  water  are  almost  exclusively  birch  and  bal- 
sam-poplar, or  aspen ;  the  spruce  firs  occupying  the  distant  ele- 
vations, which  are  generally  long  round-backed  hills,  with  a  few 
short  conical  bluffs.  Serpent  Lake  is  named  from  the  occurrence 
on  its  shores  of  a  small  snake.*  I  was  not  able  to  learn  that 
this  or  any  other  snake  had  been  detected  further  to  the  north. 
Having  passed  a  high  sand-bank  on  the  north  side  of  Serpent 
Lake,  six  miles  further  on,  we  entered  the  Snake  River,  within 
the  mouth  of  which  there  is  a  bank  of  loam,  sand,  and  rolled 
stones,  thirty-five  feet  high.  The  bed  of  the  stream  is  lined  with 
these  stones,  and  its  width  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Rainy  River. 
The  rocky  points,  as  seen  from  the  canoe,  appeared  to  be  of  gran- 
ite. All  the  boulders  that  I  examined  were  of  a  dull  brownish- 
♦   Coluber  or  Tropidinotus  sirtalis. 


$ 


I; 


BULLrDOG  PLY.-PRIMIiAU'S  LAKE. 


r.7 


red,  striped  or  laminated  granite,  which,  on  a  cursory  inspiu'ii  n, 
might  be  tiiistukeri  lot  suudstune.  Boulders  uf  tiie  huhh*  kiiid 
occur  at  the  Ssuuke  Rapid,  wliore  they  arc  intermixed  with  a  Kw 
pieces  of  hornblende  rock. 

June  2',kl. — The  musquitocs  were  exceedingly  numerous  and 
troublesome  during  the  night  and  this  morning.  Our  route  lay 
through  Sandy  Lake  and  Gragsy  River,  where  the  country  re- 
tains the  same  general  aspect  that  it  has  on  8and-fly  and  Ser- 
pent Lakes,  and  where  the  prevailing  rock  is  a  brownish-red, 
fine-grained  sienite,  resembling  a  sandstone.  The  same  rock 
abounds  in  Knee  Lake,  where,  however,  we  saw,  for  the  first 
time  since  leaving  the  souih  end  of  Lake  Winipeg,  fragments  of 
white  quartzose  sandstone ;  but  did  not  find  the  stone  in  situ. 
The  sienite,  when  traced,  is  found  to  pass  into  hornblendic  gran- 
ite, by  the  addition  of  scales  of  mica  to  some  parts  of  the  same 
beds.  The  high  banks  of  Ku.  3  Rapid  consitit  of  sai'dy  loam 
crammed  with  boulders. 

The  Tabanus,  named  by  the  voyagers  Bull-dog,"  has  been 
common  for  two  days.  The  current  notion  is,  tl  .*t  thif*  fly  cuts 
a  piece  of  flesh  from  his  victim,  and  at  first  sip-bi  .here  seems  to 
be  truth  in  the  opinion.  The  fly  alights  on  thu  hands  or  face  so 
gently  that  if  not  seen  he  is  scarcely  ic;  until  he  Tt::;Kes  his 
wound,  which  produces  a  stinging  sen^^ation  as  if  the  skin  ha.\ 
been  touched  by  a  live  coal.  The  hand  is  quickly  raised  towaid 
the  spot,  and  the  insect  flies  ofl'.  A  drop  of  blood,  oozing  from 
the  puncture,  gives  it  the  appearance  of  a  gaping  wound,  and  the 
fly  is  supposed  lo  have  carried  off"  a  mov  cl  of  flesh.  In  fact,  the 
Tabaftus,  inserts  a  five-bladed  lancet,  makes  a  perforation  like  a 
leech-bite,  and,  introducing  his  flexible  proboscis,  proceeds  to  suck 
the  blood.  He  is,  however,  seldom  suffered  to  remain  at  his  re- 
past ;  unless,  as  in  our  case,  he  be  allowed  to  do  so,  that  his 
mode  of  proceeding  may  be  :i;-pected.  These  Tabani  are  trou- 
blesome only  toward  noon  nhd  in  a  bright  sun,  when  the  heat 
beats  down  the  rnusquitoes.*' 

In  the  afternoon  we  passed  through  Primeau's  Lake,  having 
previously  ascende(^  ^'xi^ie  strong  and  bad  rapids.  At  the  middle 
turn  of  the  lake  a  moderately  high,  long,  and  nearly  level-topped 

*  Of  the  five  lancets  with  which  the  Tabanus  wounds  his  prey,  two  are 
broader  than  the  others.  They  are  inclosed  in  a  black,  hairy  sheath,  whose 
extremity  folds  back.     The  palpi  are  couico-cylindrical  and  tubular. 


68 


ISLE   A   LA  CROSBE    LAKE. 


hill  closes  the  transverse  vista.  The  channel  between  the  eastern 
and  western  portions  of  the  lake  winds  among  extensive  sandy 
flats,  covered  with  bents,  aijd  in  some  places  there  was  a  rich 
crop  of  grass  not  in  flower,  but  seemingly  a  Poa.  In  the  even- 
ing we  encamped  at  the  "  Portage  of  the  Exhausted,"  on  the 
river  between  Isle  a  la  Crosse  and  Primeau  Lakes.  The  rock 
here,  and  on  the  two  lakes  below  it,  is  the  brownish-red  slaty 
sienile  already  mentioned  ;  it  has  much  resemblance  to  a  rock  on 
Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  which  seemed  ther?  to  be  associated 
with  a  conglomerate.  The  brownish  color  belongs  to  the  felspar  ; 
a  vitreous  quartz  also  enters  into  its  composition,  and  a  little 
hornblende.  It  is  rather  easily  frangible,  and  has  a  flat,  some- 
what slaty  fracture. 

Two  hours  after  embarking  on  the  24th,  we  passed  the  Angle 
Rapid  (Rapide  cle  V Eqverre),  and  subsequently  the  Noisy 
[Rajyide  Sanaiite),  and  Saginaw  Rapids,  and  entered  the  small 
Saginaw  Lake,  which  we  crossed  in  half  an  hour.  At  various 
points  we  had  cursory  glances,  in  passing,  of  granite  forming  low 
rocks.  The  crooked  Rapid,  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  conducted  us 
to  Isle  a  la  Crosse  Lake.  In  traversing  twenty-three  geograph- 
ical miles  of  this  lake,  we  disturbed  many  bands  of  pelicans, 
which  were  swimming  on  the  water,  or  seated  on  rocky  shoals, 
in  AocIk  numbering  forty  or  fifty  birds.  On  the  shores  there  are 
fragments  of  a  white  quartzose  sandstone,  but  I  noticed  no  lime- 
stone. The  country  consists  of  gravelly  plains,  having  a  coarse, 
sandy  soil,  and  numerous  imbedded  boulder  stones.  Shoals  form- 
ed by  accumulations  of  boulders,  are  common  in  the  lake,  and  in 
various  places  close  pavements  of  these  stones  are  surmounted  by 
sandy  clifls  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high.  The  bulk  of  the  boulders  be- 
longs to  the  brownish  glassy  sienite  mentioned  in  a  preceding  page. 

The  ^utmel-shaped  arm  named  Deep  River  {La  Riviere  Cre- 
2(se)  meets  the  northern  point  of  the  lake  at  an  acute  angle,  in- 
closing betwetii  it  and  Clear  Lake  a  triangular  peninsula.  Bea- 
ver River,  the  principal  feeder  of  the  lake,  flows  from  Green 
Lake,  which  lies  directly  to  the  southward,  near  the  valley  of 
the  Saskatchewan  in  the  54th  parallel  of  latitude.  The  winter 
path  from  Isle  a  la  Crosse  to  Carlton  House  ascends  this  river  to 
its  great  bend,  whence  it  leads  to  the  Saskatchewan  plams, 
through  an  undulating  country,  but  without  any  marked  acclivity. 
I  consider  it  probable,  therefore,  that  Isle  a  la  Crosse  Lake  and 


f 


LENGTH   OF   RIVERS.-BEAVER   RIVER. 


CM 


5 


Carlton  House  do  not  difier  more  than  two  hundred  feet  from 
each  other  in  their  height  above  the  sea.  The  altitude  of  the 
latter  I  have  judged  to  be  about  eleven  hundred  feet ;  and  Cap- 
tain Lefroy,  from  his  experiments  with  the  boiling  water  ther- 
mometer, assigns  an  elevation  of  thirteen  hundred  feet  to  the  former. 

Churchill  River,  disregarding  its  flexures,  has  a  course  to  the 
sea  from  Isle  a  la  Crosse  Fort,  of  five  hundred  and  twenty-five 
geographical  miles,  and  the  length  of  the  Saskatchewan  below 
Carlton  House  is  six  hundred  and  thirty  miles.  The  general 
descent  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  continent  to  Hudson's  Bay 
from  these  two  localities  may  be  reckoned  at  a  little  more  than 
two  feet  a  mile.  Further  to  the  westward,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Fort  George,  near  the  1 10th  meridian,  the  upper  branches  of  the 
Beaver  River  rise  from  the  very  banks  of  the  Saskatchewan. 

On  Beaver  River  the  strata  are  limestone,  and  a  line  drawn 
from  the  north  side  of  Lake  Winipeg,  to  the  south  side  of  Isle  k 
la  Crosse  Lake,  runs  about  north  58°  west,  and  touches  upon  the 
northern  edge  of  the  limestone  in  Beaver  Lake.  That  line  may 
therefore,  be  considered  as  representing  the  general  direction  of 
the  junction  of  the  limestone  with  the  primitive  rocks  in  this  dis- 
trict of  the  country.  Judging  from  relative  geographical  position 
and  mineralogical  resemblances,  the  north  part  of  Isle  a  la  Crosse 
Lake  belongs  to  a  similar  sandstone  deposit  with  that  which  skirts 
the  primitive  rocks  on  Lake  Superior — a  peculiar  looking  sienite 
being  connected  with  the  sandstone  in  both  localities.  From  its 
order  of  occurrence  the  limestone  of  Beaver  River  is  probably 
Silurian.  My  observations  were  too  limited  and  cursory  to  carry 
conviction,  even  to  my  own  mind,  on  these  points ;  the  circum- 
stances attending  the  several  journeys  I  have  made  through  these 
countries  having  prevented  me  from  obtaining  better  evidence. 
In  a  voyage  with  ulterior  objects  through  so  wide  an  extent  of 
territory,  and  with  so  short  a  traveling  season,  every  hour  is  of 
importance,  and  whoever  has  charge  of  a  party  must  show  that 
he  thinks  so,  otherwise  his  men  can  not  be  induced  to  keep  up 
their  exertions  for  sixteen  hours  a  day,  which  is  the  usual  period 
of  labor  in  summer  traveling.  Of  this  time  an  hour's  halt  is  al- 
lowed for  breakfast,  and  half  an  hour  for  dinner.  We  did  not 
reach  Isle  d  la  Crosse  Fort  till  half-past  nine  in  the  evening,  and 
then  learned  thit  Mr.  Bell  with  the  boats  was  four  days  in  ad- 
vance of  us. 


70 


ROMAN   CATHOLIC   MISSION. 


.T'U7ie  26th. — A  strong  gale  blowing  this  morning  detained  us 
at  the  post,  and  the  day  being  Sunday,  our  voyagers  went  to 
mass  at  the  Roman  Catholic  chapel,  distant  about  a  mile  from 
the  fort.  This  mission  was  established  in  1846  under  charge  of 
Monsieur  ha.  Fleche,  who  has  been  very  successful  in  gaining  the 
confidence  of  the  Indians,  and  gathering  a  considerable  number 
into  a  village  round  the  church.  In  the  course  of  the  day  I  re- 
ceived a  visit  from  Monsieur  La  Fleche  and  his  colleague  Mon- 
sieur Tasche.  They  are  both  intelligent,  well-informed  men,  and 
devoted  to  the  task  of  instructing  the  Indians  ;  but  the  revolution 
in  France  having  cut  off  the  funds  the  mission  obtained  from  that 
country,  its  progress  was  likely  to  be  impeded.  They  spoke 
thankfully  of  the  assistance  and  countenance  they  received  from 
the  gentlemen  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The  character 
they  gave  the  Chepewyans  for  honesty,  docility,  aptness  to  receive 
instruction,  and  attention  to  the  precepts  of  their  teachers,  was 
one  of  almost  unqualified  praise,  and  formed,  as  they  stated,  a 
strong  contrast  to  that  of  the  volatile  Crees.  They  have  already 
taught  many  of  their  pupils  here  to  read  and  write  a  stenographic 
syllabic  character,  first  used  by  the  late  Reverend  Mr.  Evans,  a 
Wesleyan  missionary,  formerly  resident  at  Norway  House,  but 
which  Monsieur  La  Fleche  has  adapted  to  the  Chepewyan  lan- 
guage. On  asking  this  gentleman  his  opinion  of  the  affinity  be- 
tween the  Cree  and  Chepewyan  tongues,  both  of  which  he  spoke 
fluently,  he  told  me  that  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  Chepe- 
wyan was  different,  the  words  short,  and  the  sounds  dissimilar, 
bearing  little  resemblance  to  the  soft,  flowing  compounds  of  the 
Cree  language. 

As  there  is  generally  some  difficulty  in  making  an  early  start 
from  a  fort,  we  moved  in  the  evening  to  the  point  of  the  bay,  that 
we  might  be  ready  to  take  advantage  of  the  first  favorable  mo- 
ment for  proceeding  on  our  voyage. 

June  26th. — We  embarked  before  3  a.m.,  but  a  strong  head- 
wmd  blowing,  we  could  proceed  only  by  creeping  along-shore 
under  shelter  of  the  projecting  points.  For  some  days  past  the 
water  has  been  •  >vered  with  the  pollen  of  the  spruce  fir,  and  to- 
day we  observed  that  it  was  thickly  spread  with  the  downy  seeds 
of  a  willow.  The  banks  of  Deep  River,  which  forms  the  dis- 
charge of  Buffalo  and  Clear  Lakes,  consist  of  gravel  and  sand 
containing  large  boulders,  principally  of  trap  and  primitive  rocks 


I'AXAHA    I.YNX.-MKTHY    RIVER. 


71 


" 


? 


The  eminences  rise  from  fifteen  to  forty  ieet  above  the  river,  and 
the  land-streams  have  cut  ravines  into  the  loose  soil,  the  whole 
being  well  covered  with  the  ordinary  trees  of  the  country.  This 
low  land  extends  to  Primeau  Lake  on  the  one  side,  and  Buffalo 
Lake  on  the  other.  The  beach,  especially  toward  the  openings 
of  Cross  and  Buffalo  Lakes,  is  strewed  with  fragments  of  quartz- 
ose  sanjstone,  mixed  with  some  pieces  of  light- red  freestone,  and 
many  boulders  of  earthy  greenstone,  chlorite-slate,  porphyritic 
greenstone  slate,  and  gneiss.  Neither  mica-slate  nor  limestone 
were  observed  among  them,  and  no  rocks  in  sihi.  Many  of  the 
bays  have  sandy  beaches.  The  Deep  River  has  little  current, 
except  where  it  issues  from  the  lakes. 

In  the  morning  a  Canada  lynx  was  observed  swimming  across 
a  strait,  where  the  distance  from  shore  to  shore  exceeded  a  mile. 
We  gave  chase,  and  killed  it  easily.  This  animal  is  often  seen 
in  the  water,  and  apparently  it  travels  more  in  the  summer  than 
any  other  beast  of  prey  in  this  country.  We  put  ashore  to  sup 
at  seven  in  the  evening,  at  a  point  in  Buffalo  Lake,  where  we 
found  evidences  of  the  boat  party  having  slept  there  a  night  or 
two  previously.  Being  desirous  of  overtaking  them  without  de- 
lay, we  immediately  resumed  our  voyage,  but  were  caught  in  the 
middle  of  the  lake  by  a  violent  thunder-storm,  accompanied  by 
strong  gusts  of  wind.  The  voyagers  were  alarmed,  and  pulled 
vigorously  for  the  eastern  shore,  on  which  we  landed  soon  after 
eleven.  The  shores  of  Bufliilo  Lake  are  generally  low  ;  but,  on 
the  west  side,  there  is  an  eminence  named  Grizzle  Bear  Hill, 
which  is  conspicuous  at  a  considerable  distance.  It  probably 
extends  in  a  northwest  direction  toward  the  plateau  of  Methy 
Portage  and  Clear-water  River.  The  valley  to  the  east  is  oc- 
cupied by  Methy,  Buffalo,  and  Clear  Lakes,  the  last  of  which  is 
said  to  have  extensive  arms. 

Embarking  at  daylight  on  the  27th,  we  crossed  the  remainder 
of  the  lake,  being  about  fourteen  miles,  and  entered  the  Methy 
River,  which  we  found  to  our  satisfaction  higher  than  usual ;  as 
in  so  shallow  a  stream  the  navigation  is  very  tedious  in  dry  sea- 
sons. The  watermarks  on  the  trees  skirting  the  river  showed 
that  the  water  had  fallen  at  least  five  feet,  since  the  spring  floods. 
The  musquitoes  are  more  numerous  in  seasons  of  high  water,  and 
this  year  was  no  exception  to  the  general  rule. 

At  the  Rapid  of  the  Tomb  {La  Cimetiere)  several  pitch  or 


7a 


MURRAIN    AMONG   HORSES.-BURBOT  OR  LA   LOCHE. 


red  pines  {Pinus  resinosa)  grow  intermixed  with  black  spruces, 
one  of  them  being  a  good-sized  tree.  This  is  the  most  northerly 
situation  in  which  I  saw  this  pine,  and  the  voyagers  believe  that 
it  does  not  grow  higher  than  the  River  Winipeg. 

An  Indian,  who  has  built  a  house  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
keeps  fifteen  or  twenty  horses,  which  he  lets  to  the  Company's 
men  on  Methy  Portage,  the  charge  being  "  a  skin,"  or  four  shil- 
lings, for  carrying  over  a  piece  of  goods  or  furs  weighing  ninety 
pounds.  From  him  we  received  the  very  unpleasant  intelligence, 
that  not  only  had  his  horses  died  of  murrain  last  autumn,  but 
that  all  the  Company's  stock  employed  on  the  portage  had  like- 
wise perished.  This  calamity  foreboded  a  detention  of  seven  or 
eight  days  longer  on  the  portage  than  we  expected,  and  a  conse- 
quent reduction  of  the  limited  time  we  had  calculated  upon  for 
our  sea-voyage.  I  had  used  every  exertion  to  reach  the  sea-coast 
some  days  before  the  appointed  time,  expecting  to  be  able  to  ex- 
amine Wollaston's  Land  this  season ; — this  hope  was  now  almost 
extinguished.  Another  stock  of  horses  had  been  ordered  from  the 
Saskatchewan,  but  they  were  not  likely  to  arrive  till  the  summei 
was  well  advanced. 

Methy  River  flows  through  a  low,  swampy  countr)',  of  w^hich 
a  large  portion  is  a  peat  moss.  Some  sandy  banks  occur  here 
and  there ;  and  boulders  are  scattered  over  the  surface,  and  line 
the  bed  of  the  stream.  We  encamped  on  the  driest  spot  we  could 
And,  and  had  to  sustain  the  unintermitting  attacks  of  myriads  of 
musquitoes  all  night. 

The  Methy  River,  Lake,  and  Portage,  are  named  from  the 
Cree  designation  of  the  Burbot  {Lota  maculosa),  {La  Loche  of 
the  Canadians),  which  abounds  in  these  waters,  and  often  sup- 
plies a  poor  and  watery  food  to  voyagers  whose  provisions  are 
exhausted.  Though  the  fish  is  less  prized  than  any  other  in  the 
country,  its  roe  is  one  of  the  best,  and,  with  a  small  addition  of 
flour,  makes  a  palatable  and  very  nourishing  bread. 

Four  hours'  paddling  brought  us,  early  on  the  28th,  to  the 
head  of  the  river,  and  two  hours  more  enabled  us  to  cross  to  the 
eastern  side  of  Methy  Lake,  where  we  were  compelled  to  put 
ashore  by  a  strong  headwind.  A  female  mink  ( Vison  lutreola) 
was  killed  as  it  was  crossing  a  bay  of  the  lake.  It  had  eight 
swollen  teats,  and  its  udder  contained  milk  ;  so  that  probably  its 
death  insured  that  of  a  young  progeny  also.     The  feet  of  this 


' 


MR.  BELL  AND  HIS  PARTY.— TRANSPORT  OF  BAGGAGE. 


73 


;he 
of 


• 


its 
his 


little  amphibious  animal  are  webbed  for  half  the  length  of  its 
toes.  It  is  the  Sltakice&heio  or  Atjakashcw  of  the  Crees,  the 
"  Mink"  of  the  fur-traders,  and  the  Foutereau  of  the  Canadians. 

In  the  evening,  the  wind  having  decreased,  we  paddled  under 
shelter  of  the  western  shore  to  the  upper  end  of  the  lake,  and 
entered  the  small  creek  which  leads  to  the  portage. 

Mr.  Bell  was  encamped  at  the  landing-place,  having  arrived 
on  the  previous  day,  which  he  had  spent  in  preparing  and  dis- 
tributing the  loads,  and  the  party  had  advanced  one  stage  of 
different  lengths,  according  to  the  carrying  powers  of  the  individ- 
uals, which  were  very  unequal.  On  visiting  the  men,  1  found  two 
of  the  sappers  and  miners  lame  from  the  fatigue  of  crossing  the 
numerous  carrying-places  on  Churchill  River,  and  unfit  for  any 
labor  on  this  long  portage.  Several  others  appeared  feeble ;  and, 
judging  from  the  first  day's  work  of  the  party,  I  could  not  estimate 
the  time  that  would  be  occupied,  should  they  receive  no  help  in 
transporting  the  boats  and  stores,  at  less  than  a  fortnight,  which 
would  leave  us  with  little  prospect  of  completing  our  sea-voyage 
this  season.  In  the  equal  distribution  of  the  baggage  each  man 
had  five  pieces  of  ninety  pounds'  weight  each,  exclusive  of  his 
own  bedding  and  clothing,  and  of  the  boats,  with  their  masts, 
sails,  oars,  anchors,  &c.,  which  could  not  be  transported  in  fewer 
than  two  journeys  of  the  whole  party.  The  Canadian  voyagers 
carry  two  pieces  of  the  standard  weight  of  ninety  pounds  at  each 
trip  on  long  portages  such  as  this,  and,  in  shorter  ones,  often  a 
greater  load.  Several  of  our  Europeans  carried  only  one  piece  at 
a  time,  and  had,  consequently,  to  make  five  trips  with  their  share 
of  the  baggage,  besides  two  with  the  boats  ;  hence  they  were  un- 
able to  make  good  the  ordinary  day's  journey  of  two  miles,  being, 
at  seven  trips  with  the  return,  twenty-six  miles  of  walking,  four- 
teen of  them  with  a  load.  The  practiced  voyager,  on  the  con- 
trary, by  carrying  greater  loads,  can  reduce  the  walking  by  one- 
third,  and  some  of  them  by  fully  one-half* 

*  In  1825  Sir  John  Franklin  ascertained  the  position  of  the  first  rest- 
ing-place, after  leaving  Methy  Lake,  to  be  in  latitude  56°  36'  30"  N., 
longitude  109°  52'  54"  W.  By  carefully  pacing  the  distance  from  thence 
to  Methy  Lake,  I  found  it  to  be  1790  yards,  on  a  south  43°  25'  east 
bearing,  giving  22"  difference  of  latitude,  and  58"  of  longitude.  Hence 
the  east  end  of  the  portage  lies  in  latitude  56°  36'  08"  N.,  longitude  109° 
51'  56"  W. 

The  usual  encampment  by  the  tomb  on  the  south  side  of  the  Little  Lake 

0 


74  HAROMETRICAL  OnSERVATIONS. 

By  their  agreements,  our  canoe-Oien  were  at  liberty  to  return 
as  soon  as  we  overtook  the  boats ;  and,  in  that  case,  the  additional 
pieces  we  had  brought,  would,  of  course,  be  added  to  the  baggage 
of  the  boat  party ;  but  I  engaged  them  to  assist  us  during  the 
time  that  we  were  occupied  on  the  portage,  for  an  increase  of 
wages  of  four  shillings,  York  currency,  per  diem,  each. 

June  29th. — Our  canoe-men  were  early  astir  this  morning,  and, 
before  breakfast  time,  had  carried  all  the  cargo  of  the  canoes  to 
the  banks  of  a  small  lake,  being  two-thirds  of  the  whole  portage, 
or  16,724  paces :  the  entire  distance  from  Methy  Lake  to  Clear- 
water River  is  24,593  paces. 

By  observations  with  the  aneroid  and  Delcros'  barometers,  I 
ascertained  that  the  Little  Lake  was  elevated  twenty-two  feet 
above  Methy  Lake ;  that  the  highest  part  of  the  pathway  be- 
tween the  Little  Lake  and  the  Clear-water  River  rises  above  the 
latter  six  hundred  and  fifty-six  feet,  but,  above  Methy  Lake,  only 
sixty-six  feet.  The  Cockscomb,  or  the  crest  of  the  precipitous 
brow  which  overlooks  the  magnificent  valley  of  the  Clear- water, 
is  twenty-two  feet  lower  than  the  summit  of  the  path,  or  six  hun- 
dred and  thirty-four  feet  above  the  last-named  river.  The  port- 
is  in  latitude  56°  40'  17"  N.,  longitude  109°  57'  54"  W.,  and  the  north 
end  of  the  path  on  the  banks  of  the  Clear-water  River  is  in  56°  42'  51" 
N.,  109°  59'  08"  W.  The  direct  distance  from  one  end  of  the  portage 
to  the  other  is  therefore  only  7^  geographical  miles  in  a  north  27°  west 
course;  while  the  paces,  reduced  to  yards  at  the  rate  of  23 feet  to  every 
10  paces  (which  I  found  after  several  trials  to  be  the  average),  are  18,855, 
or  10"7  statute  miles. 

I  subjoin  the  voyagers'  names  for  the  several  resting-places  on  the  port- 
age, premising,  however,  that  the  halting-places  vary  both  in  number  and 
position  with  the  loads  and  strength  of  the  carriers,  and  that  the  names 
are  often  transposed. 

Methy  Lake  (Lac  la  Loche). 

Thence  to  Petit  Vieux 2557  paces. 

"         Fontaine  du  Sable 3171      " 

"         La  Vicille 4591      " 

"         Bon  Homme  ou  de  Cypres 3167     " 

"         Petit  Lac 3238     " 

"         Dc  Cypres  ou  La  Vieux 4302     " 

"         La  Crete 1283     " 

"         Descente  de  la  Crete 1984     " 

"         La  Prairie 300     " 

24,593     '• 


ELEVATION  OP  METHY  LAKE. 


75 


(. 


age-road  is,  in  fact,  nearly  level ;  the  inequalities  being  of  small 
account  as  far  as  to  the  sudden  descent  of  the  Cockscomb.  In 
the  sandy  soil  there  are  many  fragments  of  sandstone,  a  few  of 
limestone,  and  scattered  boulders  of  granites,  sienites,  and  green- 
stones. The  deposit  of  sand  is  about  six  hundred  feet  deep,  and 
most  probably  incloses  solid  beds  of  sandstone.  It  is  based  on  a 
(Devonian  ?)  limestone,  which  lines  the  whole  bed  of  the  Clear- 
water River,  till  its  junction  with  the  Elk  River,  as  I  shall  here- 
after mention.* 

Captain  Lefroy  assigns  fifteen  hundred  feet  as  the  elevation  of 
the  surface  of  Methy  Lake  above  the  sea.t  and,  from  various  esti- 

*  Ab  the  Cockscomb  is  under  the  level  of  the  brow  of  the  valley,  the 
depth  of  sand  may  be  more  than  600  feet  at  i'ts  highest  points. 

t  The  exact  height  assigned  by  Captain  Lefroy  to  Methy  Lake  is  1540 
feet,  which  I  have  reduced  in  the  text  to  the  even  number  of  1500,  as 
agreeing  better  with  my  own  estimates.  If  this  be  nearly  correct,  Captain 
Lefroy  gives  too  small  an  altitude  to  Isle  a  la  Crosse  Lake,  since  the  route 
from  thence  to  the  portaga  is  chiefly  lake-way ;  and  the  Methy  River  can 
not  have  a  descent  of  240  feet,  which  lus  altitudes  would  assign  to  it. 

In  the  year  1848, 1  made  several  observations  with  the  aneroid  on  Methy 
Portage  to  ascertain  its  levels,  but  they  were  neither  so  carefully  made  nor 
so  extensive  as  they  would  have  been,  had  I  been  less  anxiously  and  con- 
stantly employed  about  the  transport  of  the  goods  and  boat.  The  error  in 
this  case  is  not,  however,  likely  to  be  many  feet,  as  the  portage  is  evident- 
ly very  nearly  level  as  far  as  the  Cockscomb.  The  height  of  the  latter  was 
ascertained  on  July  27,  1849,  by  Delcros'  barometer,  the  observations  be- 
ing as  follows : 


Six  feet  above  Clear- 
water River 

Hour. 
A.M. 

Belcros* 

barom. 

Millimr. 

-f  0-34 

cor.  for 

general 

error. 

Red.  to 

Eng. 
inches. 

Red  to 
temp.  32" 

Att.  T 
Centr. 

herm. 
rah. 

net 

Th. 

h.  m. 
4    0 
4  46 
520 

72-719 
71-079 
72-740 

72-753 
71-113 

72-774 

28-644 
27-998 
28-652 

28-606 
27-944 
28-591 

6-4 
10-2 
114 

435 
50-4 
525 

40-8 
50-9 
51-0 

Two  feet  above  Cocks- 
comb  

Six  feet  above  Clear- 
water River 

These  furnish  two  sets  for  calculation. 

The  first  giving  a  height  of 640  feet. 

And  the  second  of 632    " 

The  aneroid  barometer  in  1848,  gave 631    " 

Mean 634    " 

Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie  estimated  this  declivity  at  1000  feet,  Lieuten- 
ant Hood  at  900  feet,  both  judging  merely  from  the  eye  and  time  em- 
ployed in  its  descent. 


76 


RETURN  OF  THE  CANOE-MEN. 


mates  of  the  rate  of  descent  of  Mackenzie  River  and  its  feeders,  I 
am  inclined,  independent  of  his  calculations,  to  consider  the  Clear- 
water River  at  Methy  Portage,  to  be  nine  hundred  feet  above  the 
sea,  which  accords  well  with  his  conclusions  ;  since  the  difference 
of  level  between  Methy  Lake  and  Clear-water  River  being  five 
hundred  and  ninety  feet  by  my  barometrical  observations,  the 
latter  would  be  nine  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  sea  by  his 
data. 

On  the  3d  of  July,  the  whole  of  the  baggage  and  the  boats 
were  brought  to  the  banks  of  the  Little  Lake  ;  and  on  the  Gth, 
every  thing  having  been  carried  over  to  Clear- water  River  on  the 
preceding  evening,  we  descended  from  the  Cockscomb,  where  we 
had  remained  encamped  for  two  days,  that  we  might  avoid  the 
musquitoes  which  infested  the  low  grounds.  While  the  boats 
were  loading,  we  took  leave  of  our  canoe-men,  who  returned  to 
Canada,  and  at  half-past  eight,  a.m.,  we  pushed  off. 

The  portage  occupied  nine  days  from  the  time  of  Mr.  Bell's 
arrival ;  but,  with  the  assistance  of  horses,  we  could  have  passed 
it  easily  in  three,  and  saved  nearly  a  week  of  summer  weather, 
most  important  for  our  future  operations,  besides  husbanding  the 
strength  of  the  men.  The  transport  of  the  four  boats,  being  made 
on  the  men's  shoulders,  employed  two  days  and  a  half  of  our  time. 


iH 


CHAPTER    IV. 


L 


Clear-water  River. — Valley  of  the  Washakummow. — Portages. — Limestone  Cliffs 
— Shale. — Elk,  or  Athahasca  River. — Wapiti. — Devonian  Strata. — Geological 
structure  of  the  hanks  of  the  River. — Athabasca  Lake,  or  Lake  of  the  Hiils.^ 
Meet  Mr.  M'Pherson  with  the  Mackenzie  River  Brigade. — Send  home  Letters. 
— L'Esperance's  Brigade. — Fort  Chepewyan. — Height  of  Lake  Athabasca  above 
the  Sea. — Rocks. — Plumbago. — Forest  Scenery. — Slave  River. — Reindeer  Is- 
lands.— Portages. — Native  Remedies. — Separate  from  Mr  Bell  ui.d  his  Party. 

It  is  probable  that  the  sands  of  this  district  and  the  adjacent 
limestones,  belong  to  the  Erie  division  of  the  New  York  system  of 
rocks,  considered  by  the  United  States  geologists  to  be  an  upper 
member  of  the  silurian  system,  but,  by  various  English  naturalists, 
to  be  rather  part  of  the  Devonian,  or  of  the  carboniferous  series. 

The  valley  of  the  Clear-water  River,  or  Washakummow,  as  it 
is  termed  by  the  Crees,  is  not  excelled,  or  indeed  equaled,  by  any 
that  I  have  seen  in  America  for  beauty ;  and  the  reader  may  ob- 
tain a  correct  notion  of  its  general  character  by  turning  to  an 
engraving  in  the  narrative  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  second  Over- 
land Journey,  executed  from  a  drawing  of  Sir  George  Back's. 
The  view  from  the  Cockscomb  extends  thirty  or  forty  miles,  and 
discloses,  in  beautiful  perspective,  a  succession  of  steep,  well- 
wooded  ridges  descending  on  each  side  from  the  lofty  brows  of  the 
valley  to  the  borders  of  the  clear  stream  which  meanders  along 
the  bottom.  Cliffs  of  light-colored  sand  occasionally  show  them- 
selves, and  near  the  water  limestone  rocks  are  almost  every  where 
discoverable.  The  Pi?tus  banksiana  occupies  most  of  the  dry 
sandy  levels  ;  the  white  spruce,  balsam  fir,  larch,  poplar,  and 
birch  are  also  abundant ;  and,  among  the  shrubs,  the  Amelanchier, 
several  cherries,  the  silver-foliaged  Eleag7ius  argentea,  and  rusty- 
leaved  Hipjjophde  catiadensis  are  the  most  conspicuous. 

At  the  portage,  the  immediate  borders  of  the  stream  are  formed 
of  alluvial  sand  ;  but  six  or  seven  miles  below,  limestone  in  thin, 
slaty  beds  crops  out  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and,  to  the  left, 
forms  cliffs  twenty  feet  high.  A  short  way  further  down  an  iso- 
lated pillar  of  limestone  in  the  same  thin  layers  rises  out  of  the 


n 


PINE  PORTAGE 


water ;  and  soon  after  passing  it,  we  come  to  the  White  Mud 
Portage  {Portage  de  Terre  blanche),  of  six  hundred  and  seventy 
pacoR,  where  the  stream  flow*?  over  beds  of  an  impure  siliceous 
limestone,  in  some  parts  meriting  the  appellation  of  a  calcareous 
sandstone,  and,  for  the  most  part,  having  a  yellowish-gray  color. 
On  the  portage,  and  on  the  neighboring  islands  and  flats,  the 
limestone  stands  up  in  mural  precipices  and  thin  partitions,  like 
the  walls  of  a  ruined  city  ;  and  the  beholder  can  not  help  believ- 
ing that  the  rock  once  formed  a  barrier  at  this  strait,  when  the 
upper  part  of  the  river  must  have  been  one  long  lake.  The 
steep  sandy  slopes,  as  they  project  from  the  high  sides  of  the  val- 
ley, appear  as  if  they  had  not  only  beon  sculptured  by  torrents  of 
iiielted  snow  pouring  down  from  the  plateau  above  in  more  recent 
times,  but  that  they  had  been  previously  subject  to  the  currents 
and  eddies  of  a  lake.  If  such  was  the  case,  we  must  admit  that 
other  barriers  further  down  were  also  then  or  subsequently  car- 
ried away,  as  the  sides  of  the  valley  retain  their  peculiar  forms 
nearly  to  the  junction  of  the  stream  with  the  Elk  River.  I 
have  been  informed  that  the  country  extending  from  the  high 
bank  of  the  river  toward  Athabasca  Lake  is  a  wooded,  sandy 
plain,  abounding  in  bison  and  other  game. 

In  the  evening  we  cucamped  on  the  Pine  Portage  {Portage 
des  Pins),  which  is  one  thousand  paces  long.  The  name  would 
indicate  that  the  Pimis  rcsi?iosa  grows  there ;  but,  if  so,  I  did 
not  observe  it,  the  chief  tree  near  the  path  being  the  Pinus  ba?ik- 
siana,  named  Cypres  by  the  voyagers.  A  very  dwarf  cherry 
grows  at  the  same  place  ;  it  resembles  a  decumbent  willow,  and 
is  probably  the  Cerasus  pumila  of  Michaux.  This  is  the  most 
northern  locality  in  which  it,  and  the  Hudsonia  ericoides,  which 
was  flowering  freely  at  this  time,  were  observed.  The  Lonicera 
parvijlora  was  also  showing  a  profusion  of  fragrant,  rich,  yellow 
flowers,  tinged  with  red  on  the  ends  of  the  petals,  especially  be- 
fore they  expand  ;  and  on  this  day  we  gathered  ripe  strawberries 
for  the  first  time  in  the  season. 

July  1th. — The  Pine  Portage  was  completed  in  the  morning, 
and  an  hour  later  we  crossed  the  Bigstone  Portage  of  six  hundred 
paces.  Afterward  we  passed  the  Nurse  Portage  {Portage  de 
Bonne),  of  two  thousand  six  hundred  and  ten  paces  ;  the  Cas- 
cade Portage,  of  one  thousand  three  hundred  and  eighty ;  and 
encamped  on  the  Portage  of  the  Woods,  two  thousand  three  hun- 


I 


EtULriltllEOL'S    m'UlMJd. 


70 


L 


I 


dred  and  fifty  paces  loag ;  where  two  of  our  boats  wcro  broken. 
At  this  place,  and  on  many  other  parts  of  the  river,  smooth 
granite  boulders  line  the  beach.  The  strata  in  situ  are  lime- 
stone covered  by  thick  beds  of  sand. 

Jtth/  8th. — The  boats  having  been  repaired  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, we  embarked  at  half-past  six,  and  at  eight  came  to  a  sul- 
phureous spring,  which  issues  from  the  hmestone  on  the  bank  of 
the  river.  Its  channel  is  lined  with  a  snow-white  incrustation, 
the  taste  of  the  water  is  moderately  saline  and  sulphureous,  and, 
from  its  coolness,  rather  agreeable  than  otherwise :  it  had  a  slight 
odor  of  sulphureted  hydrogen.  Here  I  obtained  specimens  of  a 
terrebratulite  ( T.  reticularis). 

In  the  afternoon  wo  passed  the  moulh  of  an  afllucut  named 
the  Pembina,  from  the  occurrence  of  the  Viburnum  cdulc  on  its 
banks.  I  did  not  observe  the  fruit  of  this  bush  further  north 
than  Winipeg  Iliver,  but  I  was  assured  that  it  grew  in  various 
localities  up  to  the  Clear-water,  beyond  which  it  has  not  been 
detected.  It  is  distinguished  as  a  species  from  the  very  common 
cranberry  tree,  or  mooseberry  {MongsiJa  oncoia  of  the  Crees),  by 
the  obtuse  sinuses  of  its  leaves ;  and  its  fruit  has  an  orange  color, 
is  less  acid,  more  fleshy,  and  more  agreeable  to  the  taste.  There 
is  a  rapid  in  Clear-water  River  just  above  the  Pembina,  where 
a  section  of  the  north  bank  is  exposed ;  and  I*  regretted  that  I 
had  not  leisure  to  examine  it.  As  seen  from  the  boat  in  passing, 
it  appeared  to  be  formed  of  sandstone  at  the  base,  then  of  sand, 
and  high  up  of  shale  or  sandstone  in  thin  layers.  Three  miles 
further  down  a  cliff  on  the  south  side,  about  twenty  feet  high,  is 
composed  of  an  impure  limestone,  in  very  thin  layers,  capped  by 
a  more  compact,  cream-yellow  limestone.  The  sun  was  intense- 
ly hot  this  day,  and,  dreading  the  musquitoes,  we  avoided  the 
bushy  banks  of  the  river,  and  encamped  on  an  open  sand-flat,  but 
did  not  thereby  gain  immunity,  for  've  were  assailed  by  myriads 
during  the  whole  night,  a  heavy  rain  having  driven  them  into 
the  tents.  The  species  that  now  infested  us  had  a  light  brown 
color.  Each  kind  remains  in  force  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks, 
and  is  succeeded  by  another  more  bitter  than  itself. 

The  Dog-bane  and  Indian  hemp  {Apocynum  androscemifolium 
and  hypericifolium)  grow  luxuriantly  on  the  sandy  banks  of  this 
river.  They  abound  in  a  milky  juice,  which,  when  applied  to 
the  skin,  produces  a  troublesome  eruption.     The  voyagers,  by 


•0  ELK   OR   ATilAHAHCA    IIIVRR. 

lying  down  incautiously  utnong  these  plants  at  night,  or  walking 
among  them  with  naked  legs,  often  sufier  from  the  irritation, 
which  resembles  flea-bites;  hence  they  designate  the  plant  herb 
a  la  puce.  The  second-named  species  grows  more  robustly  and 
erectly  than  the  other,  and  furnishes  the  natives  living  on  tho 
coast  of  the  Pacific  with  hemp,  out  of  which  they  form  strong 
and  durable  fishing  nets. 

July  9/h. — Three  miles  below  our  last  night's  encampment 
we  entered  the  Elk  or  Athabasca  River,  a  majestic  stream,  be- 
tween a  quarter  and  half  a  mile  wide,  with  a  considerable  cur- 
rent, but  without  rapids. 

Tho  lower  point  of  the  bank  of  the  Clear-water,  where  it  loses 
itself  in  the  Elk  River,  is  formed  of  limestone  strata,  covered  by 
a  thick  deposit  of  biluiniuous  shale,  which  is  probably  to  be  re- 
ferred to  the  Marcellus  shale  of  the  United  States  geologists.* 
The  shelving  clifTof  this  shale  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high 
or  upward,  and  is  capped  by  sand  or  diluvium.  The  high  clifft 
extend  for  two  or  three  miles  up  the  Clear-water  River,  above 
which  the  sandy  slopes  for  the  most  part  conceal  the  strata,  ex- 
cept at  the  water's  edge,  where  tho  limestone  crops  out.  Much 
of  this  limestone  has  a  concretionary  structure,  and  easily  breaks 
down.     Other  beds  are  more  compact. 

The  same  kinTl  of  limestone  forms  the  banks  of  Elk  or  Atha- 
basca River  for  thirty-six  miles  downward,  to  the  site  of  Berens' 
Fort,  now  abandoned.  The  beds  vary  in  structure,  the  concre- 
tionary form  rather  prevailing,  though  some  layers  are  more 
homogeneous,  and  others  are  stained  with  bitumen.  The  strata 
for  the  most  part  lie  evenly,  and  have  a  slight  dip,  but  in  several 
places  they  are  undulated,  and  in  one  or  two  localities  dislocated, 
though  I  did  not  observe  any  dykes  or  intruding  masses  of  trap 
rock. 

Among  the  organic  remains  obtained  from  the  beds  of  lime- 
stone at  the  water's  edge,  were  Producti,  Spirifers,  an  Orthis 
resembling  rcsuphiata,  Terebratula  reticularis,  and  a  Plcuroto- 
9?iaria,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Woodward  of  the  British 
Museum,  who  kindly  examined  the  specimens,  are  characteristic 
of  Devonian  strata.  In  the  following  season,  Mr.  Rae  picked  up 
from  the  beach  of  Clear-water  River  a  fine  Rhynchonella,  which 

*  Sec  Appeinlix  for  a  classification  of  the  rocks  of  tho  New  York  sys- 
tem.    The  Marcellus  shale  belongs  to  the  Erie  cliArision. 


Ui:Oh()UICAL  STIUJCTUUK  OF   IUVP.R'»  DANK. 


81 


retained  chestnut-colored  bands  on  the  shell.  The  occurronco 
of  colors  in  fossil  shells  of  so  ancient  an  epoch  is  very  rare.  'Vho 
specimen  has  been  deposited  in  the  British  Museum.  In  one  of 
tho  clilla  not  far  below  the  Clear-water  River,  the  indurated 
arenaceous  beds  resting  on  tho  limestone  contam  pretty  thick 
layers  of  lignite,  much  impregnated  with  bitumen,  which  has 
been  ascertained  by  Mr.  Bowerbank  to  bo  of  coniferous  origin, 
though  he  could  not  determine  the  genus  of  the  wood. 

Fourteen  or  fifteen  miles  below  the  junction  of  tho  Clear- water 
with  the  Elk  River  there  are  copious  springs  on  the  right  bank. 
They  rise  from  the  summit  of  an  eminence  among  tho  fragments 
of  a  ruined  shale  bank,  which  they  have  wholly  incrusted  with 
tufa.  This  incrustation,  analyzed  for  mo  by  Dr.  Fife  in  1823, 
was  found  to  bo  composed  principally  of  sulphate  of  lime  with  a 
slight  admixture  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  and  muriate  of  soila, 
and  with  sulphur  and  iron.  Below  this  there  is  a  fine  section  of 
a  bituminous  clifl'  from  one  hundred  and  twenty  to  one  hundred 
and  thirty  feet  high,  resting  on  limestone  whose  beds  are  inidu- 
lated  in  two  directions.  The  limestone  is  immediately  covered 
by  a  thin  stratum  of  a  yellowish-white  earth,  which,  from  the 
fineness  of  its  grain,  appears  at  first  sight  to  be  a  marl  or  clay. 
It  does  not,  however,  efiervesce  with  acids,  is  harsh  and  meagre, 
and,  when  examined  with  the  microscope,  is  seefi  to  be  chiefiy 
composed  of  minute  fragments  of  translucent  quartz,  with  a  gray- 
ish basis  in  Ibrm  of  an  impalpable  powder.  This  scam  follows 
the  undulations  of  the  limestone ;  but  the  beds  of  the  superin- 
cumbent bituminous  shale,  or  rather  of  sand  charged  with  slaggy 
mineral  pitch  are  horizontal. 

About  thirty  miles  below  the  Clear-water  River,  the  limestone 
beds  are  covered  by  a  bituminous  deposit  upward  of  one  hundred 
feet  thick,  whose  lower  member  is  a  conglomerate,  having  an 
earthy  basis  much  stained  with  iron  and  colored  by  bitumen. 
Many  small  grains  and  angular  fragments  of  transparent  and 
translucent  quartz  compose  a  large  part  of  the  conglomerate, 
which  also  contains  water-worn  pebbles  of  white,  green,  and 
otherwise  colored  quartz,  from  a  minute  size  up  to  that  of  a  hen's 
egg,  or  larger.  Pieces  of  greenstone,  and  nodules  of  clay-iron- 
stone, also  enter  into  the  composition  of  this  rock,  which,  in  some 
places,  is  rather  friable,  in  others,  possesses  much  hardness  and 
tenacity.     Some  of  the  beds  above  this  stone  are  nearly  plastic, 


82 


GKOLOGICAL  STKUCTUKE  OF  RIVER'S  BANK. 


from  the  quantity  of  mineral  pitch  they  contain.  Roots  of  living 
trees  and  herbaceous  plants  push  themselves  deep  into  beds  high- 
ly impregnated  with  bitumen ;  and  the  forest  where  that  mineral 
is  most  abundant  does  not  sufier  in  its  growth. 

The  shale  banks  are  discontinued  for  a  space  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Berens'  House,  where  thin  beds  of  limestone  come  to  the 
surface,  and  form  cJiffs  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high  at  the  water's 
edge. 

B^urther  down  the  river  still,  or  about  three  miles  below  the 
Red  River,  where  there  was  once  a  trading  establishment,  now 
remembered  as  La  vieux  Fort  ilc  la  Riviere  Rouge,  a  copious 
spring  of  mineral  pitch  issues  from  a  crevice  in  a  cliff  composed 
of  sand  and  bitumen.  It  lies  a  lew  hundred  yards  back  from 
the  river  in  the  middle  of  a  thick  v/ood.  Several  small  birds 
were  found  suffocated  in  the  pitch. 

Soon  after  passing  this  spot,  wo  saw  right  ahead,  but  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river,  a  ridge  of  lani  named  the  "  Bark  Mount- 
ain," looking  blue  in  the  distance,  being  fully  sixty  miles  off. 
From  its  name,  I  conclude  that  the  canoe  birch  abounds  on  it. 
It  is  the  length  of  a  spring  day's  march,  or  about  thirty  miles, 
distant  from  Fort  Chepewyaii ;  and  bison,  moose  deer,  and  other 
game,  are  said  to  resort  to  it  in  numbers. 

At  the  deserted  post  named  Pierre  au  Calumet,  cream-colored 
and  white  limestone  cliffs  are  covered  by  thick  beds  of  bitumin- 
ous sand.  Below  this  there  is  a  bituminous  cliff,  in  the  middle 
of  which  lies  a  thick  bed  of  the  same  white  earth  which  I  had 
seen  higher  up  the  river  in  contact  with  the  limestone,  and  fol- 
lowing the  undulations  of  its  surface. 

A  few  miles  fui-ther  on,  the  cliffs  for  some  distance  are  sandy, 
and  the  different  beds  contain  variable  quantiti-i  of  bitumen. 
Seme  of  the  lower  layers  were  so  full  of  that  mineral  as  to  soften 
in  the  hand,  while  the  upper  strata,  containing  lei:s,  were  so 
cemented  by  iron  as  to  form  a  firm  dark-brown  sandstone  of  much 
hardness.  The  cliff  is,  in  most  places,  capped  by  sand  contain- 
ing boulders  of  limestone.  One  very  bituminous  bed,  carefully 
examined  with  the  microscope,  was  found  to  consist,  in  addition 
to  the  bitumen,  of  small  grains  of  transparent  quartz,  unmixed 
with  other  rock,  but  inclosing  a  few  m'nute  fragments  of  the 
pearly  lining  of  a  shell.  A  similar  bed  in  another  locality  con- 
tained, besides  the  quartz,  many  scales  of  mica.     The  whole 


fol- 


ten 

so 

ich 

lin- 


ed 

he 

■on- 

)le 


I 


ELK  Oil  ATHABASCA  UlVEIl.-TllC  WAPITI. 


83 


T 


* 


country  for  many  miles  is  so  full  of  bitumen  that  it  flows  readily 
into  a  pit  dug  a  lew  feet  below  the  surface. 

In  no  place  did  I  observe  the  hmestone  alternating  with  these 
sandy  bituminous  beds,  but  in  several  localities  it  is  itself  highly 
bituminous,  contains  shells  filled  with  that  mineral,  and  when 
struck  yields  the  odor  o:'  Stinkstein.  It  is  probable  that  the 
■whole  belongs  to  the  same  formation,  but  I  do  not  possess  evidence 
of  the  facts  to  satisfy  a  geologist. 

The  rate  of  our  descent  of  the  Elk  River  must  this  day  have 
exceeded  six  geographical  miles  an  hour,  indicating  a  strong  cur- 
rent This  river,  named  also  the  Athabasca  or  Riviere  la  Bichc, 
rises  in  the  parallel  of  471°  north  latitude,  near  the  foot  of  Mount 
Brown,  a  peak  of  the  P^ocky  Mountains,  having  a  height  of  six- 
teen thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  course  in  a  straight  line  to 
the  influx  of  Clear-water  River  is  three  hundred  miles ;  bu*  the 
river  course,  including  its  windings,  must  be  more  than  one-lhird 
greater.  The  elevation  of  its  sources  is  probably  seven  or  eight 
thousand  feet.  Lesser  Slave  Lake,  situated  about  midway  be- 
tween its  origin  and  the  junction  above  mentioned,  lies,  according 
to  Captain  Lefroy,  eighteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  Some 
of  the  feeders  of  the  Oregon  spring  from  very  near  the  head  of 
the  Athabasca,  and  many  tributaries  of  the  Saskatchewan  arise 
not  far  to  the  southward.  It  is  the  most  southern  branch  of  tlic 
Mackenzie  ;  and  as  it  originates  further  from  the  mouth  of  that 
great  river  than  any  other  affluent,  it  may  be  considered  as  its 
source.  It  flows  partly  through  prairie  lands,  and  its  Canadian 
appellation  of  Riviere  la  Biche  indi^  tes  that  the  American  red- 
deer,  or  Wapiti,  frequents  its  banks.  Its  English  name  of  Elk 
River,  having  reference  to  the  moose  deer,  is  a  mistranslation  of 
the  Canadian  one,  and  is  also  inappropriate  as  a  distinctive  epi- 
thet, though  the  moose  grazes  on  its  banks,  as  well  as  on  the 
Mackenzie,  down  to  the  sea.  The  Wajnti  is  not  known  on 
Slave  River  or  Lake,  but  further  to  the  west  it  ranges  as  far 
north  as  the  east  branch  of  the  River  of  the  Mountains  near  the 
59th  parallel,  where  Mr.  Murdoch  M'Pherson  informs  me  that 
he  has  partaken  of  its  flesh.  From  the  Saskatchewan  and  Lesser 
Slave  Lake  the  country  can  be  traversed  by  horsemen  who  are 
sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  district  to  avoid  the  deep  ravines 
through  which  the  streams  flow.  By  this  route  a  band  of  horses 
were  brought  to  Methy  Portage  in  August,  1818,  though  they 


I 


»4 


MACKEN'/Ili  RIVKR  imUJADC. 


I 


Is 


were  too  much  exhausted  by  their  journey  to  be  of  service.  In 
1819  a  fine  body  ol'  upward  of  forty  horses  came  to  the  portage 
from  Lesser  Slave  Lake,  early  in  the  season  and  in  good  condition. 

Jul  If  10th. — Our  voyage  this  morning  was  impeded  by  a  strong 
head-wind,  followed  by  heavy  rain,  which  compelled  us  to  put 
ashore  lor  four  or  five  hours.  Wo  were  able  to  resume  our  route 
at  10  A.M.,  and  at  noon  we  came  to  high  sandy  banks  named 
IjCS  Ecorcs,  resembling  the  sandy  deposits  on  the  Clear-water 
River.  These  continue  down  to  the  alluvial  delta  formed  by  the 
four  or  five  branches  into  which  the  river  splits  before  entering 
the  Athabasca  Lake,  or  Lake  of  the  Hills. 

At  5,  r.M.,  we  arrived  at  the  head  of  this  delta,  and,  passing 
down  the  main  channel,  held  on  our  way  till  8  o'clock,  when  we 
landed  to  cook  supper,  and  then  re-embarked  to  drift  with  the 
current  during  the  night,  the  crews,  with  the  exception  of  the 
steersmen,  going  to  sleep  in  the  boats. 

Jubj  Wtli.  —  We  entered  Athabasca  Lake  at  three  in  the 
morning,  but  found,  to  our  mortification,  that  two  of  the  boats, 
through  the  inattention  of  the  steersmen,  had  taken  a  more  east- 
erly branch  of  the  river  in  the  night,  which  would  delay  their 
arrival  at  Fort  Chepewyan  for  some  hours,  and  consequently  be 
the  means  of  detaining  us  for  that  time. 

Immediately  on  emerging  from  the  river  we  saw  the  Macken- 
zie Iliver  brigade  of  boats  crossing  the  lake  toward  the  entrance 
of  the  Embarras  River,  lying  four  or  five  miles  to  the  westward 
of  the  branch  we  had  descended.  On  our  firing  guns  and  hoist- 
ing the  sails  and  ensigns,  we  were  perceived  by  the  officer  in 
charge  of  the  brigade,  Chief  Factor  Murdoch  M'Pherson,  who 
waited  till  we  joined  him.  From  this  gentleman  I  received  much 
useful  intelligence  of  the  measures  he  had  taken  for  supplying  the 
expedition  with  provisions  during  our  winter  residence  in  Fort 
Confidence,  at  the  north  end  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  and  also  a  list 
of  all  the  provisions  and  stores  remaining  at  Fort  Simpson,  the 
Company's  chief  post  and  depot  on  the  Mackenzie;  and  I  have 
l)leasure  in  acknowledging  here,  that  I  am  indebted  to  him  for 
umch  valuable  assistance,  as  well  as  for  very  many  acts  of  per- 
sonal kindness. 

To  him  we  committed  the  last  letters  that  we  could  ser.d  to 
our  families  and  friends  in  Europe  this  year.  I  had  sent  dis- 
patches to  tlie  Admiralty  from  Methy  Portage,  not  being  sure 


♦ 


I 


to 

iis- 
ire 


FORT  CIIEPEWYAN.  m 

that  we  should  meet  the  Mackenzie  River  brigade,  which  is  the 
latest  that  goes  out.  It  can  seldom  cr.ss  Great  Slave  Lake  be- 
fore the  end  of  June,  and  from  twenty  to  twenty- four  days  are 
required  for  the  passage  of  loaded  boats  from  thence  to  Methy 
Portage.  There  the  Mackenzie  River  party  are  met  by  a  bri- 
gade from  York  Factory,  which  brings  up  goods  for  next  year's 
supply  of  the  northern  posts,  and  takes  back  the  furs  brought 
from  the  Mackenzie.  There  is  just  time  in  common  seasons 
for  that  brigade  to  descend  to  York  Factory  before  the  annual 
ship  sails  from  thence  for  England,  about  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber, or  in  backward  seasons  a  week  or  two  later  ;  and  afterward 
to  return  to  the  colony  at  Red  River,  where  the  crews  reside,  and 
from  whence  they  come  annually  in  the  spring  on  this  special 
service.  For  many  years  the  Methy  Portage  brigade  has  been 
conducted  by  a  guide  named  L'Esperance,  and  on  that  account 
it  is  known  by  the  name  of  L'Esperance's  brigade. 

After  the  return  of  the  Mackenzie  River  boats  to  Fort  Simp- 
son, the  winter  s  supply  of  goods  has  to  be  sent  to  the  outposts  ; 
but  as  some  of  these  are  at  a  distance  of  four  or  five  weeks'  trav- 
eling, the  parties  carrying  .'uem  are  not  unfrequently  arrested  by 
Irost,  far  from  their  destination,  and  the  posts  sufier  severely — 
sometimes  to  the  length  of  actual  starvation  and  loss  of  life  ;  aa 
instance  of  which  occurred  before  I  left  the  country. 

We  reached  Fort  Chepewyan  at  half-past  7  a.m.,  but  the  two 
boats  that  strayed  from  us  did  not  arrive  till  the  afternoon,  and 
the  chief  artisans  being  in  the  missing  boats,  the  intention  I  had 
of  giving  them  a  complete  repair  here,  and  putting  on  false  keels, 
was  frustrated.  Their  leaks  were,  however,  stopped,  and  some 
planks  replaced,  which  detained  us  till  11  a.m.,  on  July  the  12th, 
when  we  left  the  fort. 

The  height  of  Lake  Athabasca  above  the  sea  is  estimated  by 

Captain  Lefroy  at  six  hundred  feet.*     Its  basin  oflers  another 

instance  of  the  softer  strata  having  been  swept  away  at  th<3  lino 

of  their  junction  with  the  primitive  rocks  ;  and  a  reference  to  the 

-rnp  will  show  that  there  must  have  been  an  evident  connection 

between  the  cause  of  this  excavation  and  that  of  Wollaston  and 

*  Eight  months  of  observations  with  the  boiling-water  therinometor  by 
this  ollicer,  give  an  elevation  of  468  foct,  excluding  two  (-bservations  on 
which  ho  could  not  rely.  This  bohig,  however,  in  his  opinion  too  low,  ho 
assigns  the  altitude  mentioned  in  the  text,  after  a  review  of  his  entire  l)ody 
of  observations  in  various  parts  of  tue  country,  and  checking  one  by  another. 


80 


PLUMBAGO. 


Deer's  Lakes,  belonginp^  to  the  Missinipi  River  system.*  Wol- 
laston  Lake  is  said  to  supply  a  river  at  one  end,  which  falls  into 
Athabasca  Lake,  and  one  at  the  other,  which  joins  the  Missinipi, 
which,  if  correct,  is  not  a  common  occurrence  in  hydrography, 
though  one  or  two  instances  of  the  kind,  in  seasons  of  flood,  have 
been  alluded  to  in  the  preceding  pages. 

Much  of  the  country  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Chepewyan 
is  composed  of  rounded  knolls  of  granite,  nearly  destitute  of  soil, 
and  many  of  them  smooth  and  polished.  These  rocks  extend  along 
the  north  shore  of  the  lake  ;  and  the  eminences  rise  in  the  in- 
terior in  a  confused  manner,  one  over  the  other,  to  the  height  of 
four  or  five  or  perhaps  six  hundred  feet  above  the  water.  They 
also  form  many  islands  at  the  west  end  of  the  lake  and  in  front 
of  the  fort.  Between  this  end  of  the  lake  and  the  mouth  of  Peace 
River  there  lies  a  muddy  expanse  of  water,  named  Lake  Mama- 
wee  ;  and,  in  times  of  flood,  the  waters  of  Peace  River  flow  by  this 
channel  into  Athabasca  Lake,  rendering  its  usually  transparent 
waters  very  turbid.  A  short  way  to  the  eastward  of  the  fort  a 
gray  gneiss  rock  is  associated  with  reddish  granite,  and  its  beds 
are  much  contorted,  and  are  traversed  by  veins  of  vitreous  quartz. 
Still  further  off  in  that  direction  a  clifi'  of  chlorite  slate  occurs. 
Plumbago  of  excellent  quality  has  been  found  on  the  shores  of 
this  lake,  and  I  have  been  informed  that  at  its  eastern  extremity, 
named  the  Fon  du  Lac,  there  is  much  sandstone — the  resemblance 
to  the  succession  of  strata  on  Lake  Superior  being  maintained 
here  also.  Granite  rocks,  generally  forming  rounded  knolls,  pre- 
vail in  Stony  River,  by  which  name  the  discharge  of  Athabasca 
Lake  is  known,  and  on  whose  banks  we  encamped  on  the  evening 
of  the  12th. 

Soon  after  starting  on  the  morning  of  the  13th,  we  passed  the 
mouth  of  Peace  River,  or  Unjugah,  which  is  the  largest  branch 
of  the  Mackenzie,  since  it  brings  down  more  water  than  cither 
the  Athabasca  River  or  River  of  the  Mountains.  When  it  is 
flooded  it  overcomes  the  stream  of  Stony  River,  and  carries  its 
muddy  waters  into  Lake  Athabasca,  meeting  there  another  rush 
of  waters  coming  through  Lake  Mamawee  ;  but  at  other  times 
there  is  a  strong  current  in  Stony  River,  and  at  one  point  a  dan- 
gerous rapid,  where  a  gentleman  of  the  Northwest  Company  Avas 
drowned  many  years  "jo.     A  delta,  intersected  by  several  chan- 

*   See  Appendix. 


CAPTAIN  LLFttOY'S  ()Bs}EKVATIO.\8. 


87 


IS 


' 


nels,  exists  at  the  junction  of  Peace  River  with  Athabasca  Lake 
and  its  outlet.  The  source  of  Finlay's  branch  of  this  river  is 
nearly  in  the  same  parallel  with  its  mouth,  but  in  its  course  the 
trunk  of  the  river  makes  a  great  curve  to  the  southward,  and  its 
southern  tributaries  rise  in  the  same  mountains  from  which  Frazer 
River  issues  on  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Peace  River  coming  in  fact  through  a  gap  in  the 
chain  which  forms  one  of  the  passes  leading  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
Captain  Lefroy,  who  has  traveled  through  this  district,  makes 
the  following  remarks  upon  its  elevation.  "  The  next  series  of 
observations  was  made  in  the  elevated  region  at  the  base  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  between  Peace  River  and  the  Saskatchewani 
a  district  remarkable  for  its  gradual  and  regular  ascent,  preserv- 
ing throughout  much  of  the  character  of  a  plain  country.  From 
Lake  Athabasca  to  Dunvegan,  a  distance  of  about  six  hundred 
and  fifty  miles"  (250  geographical  miles  in  a  straight  line) 
"  there  occurs  but  one  inconsiderable  fall,  and  a  few  rapids  ;  the 
bed  of  the  Peace  River  preserves  a  nearly  uniform  inclination,  in 
which  it  rises  three  hundred  and  ten  feet.  The  stream  is,  how- 
ever, more  rapid  above  Fort  Vermilion  than  below  it.  The 
depth  of  the  bed  of  the  river  below  the  surrounding  country  in- 
creases with  great  uniformity  as  we  ascend  the  river.  A  defile, 
very  similar  to  that  called  the  Ramparts  on  Mackenzie's  River, 
but  on  a  finer  scale  and  with  far  more  picturesque  features, 
occurs  about  eight  miles  above  the  river  Cadotte,  in  long.  117°  ; 
and  here  the  river  has  cut  a  passage  through  cliffs  of  alternating 
sandstone  and  limestone  to  a  bed  of  shale,  through  which  it  flows, 
at  a  depth  of  two  hundred  feet  (by  estimation)  below  their  sum- 
mit. The  general  elevation  of  the  country,  however,  still  con- 
tinues to  increase,  and  at  Dunvegan,  it  is  six  hundred  feet  above 
the  bed  of  the  stream  ;  yet  even  at  this  point,  except  on  approach- 
ing the  deep  gorges  through  which  the  tributaries  of  Peace  River 
join  its  waters,  there  is  little  indication  of  an  elevated  country  ; 
the  Rocky  Mountains  are  not  visible,  and  no  range  of  hills  meets 
the  eye.  A  rough  trigonometrical  measurement  gave  five  hundred 
and  thirty-eight  feet  as  the  elevation  of  Gros  Cap,  a  bold  hill 
behind  Dunvegan,  above  the  bed  of  the  river ;  and  the  ground 
was  estimated  to  rise  behind  Gros  Cap,  by  a  gradual  ascent, 
until  it  attains  the  general  level."  {Lefroy,  1.  c.)  The  elevation 
above  the  sea,  that  this  intelligent  officer  a.ssigns  to  the  country 


i''l 


.;,! 


88 


FOREST  SCENES. 


about  Dunvegan  is  sixteen  hundred  feet,  and  the  region  in  which 
the  sources  of  the  river  occur  is  probably  four  times  as  high. 

The  oaks,  the  elms,  the  ashes,  the  Weymouth  pine,  and  pitch 
pine,  which  reach  the  Sackatchewan  basin,  are  wanting  here, 
and  the  balsam-fir  is  rare  ;  but  as  these  treea  form  no  prominent 
feature  of  the  landscape  in  the  former  quarter,  no  marked  change 
in  the  woodland  scenery  takes  place  in  any  part  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie River  district  until  we  approach  the  shores  of  the  Arctic 
Sea.  The  white  spruce  cotitinues  to  be  the  predominating  tree 
in  dry  soils  whether  rich  or  poor  ;  the  Banksian  pine  occupies  a 
few  sandy  spots ;  the  black  spruce  skirts  the  marshes ;  and  the 
balsam-poplar  and  aspen  fringe  the  streams  ;  the  latter  also 
springs  up  in  places  where  the  white  spruce  has  been  destroyed 
by  fire.  The  canoe-birch  becomes  less  abundant,  is  found  chiefly 
in  rocky  districts,  and  is  veiy  scarce  north  of  the  arctic  circle. 
It  still,  however,  attains  a  good  size  in  the  sheltered  valleys  of 
thf.  Rocky  Mountains,  up  to  the  65th  parallel.  Willows,  dwarf 
birches,  alders,  roses,  brambles,  gooseberries,  white  cornel,  and 
mooseberry,  form  the  underwood  on  the  margins  of  the  forest ; 
but  there  is  no  substitute  for  the  heath,  gorse,  and  broom,  which 
render  the  English  wild  grounds  so  gay.  On  the  barren  lands,  in- 
deed, the  heath  has  representatives  in  the  Lapland  rhododendron, 
the  Azalea,  Kalmia,  and  Andromeda  tetragona,  but  these  aro 
almost  buried  among  the  Cornlculai'U*"  and  Cetraria  nivalis  of 
the  dry  spots,  or  the  Cetraria  idandica  and  mosses  of  the  moister 
places,  and  scarcely  enrich  the  colors  of  the  distant  hills. 

The  granite  knolls  show  themselves  at  frequent  intervals  on 
the  banks  of  Slave  River,  which  is  the  appellation  of  the  stream 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Peace  and  Stony  Rivers  ;  and  in 
several  places,  ledges  of  the  rock  crossing  the  river  form  rapids. 
One  of  these  is  named  the  Lightening  Place  of  the  Hummock, 
because  it  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  a  reach  two  miles  long, 
which  is  terminated  by  a  sandy  bluir  on  the  right  bank,  twenty 
or  thirty  feet  high,  and  covered  with  Banksian  pine.  This  Bute, 
as  it  is  termed  by  the  Canadian  voyagers,  is  about  thirty  miles 
from  Fort  Chcpewycn,  and  opposite  to  it  there  is  a  limestone  cliff, 
constructed  of  thin  undulated  Liyevs.  The  lower  beds  of  the 
limestone  have  a  coiupact  structure,  a  flat  conchoidal  fracture, 
and  a  yellowish  gray  color.  Some  of  the  upper  beds  contain 
incral  pitch  in  fissuics,  and  shells,  which  Mr.  Sowerby  in  1827, 


1 


SLAVE  KIVER. 


80 


ty 


ascertained  to  be  Spirifer  acuta,  and  several  now  Tcrcbratulcn 
one  of  them  resembling  T.  resupinata  ;  associated  with  them  a 
Cirrus  and  some  crinoidal  remains  occur.  Not  far  above  tliis 
clifij  a  vitreous  reddish-colored  sienite  protrudes  ;  and  half  a  milo 
or  so  below  it,  the  stream  passes  between  rounded  hummocks  of 
granite,  one  of  which  forms  an  island,  the  water-course  evidently 
following  the  line  of  dislocation  of  the  strata.  The  clustered 
nests  of  large  colonies  of  the  republican  swallow  {Ilirundo  fulva) 
adhere  to  the  ledges  of  the  limestone  clifls,  and  the  bank  swallow 
{Ilirundo  riparia)  has  pierced  innumerable  holes  in  the  sandy 
brows. 

A  small  tributary  enters  the  river  from  the  left,  behind  an 
island,  lying  a  short  way  below  the  Biitey  and  another  comes  in 
from  the  right,  beneath  which  the  brown  vitreous  sienite  re- ap- 
pears, forming  a  flatly-rounded  eminence.  Within  a  mile  of  this 
pyrogenous  rock,  another  limestone  cliff  occurs  on  the  left  bank, 
at  the  commencement  of  a  pathway  which  leads  over  prairie- 
lands,  or  through  spruce-fir  woods,  marshes,  and  by  small  lakes, 
to  the  Salt  River,  to  be  hereafter  noticed. 

A  mile  and  a  half  below  this  are  the  three  Rocky  Islands  {Mcs 
dcs  Picrrcs),  which  is  perhaps  the  host  locality  on  the  river  for 
studying  the  connection  of  the  limestone  with  the  pyrogenous 
rocks  ;  and  I  regretted  that  I  could  devote  no  time  to  this  pur- 
pose. The  beds  of  limestone,  as  seen  in  passing  rapidly  along 
these  islands,  appeared  of  various  thickness,  some  being  thin  and 
shaly,  and  almost  all  more  or  less  undulated,  saddle-formed  or 
contorted.  On  the  borders  of  a  channel  between  two  of  tho 
islands,  a  conglomerate  is  interleaved  with  sienite  ;  and  in  the 
vicinity  there  are  beds  of  a  brownish,  finely  crystalline  limestone, 
having  a  conchoidal  fracture,  the  fragments  being  sharply  angu- 
lar. The  conglomerate  varies  considerably  in  its  texture  in  dif- 
ferent parla  of  the  same  bed.  It  contains,  in  general,  a  large 
proportion  of  small  rounded  grains  of  translucent  or  milky  quartz, 
with  angular  fragments  of  various  sizes  of  vitreous  quartz,  chlo- 
rite-slate,  and  calc-spar,  imbedded  in  a  powdery  or  friable  white 
b\sis,  which  does  not  effervesce  with  acids ;  the  whole  forming  a 
tough  stone.  In  some  beds  the  quartz  grains  predominate,  so  as 
to  render  the  rock  a  coarse  sandstone ;  but  in  other  parts,  these 
grains  appear  to  have  been  fused  into  a  bluish  quartz  rock,  the 
original  granular  structure  being  only  faintly  discernible,  and  to 


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00 


REINDEER   ISLANDS. 


be  detected  chiefly  in  spots,  where  some  of  the  powdery  basis  re- 
mains unchanged.  In  one  bed  angular  fragments  of  greenstone 
incrusted  with  calc-spar  occur.  The  sienite  contains  grains  of 
hornblende  and  quartz  in  about  equal  quantities,  imbedded  in  a 
snow-white  powdery  basis,  which  appears  to  be  disintegrated  fel- 
spar. 

A  mile  below  the  Stony  Islands  we  passed  the  smaller  Balsam 
Fir  Island,  below  which  there  is  a  pretty  little  bute  on  the  left, 
where  the  purplish-colored  rock  that  protruded  appeared  to  us  in 
passing  to  be  amygdaloid  or  porphyritic  trap  rock.  Some  milts 
further  down  we  entered  among  the  rather  high  and  rocky  cluster 
of  the  Reindeer  Islands  {Isles  de  Carrebanuf)  by  a  channel  hav- 
ing a  north-northwest  direction.  The  rocks  here  appeared  to  us 
as  we  shot  past  them,  to  be  principally  trap,  associated  with 
gneiss,  or  perhaps  chlorite-slate.  A  point  on  the  main  shore,  on 
which  I  landed  in  1820,  is  composed  of  felspar  and  quartz,  and 
is  probably  a  variety  of  granite. 

A  short  way  further  down  the  Great  Fir  Balsam  Island  (Zra 
grand  Isle  dcs  Epmettes),  which  is  a  mile  across  and  three  or 
four  long,  has  a  triangular  form,  and  divides  the  river  into  two 
channels.  We  descended  the  easternmost,  or  right-hand  one, 
■Nyhich  is  the  most  direct,  and  has  a  high  and  sandy  eastern  bank. 

Below  this  a  bend  of  the  river  is  filled  with  many  rocky  islands, 
occasioning  numerous  rapids  and  cascades,  and  seven  or  eight 
portages.  The  river  expands  here  to  the  width  of  a  mile  and  a 
half  or  two  miles ;  its  bed  is  every  where  rocky,  and  the  rocks 
are  apparently  all  primitive ;  but  as  the  boat-route  lies  wholly 
through  the  eastern  channels,  we  had  no  opportunity  of  inspect- 
ing the  opposite  shore  closely.  The  islands  are  well  wooded,  and 
the  scenery  picturesque.  Some  of  the  narrower  channels,  which 
would  be  convenient  for  the  descent  of  boats,  are  blocked  up  by 
immense  rafts  of  drift  timber,  which  have  been  accumulating  for 
many  years,  and  which  could  not  be  set  free  without  very  great 
and  long-f^ontinued  labor.  Large  flocks  of  pelicans  have  made 
their  nests  on  the  more  inaccessible  rocks  rising  from  the  brows 
of  the  cascades.  In  the  evening  we  ran  down  the  Dog  Rapid 
after  lightening  the  boats,  and  afterward  descended  a  second 
rapid,  and  then  encamped  on  a  smooth  granite  rock  early  in  the 
evening,  there  not  being  time  to  complete  the  Chest  Portage  be- 
fore dark. 


CHEST   rORTAGE.-MOUNTAIN   PORTAGE. 


01 


)ect- 

and 
rhich 

P  by 
|g  for 

rreat 

Lade 

Irows 

japid 

Icond 

the 

be- 


Embarking  at  3  a.m.  on  the  22d  of  July,  we  descended  a  nar- 
row channel  to  the  Chest  Portage  {Portage  cle  Cassette),  where 
our  five  boats  were  hauled  over  a  pathway  of  four  hundred  and 
sixty-five  paces,  and  their  cargoes  carried.  A  rocky  chasm  at 
this  place,  being  one  of  the  numerous  channels  through  which 
the  water  flows,  incloses  a  perpendicular  cascade  upward  of  twen- 
ty feet  high ;  beneath  which  an  isolated  column  of  rock  divides 
the  current  into  tvo  branches,  which  eddy  with  great  force 
into  the  niches  and  recesses  of  the  stony  walls.  Huge  angular 
blocks  obstruct  the  water-course,  and  drift  trees,  entangled  among 
them,  partially  denuded  of  their  branches,  and  wholly  of  their 
bark,  point  in  all  directions.  The  overhsinging  woods  almost 
seclude  this  gloomy  ravine  from  the  sun  ;  and  it  presents  such  an 
aspect  of  wildness  and  luin  as  rarely  occurs  even  in  this  country. 
In  one  part  of  the  portage  road  a  bed  of  gneiss  is  flanked  on  each 
side  by  masses  of  granite.  A  labyrinth  of  passages  among  gran- 
ite rocks  exists  below  the  portage,  many  of  them  entirely  choked 
up  v/ith  drift  timber.  In  passing  rapidly  through  one  of  them 
we  grazed  a  point  composed  of  a  crumbling  red  and  gray  porphy- 
ritic  rock,  perhaps  an  amygdaloid  ;  many  cubical  and  irregularly 
angular  fragments  had  fallen  from  it. 

At  the  Island  Portage,  which  immediately  followed,  the  cargo 
is  carried  only  in  the  ascent  of  the  river.  Our  boats  descended 
the  fall  with  their  entire  load.  We  next  crossed  the  Raft  Port- 
age {ParttiL'e  (V Embarras),  which  occupied  us  three  hours.  At 
the  Little  Rock  Portage,  which  follows,  the  rock  is  composed  of 
felspar,  quartz,  and  chlorite,  being  the  protogi7ie  of  Jurine.  It 
differs  from  the  slaty  rock  observed  near  the  Reindeer  Islands,  in 
not  being  stratified.  At  the  Burnt  Portage,  the  next  in  order, 
the  rock,  which  is  a  porphyritic  granite,  acquires  a  polished  glis- 
tening surface.  There  is  a  cascade  hero  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet. 
The  succeeding  portage,  named  the  "  Mountain,"  from  the  steep 
bank  down  which  the  boats  are  lowered,  is  shorter  than  the 
others,  being  only  one  hundred  and  seventy  paces  across.  The 
rock  at  this  place  is  a  red,  compact,  shining  or  vitreous-looking 
granitic  porphyry,  much  fissured,  and  breaking,  by  the  action  of 
the  frost,  into  cubical  or  rhomboidal  blocks,  sometimes  of  great 
size.  The  principal  fissures  are  generally,  but  not  always,  parallel 
to  each  other,  and  may  be  traced  for  seventy  or  eighty  yards  with- 
out a  break,  in  a  transverse  direction  to  that  of  the  eminences  and 


92 


OPl'ttESSlVE  HEAT. 


It'll 


projecting  tongues  of  the  rock.  Their  » -/urse  is  northeast  by 
north,  and  southwest  by  south ;  and  they  are,  for  the  most  part, 
four  or  Rvo  feet  apart.  The  minor  cracks  meet  the  chief  ones  at 
various  oblique  angles,  and  sometimes  cross  them,  but  not  gener- 
ally. At  another  denuded  point  of  rock,  the  wider  cracks  crossed 
each  other,  one  set  running  east-southeast  and  west-northwest. 
The  recesses  left  by  the  blocks  which  fall  away  retain  their  sharp- 
cornered  rectangular  shape.  A  layer  of  horn  blonde-slate  or  basalt 
shows  itself  at  one  spot. 

The  launching-place  for  the  boats  here  is  both  steep  and  rug- 
ged ;  and  a  brigade  seldom  passes  without  some  of  the  boats  being 
broken.  One  of  oura  was  injured  ;  but,  being  soon  repaired,  we 
left  the  portage  by  six  in  the  evening,  and  encamped  lor  the 
nigbt  at  the  south  end  of  the  Pelican  Portage,  which  is  seven 
hundred  paces  long. 

The  power  of  the  sun,  this  day,  in  a  cloudless  sky,  was  so 
great,  that  Mr.  Rae  and  I  were  glad  to  take  shelter  in  the  water 
while  the  crews  were  engaged  on  the  portages.  The  irritability 
of  the  human  frame  is  cither  greater  in  these  northern  latitudes, 
or  the  sun,  notwithstanding  its  obliquity,  acts  more  powerfully 
upon  it  than  near  the  equator ;  for  I  have  never  felt  its  direct 
rays  so  oppressive  within  the  tropics  as  I  have  experienced  them 
to  be  on  some  occasions  in  the  high  latitudes.  The  luxury  of 
bathing  at  sunli  times  is  not  without  alloy  ;  for,  if  you  choose  the 
mid-day,  you  are  assailed  in  the  water  by  the  Tabani,  who  draw 
blood  in  an  instant  with  their  formidable  lancets  ;  and  if  you 
jjclect  the  morning  or  evening,  then  clouds  of  thirsty  musquitoes, 
hovering  around,  fasten  on  the  first  part  that  emerges.  Leeches 
also  infest  the  still  waters,  and  are  prompt  in  their  aggressions. 

The  Geum  strictum  grows  plentifully  on  these  portages,  and 
is  used  by  the  natives  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  growth 
of  their  hair.  They  dry  the  flowers  in  the  sun,  powder  them, 
and  mix  them  with  bear's  grease.  The  Eleagnus  argcnta, 
which  is  also  abundant  on  the  banks,  is  named  by  the  Chepe- 
wyans  Tap-j^ah,  or  gray  berry.  It  is  the  bear-berry  of  the  Crees, 
and  the  stinking  willow  of  the  traders  ;  so  called,  because  its  bark 
has  a  disagreeable  smell. 

Juhj  15th. — The  portage  was  completed,  and  breakfast  pre- 
pared and  eaten,  in  five  hours  and  a  half  At  the  lower  end  of 
the  path,  a  sienite  rock,  composed  of  crystallized  quartz,  aurora- 


I 


and 

frowth 

them, 

•jctita, 


f 


PORTAGE  or  TUB  DROWNED. 


OS 


red  felspar,  and  greenish-black  hornblende,  yields  largo  cubical 
blocks  of  a  handsome  stone.  One  of  the  small  boats  was  overset, 
in  lowering  it  down  a  narrow  channel,  and  the  oars,  a  coil  of 
rope,  and  the  boat-lockers  were  swept  away  by  the  current.  A 
boat's  anchor,  and  some  clothes  belonging  to  two  of  the  crew, 
were  in  one  of  the  lockers. 

An  hour  before  noon  we  had  crossed  the  Portage  of  the  Drown- 
ed {Portage  des  Noyes),  where  granite  is  the  prevailing  rock. 
This  being  the  last  of  the  portages,  three  of  the  small  boats 
brought  from  England  were  stowed  with  pemican  for  the  sea- 
voyage  ;  and  Mr.  Bell  was  left  to  follow  with  the  large  boat  and 
the  fourth  small  boat,  containing  the  stores  for  house-building, 
nets,  ammunition,  and  other  supplies  for  winter  use.  He  would 
have  accompanied  us ;  but  his  men  had  to  make  oars  in  place  cf 
those  which  had  been  lost ;  an  employment  which  was  likely  to 
occupy  them  for  two  or  thrco  hours. 


urora- 


^^^^^.*. 
^"^-  ^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


■  45 

■  50 


1^  U^ 


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■  2.2 

£   U&    12.0 


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Hiotogra[Adc 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WIST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  USCO 

(716)872-4303 


CHAPTER  V. 


Pyrogenous  Rocks. — Rate  of  the  Current  of  Slave  River. — Salt  River  and  Springs. 
— Geese. — Great  Slave  Lake. — Domestic  Cattle. — Deadman's  Islands. — Horn 
Mountain. — Hay  River. — Alluvial  Lignite  beds. — Mackenzie's  River. — Marcel- 
lus  Shale. — Fort  Simpson. — River  of  the  Mountains. — Rocky  Mountains. — 
Spurs. — Animals. — Affluents  of  the  Mackenzie. — Cheta-ut-tinne. 

No  primitive  rocks  were  seen  on  the  route  down  the  Mackenzie, 
on  this  voyage,  after  leaving  the  Portage  of  the  Drowned  ;  but  in 
1820,  when  we  crossed  Great  Slave  Lake,  near  the  ll3th  me- 
ridian, we  traced  the  western  boundary  of  these  rocks,  from  near 
the  mouth  of  Slave  River,  northward  by  the  Rein-deer  Islands  to 
the  north  side  of  the  lake,  and  continued  to  travel  within  their 
limits  up  to  Point  Lake  in  the  66th  parallel.  The  western  edge 
of  the  formation  was  afterward  found  at  the  northeast  and  east- 
ern arms  of  Great  Bear  Lake. 

The  district  intervening  between  the  granite  at  the  Portage  of 
the  Drowned  and  the  Salt  River  is  flat,  with  sandy  terraces  and 
slopes  rising  from  the  river  to  the  height  of  from  twenty  to  eighty 
feet,  there  being  in  some  places  two  in  others  three  or  more  such 
terraces,  while  in  others  the  river  has  made  a  section  of  the  sandy 
deposit,  and  formed  a  high  and  steep  cliff.  The  valley  of  the 
river,  deflected  to  the  westward  by  the  rocks  of  the  portages, 
passes  here  through  the  more  level  (upper  ?)  silurian  strata. 

At  Gravel  Point  {Pointe  de  Gravoir),  ten  miles  from  the  por- 
tages, a  bed  of  concretionary  or  brecciated  limestone  protrudes  from 
under  a  sand-bank  forty  feet  high,  and  two  miles  higher  up  a  cliff 
of  cream-colored  and  brownish  limestone  stands  on  the  right  bank. 
The  country  on  both  sides  of  the  river  there  appears  to  be  a  plain, 
which  has  a  general  level  of  about  fifty  feet  above  the  bed  of  the 
stream. 

Just  before  arriving  off  the  mouth  of  Salt  River,  we  picked  up 
one  of  the  boat's  lockers  containing  the  anchor,  which  had  been 
carried  away  fifteen  miles  higher  up  nearly  eight  hours  before,  so 
that  it  drifted  about  two  miles  an  hour,  including  the  lime  it 
might  have  been  detained  in  eddies. 


SALT  RIVER  AND  SPRINGS. 


95 


por- 
from 
clift' 
)ank. 
lain, 
fthe 


» 


In  1 820,  I  ascended  the  very  tortuous  Salt  River,  for  twenty 
miles,  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  the  salt  springs,  which  give  it 
its  name.  Seven  or  eight  copious  springs  issue  from  the  base  of 
a  long  even  ridge,  some  hundreds  of  feet  high,  and,  spreading  their 
waters  over  a  clayey  plain,  deposit  much  pure  common  salt  in 
large  cubical  crystals.  The  mother  water,  flowing  off  in  small 
rivulets  into  the  Salt  River,  communicates  to  it  a  very  bitter 
taste ;  but  before  the  united  streams  join  the  Slave  River,  the 
accession  of  various  fresh- water  rivulets  dilutes  the  water  so  much 
that  it  remains  only  slightly  brackish.  A  few  slabs  of  grayish 
compact  gypsum  protrude  from  the  side  of  the  ridge  above  men- 
tioned, and  a  pure  white  gypsum  is  said  to  be  found  at  Peace 
Point  on  Peace  River,  distant  about  sixty  or  seventy  miles  in  a 
south-southwest  direction,  whence  we  may  conjecture  that  this 
formation  extends  so  far.  From  the  circumstance  that  the  few 
fossils  gathered  from  the  limestone  on  Slave  River  are  silurian,  I 
venture  to  conjecture  that  these  springs  may  belong  to  the  Onon- 
daga salt  group  of  the  Helderberg  division  of  the  New  York  sys- 
tem. The  Athabasca  and  Mackenzie  River  districts  are  supplied 
from  hence  with  abundance  of  good  salt.  We  obtained  some 
bags  of  this  useful  article  from  Beaulieu,  who  was  guide  and 
hunter  to  Sir  John  Franklin  on  his  second  overland  journey,  and 
who  has  built  a  house  at  the  mouth  of  Salt  River.  This  is  a 
well-chosen  locality  for  his  residence :  his  sons  procure  abund- 
ance of  deer  and  bison  meat  on  the  salt  plains,  which  these  ani- 
mals frequent  in  numbers,  from  their  predilection  for  that  min- 
eral ;  and  Slave  River  yields  plenty  of  good  fish  at  certain  seasons. 
It  is  the  most  southern  locality  to  which  the  Inconnu  or  Salmo 
Mackenzii  comes,  on  this  side  of  the  Rooky  Mountains,  as  it  is 
unable  to  ascend  the  cascades  in  the  Slave  River.  The  Core- 
goni  are  the  staple  fish  of  the  lakes  here,  as  they  are  elsewhere 
throughout  the  country  :  and  there  are  also  pike,  burbot,  and  ex- 
cellent trout.  A  limestone  cave  in  the  neighborhood,  which  was 
too  distant  for  us  to  visit,  supplies  Beaulieu  with  ice  all  the  sum- 
mer, and  he  gave  us  a  lump  to  cool  water  for  drinking,  which 
was  extremely  grateful.  The  ammunition  and  tobacco  with 
which  I  repaid  these  civilities  were  no  less  acceptable  to  him. 
Indeed,  I  believe  that  he  turns  his  residence  on  the  boat-route  to 
good  account,  as  few  parties  pass  without  giving  him  a  call. 

After  a  short  halt,  we  resumed  our  voyage  until  7  p  m.,  when 


9G 


MUSaUITOES.-CANADA  GEESE. 


F 


we  landed  to  cook  supper,  after  which  we  re-embarked  to  eat  it ; 
and,  having  lashed  the  boats  together,  drifted  down  the  stream 
all  night,  one  man  being  appointed  to  steer. 

July  16th. — Though  we  lay  down  in  the  best  manner  we 
could  in  the  boats  during  the  night,  the  continuous  assaults  of 
the  musquitoes  deprived  every  one  of  rest,  and  rendered  us  all  so 
feverish,  that  we  were  glad  when  daybreak  called  the  crews  to 
the  oars,  and  the  boats  acquired  motion  through  the  water,  by 
which  we  obtained  some  relief. 

The  sandy  banks  of  the  river  show  sections  in  many  places 
upward  of  twenty  feet  high ;  and,  in  almost  all,  the  sand  is  dis- 
tinctly stratified ;  the  layers  being  of  different  colors,  and  often 
having  clayey  or  loamy  seams  interposed.  The  whole  of  the 
banks,  from  Salt  River  downward  to  Slave  Lake,  appear  to  be 
alluvial ;  and  man^  small  lakes  existing  behind  them  communi- 
cate with  the  river  by  narrow  channels.  In  ordinary  seasons  at 
this  date,  vast  numbers  of  Canada  geese  moult  in  the  district, 
and  are  followed  by  their  young  brood  not  yet  fully  fledged,  which 
fall  a  ready  prey  to  the  natives  or  voyagers  descending  the  river. 
In  1825  I  could  have  filled  a  boat  with  these  delicate  young 
birds.  This  year,  owing  to  the  high  waters,  the  greater  part  of 
the  broods  had  retreated  to  the  lakes,  where  grass  could  be  more 
easily  procured,  and  we  obtained  only  a  few.  The  natives  ob- 
serve, that,  besides  the  old  birds  which  rear  young,  and  moult 
when  their  oflspring  are  obtaining  their  plumage,  there  are  a 
considerable  number  who  do  not  breed,  but  keep  in  small  bands, 
and  are  called  "  barren  geese."  Of  these  we  saw  some  flocks  ; 
but  they  were  not  easily  approached  without  a  greater  loss  of 
time  than  we  could  spare. 

We  kept  at  the  oars  all  day,  except  when  we  landed  to  break- 
fast, or  to  cook  supper,  and,  after  sunset,  resumed  the  plan  of 
drifting,  with  veTy  little  better  success,  as  far  as  sleep  was  con- 
cerned, than  on  the  preceding  night.  During  the  day  the  sun's 
rays  felt  intensely  warm ;  and  the  puffs  of  northerly  wind  blew 
as  hot  as  if  they  had  passed  over  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  At  mid- 
night a  strong  contrary  wind  springing  up,  compelled  us  to  anchor 
until  half-past  2  a.m.,  on  the  17th,  when  we  again  took  to  the 
oars,  and  entered  Great  Slave  Lake  at  7  in  the  morning. 

Like  the  Athabasca  River,  the  Slave  River  joins  its  lake 
through  a  delta  of  low,  well- wooded,  alluvial  islands,  by  many 


i 

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I 


GKEAT  SLAV13  LAKE.— DOMESTIC  CATTLE. 


97 


channels,  having  a  spread  of  more  than  twenty  miles.  Near  the 
easternmost,  which  is  named  John's  River  {Riviere  a  Jean),  is 
Stony  Island,  a  naked  mass  of  granite,  rising  fifty  or  sixty  feet 
above  the  water ;  and  beyond  that,  to  the  eastward,  the  banks 
of  the  lake  are  wholly  primitive.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  western- 
most channel  of  the  delta,  and  from  thence  to  the  efflux  of  the 
Mackenzie,  the  whole  southern  shore  of  the  lake  is  limestone, 
associated  with  a  bituminous  shale,  and  belonging,  as  well  as  can 
be  ascertained  from  its  fossils,  to  the  Erie  division  of  the  New 
York  system,  which  includes  the  Marcellus  shales,  and  is  referred 
by  English  geologists  to  the  carboniferous  series.  In  the  small 
channel  which  divides  Moose-deer  Island  from  the  point  of  the 
bay  on  which  the  present  Fort  Resolution  stands,  many  boulders 
of  porphyritic  and  common  granites,  greenstone,  and  limestone 
occur ;  also  large  angular  blocks,  not  worn  or  rounded,  of  a  con- 
glomerate  of  granite,  chert,  and  hornblende  rock  cemented  by  a 
basis  of  ironstone. 

We  reached  Fort  Resolution  at  10  a.m.  ;  and  having  received 
some  supplies  of  fish,  and  two  or  three  deals  for  repairing  the 
boats,  we  resumed  our  voyage,  after  a  halt  at  the  fort  of  one 
hour.  Domestic  cattle  have  been  introduced  at  this  place,  and 
at  the  posts  generally  throughout  the  country,  even  up  to  Peel's 
River  and  Fort  Good  Hope,  within  the  Arctic  circle.  At  this 
season  the  musquitoes  prevent  them  from  feeding,  except  when 
urged  by  extreme  hunger  ;  and  fires  are  made  for  their  accommo- 
dation near  the  forts,  to  which  they  crowd,  and,  lying  to  leeward 
amidst  the  smoke,  ruminate  at  their  ease.  Smoke  is  the  only 
remedy  against  these  venomous  insects ;  and  at  this  time  of  the 
year,  when  the  heat  renders  a  free  circulation  of  air  in  the  houses 
essential,  the  rooms  are  made  comfortable  by  nailing  bunting 
over  the  windows,  and  burning  turf  or  rotten  wood  in  a  pan  on 
the  threshold  of  the  door.  At  no  place  on  our  route  were  the 
musqui.^es  in  denser  clouds  than  this  day  at  Fort  Resolution ; 
and  we  gladly  left  them  behind  as  we  launched  into  the  lake  with 
a  favorable  breeze.  We  had  not  gone  above  two  miles,  when  we 
saw  Mr.  Bell  and  his  boats  issuing  from  behind  Moose-deer  Isl- 
and, and  steering  for  the  house ;  but  time  was  too  precious  for 
us  to  wait  for  his  coming  up.  Our  route  lay  through  a  small 
group  of  islands  lying  five  or  six  miles  off  the  bay  into  which 
Bufiklo  Creek  falls.     In  these  islands,  a  bituminous  limestone 

E 


98 


DEADMAN'S  ISLAND. 


crops  out  in  thin  horizontal  layers  near  the  water's  edge ;  but, 
except  in  a  few  places,  its  beds  are  concealed  under  a  beach 
composed  of  fragments  of  the  same  stone,  partly  rolled  and  worn, 
partly  with  recently  broken  edges.  The  islands  are  most  of  them 
low ;  and  the  stony  beach  rising  above  their  centres  incloses 
marshy  spots  traversed  by  ridges  of  sand  and  gravel,  more  or  less 
wooded. 

At  5  P.M.  the  wind  which  had  been  increasing  all  the  after- 
noon, rose  to  a  high  gale,  and  we  put  into  a  good  boat  harbor  at 
Deadman's  Island  and  encamped.  This  spot  received  its  name 
from  a  massacre  committed  by  a  war  party  of  Beaver  Indians, 
who  surprised  a  body  of  Dog-ribs  encamped  there,  and  destroyed 
them  all.  Thirty  years  ago  many  of  the  bones  of  the  victims 
were  to  be  seen,  but  they  have  now  disappeared.  The  influence 
of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  has  put  a  stop  to  these  war  ex- 
cursions, and  tribes  formerly  the  most  hostile  to  each  other  now 
meet  in  amity  at  the  trading  posts. 

This  lake  is  a  breeding  station  of  the  Sterna  cayana.  The 
Arctic  tern  also  hatches  on  its  shores,  depositing  its  eggs  among 
the  gravel  on  the  beach.  The  leaves  of  the  gooseberry  bushes  had 
been  stripped  off  by  a  black-banded  caterpillar,  and  it  was  evident 
that  the  fruit  would  fail  this  season.  The  ice  having  parted  from 
the  shore  little  more  than  a  fortnight,  vegetation  was  backward. 
A  strong  gale,  bringing  on  a  keen  frost,  blew  all  night,  and  effect- 
ually quelled  the  musquitoes,  so  that,  though  we  could  not  but 
regret  the  detention,  we  all  enjoyed  some  hours  of  sound  repose. 
But  in  the  morning  of  July  17th,  during  one  of  the  squalls  of  a 
thunderstorm  accompanied  by  heavy  rain,  the  tent  pegs  drew 
from  the  sandy  soil  on  which  we  had  encamped,  and  the  dripping 
canvas  falling  upon  us  put  an  end  to  our  rest.  We  were  misera- 
bly cold  and  wet  before  this  mischance  was  remedied.  High 
winds  and  a  rolling  sea  kept  us  stationary  all  day,  and  our  car- 
penters took  advantage  of  the  delay  to  secure  the  thwarts  of  two 
of  the  boats  which  had  given  way  on  the  portages. 

July  \Qth. — The  gale  did  not  abate  so  as  to  allow  us  to  em- 
bark until  4  p.  M.,  when  we  resumed  our  voyage,  and  at  9 
encamped  again  in  a  small  boat  harbor  at  Burnt  Poiii.  This 
coast  of  the  lake  generally  is  flat  and  shelving,  and  secure  landing- 
places  for  boats  are  very  scarce.  Though  we  did  not  discover 
limestone  in  situ  here,  the  beach  is  formed  of  fragments  of  that 


I 


^ 


BULPHURE0U8    STREAMS.-HAY    RIVER. 


99 


Stone  of  very  various  size,  mixed  with  some  bituminous  shale, 
and  a  few  granite  boulders.  This  point  is  about  thirty-five  geo- 
graphical miles  from  Fort  Resolution.  In  a  bay  a  little  to  the 
westward  several  sulphureous  streams  issue  from  a  limestone  con- 
taining corals.  The  channels  of  these  streams  are  encrusted  with 
a  similar  tufa  to  that  observed  on  Clear-water  and  Athabasca 
Rivers,  and  the  organic  remains  that  have  been  examined  indicate 
the  formations  to  be  of  the  same  geological  epoch.* 

July  I9th.  —Embarking  at  three,  we  passed  the  mouth  of 
Buffalo  Lake  River,  and  after  five  hours'  pulling,  put  into  Canoe 
or  Sandy  River  to  cook  breakfast.  From  this  place  a  rising 
ground  on  the  north  side  of  the  lake  is  distinctly  visible,  the 
distance  being  about  thirty  miles  or  more.  The  Horn  Mountain, 
an  even  ridge  more  to  the  westward,  appeared  also  in  the  extreme 
distance,  being  at  least  sixty  miles  off. 

Hay  River  enters  the  lake  at  the  distance  of  eleven  or  twelve 
miles  from  Canoe  River.  It  is  formed  of  two  branches,  the 
westernmost  of  which  rises  from  Hay  Lake  and  the  other  one 
originates  not  far  from  the  banks  of  Peace  River,  and  fiows  past 
Fort  Vermilion.  Hay  River  Fort,  now  abandoned,  stood  at  the 
junction  of  the  two.  On  the  eastern  branch,  the  country  is  an 
agreeable  mixture  of  prairie  and  woodland,  and  this  is  the  limit 
of  those  vast  prairies  which  extend  from  New  Mexico.  Below 
the  forks  of  Hay  River  the  country  is  covered  with  a  forest  in- 
tersected by  swamps. 

The  range  of  the  Wapiti  is  nearly  coincident  with  the  bound- 
aries of  these  prairies.  The  bison,  though  inhabiting  the  prairies 
in  vast  bands,  frequents  also  the  wooded  country,  and  once,  1  be- 

*  The  fragments  of  black  and  bituminous  shale  which  Rtrew  the  beaches 
of  these  islands,  and  which  evidently  have  not  traveled  far,  contain  a 
"  pteropodous  shell  (Theca)  apparently  the  Tentaculites  fisturella  of  Hall,  a 
ChoneteSf  the  Strophenema  setigera  of  Hall,  and  ^vicula  lavis  of  the  same 
author ;  at  least  they  are  undistinguishable  from  his  figures  of  these  fossils 
in  the  Marcellus  shale,  which  according  to  him  is  upper  Silurian,  but  is 
probably  somewhat  newer,  and  what  we  call  Devonian.  Two  corals  in  the 
associated  bituminous  limestone  are  characteristic  of  the  same  epoch,  name- 
ly a  Strombodes  of  Hall,  having  its  cysts  filled  with  bitumen,  and  a 
JFavoaites  very  lilie  the  common  F.  polymorpha  of  the  Plymouth  marbles. 
I  have  not  identified  any  of  the  Terebratulce  from  Great  Slave  Lake,  but 
they  are  certainly  either  Devonian  or  carboniferous,  and  not  silurian. 
There  is  nothing  like  a  secondary  fosil  in  the  collection.^''— -Woodward 
in  Ut. 


100 


ALLUVIAL  BEDS. 


li    .1 


lieve,  almost  all  parts  of  it  down  to  the  coasts  of  the  Atlantic  ; 
but  it  had  not  until  lately  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountain  range, 
nor  is  it  now  known  on  the  Pacific  slope,  except  in  a  very  few 
places.  Its  most  northern  limit  is  the  Horn  Mountain  mentioned 
above.  The  musk-ox  docs  not  come  to  the  south  of  the  Arctic 
circle. 

In  the  evening  we  pitched  our  tents  on  a  small  island,  being 
one  of  a  group  known  as  Desmarais's  Fishery,  and  from  a  party 
of  Indians  encamped  on  a  neighboring  point  we  obtained  a 
supply  of  fish. 

The  whole  south  shore  of  the  lake,  westward  from  Slave  River, 
is  low  and  level,  and  is  lined  in  parts,  and  especially  between  Hay 
River  and  Desmarais's  Islands,  by  rafts  of  drift-timber,  which, 
pressed  on  shore  by  northerly  winds,  become  water-logged  and 
covered  with  sand  mixed  with  comminuted  wood  and  decaying 
grasses.  As  this  buried  forest  accumulates,  willows  and  balsam 
poplars  spring  up  from  its  surface,  and  bind  all  together  by  their 
roots.  The  swamps  that  extend  backward  from  the  lake  appear 
to  have  originated  very  much  in  this  way ;  and  had  the  locality 
been  one  where  there  was  much  drift-sand,  the  erect  trees  might 
in  parts  have  been  swallowed  up  and  killed  by  sand-drifts,  having 
their  roots  in  the  subjacent  lignite  or  shale.  In  Slave  Lake, 
however,  the  sand  does  not  act  so  conspicuous  a  part  as  in  Lake 
Winipeg.  The  recent  deposits  conceal  the  limestone  strata,  ex- 
cept at  a  very  few  places,  but  the  numerous  fragments  which  line 
the  beach  show  that  a  bituminous  limestone,  associated  with  a 
black  shale  having  a  resinous  streak,  and  a  thin  marly  slate,  must 
exist  in  the  neighborhood.  They  are  referrible,  as  has  been 
mentioned  above,  to  the  Marcellus  shale.  At  the  Stony  Point, 
between  Hay  River  and  Desmarais's  Fishery,  fragments  of  these 
rocks  from  the  beach,  on  which  some  very  large  boulders  of  gneiss, 
sienite,  and  greenstone  also  lie.  At  Desmarais's  Fishery  I  ob- 
served the  same  kind  of  beach,  with  the  addition  of  blocks  of 
basalt,  of  a  dull-red  sandstone,  a  coarse  conglomerate  composed 
of  rounded  pieces  of  sandstone  cemented  by  a  basis  of  red  clay 
strongly  impregnated  with  iron.  The  limestone  fragments  con- 
tained bivalves  and  corals.  On  the  6th  of  July,  in  the  following 
year,  the  whole  bay  that  we  had  traversed  in  this  day's  voyage 
was  filled  with  ice,  not  yet  parted  from  the  shore  ;  and  the  lake 
is  scarcely  ever  navigable  in  this  quarter  before  the  beginning  of 


T^. 


ABUNDANCE    OP    FISH. 


101 


the  month,*  so  that  wo  were  only  a  fortnight  later  than  we  could 
have  hoped  to  cross  the  lake,  had  the  boats  advanced  even  to 
Isle  d  la  Crosse  the  first  season,  as  they  might  have  done  under 
a  very  favorable  combination  of  circumstances.  But  this  fort- 
night, by  enabling  the  expedition  to  be  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie on  the  disruption  of  the  ice  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  would  have 
been  of  the  very  greatest  advantage.  In  fact,  a  fortnight  is  no 
contemptible  portion  of  the  six  weeks  during  which  the  Arctic 
Sjo,  IS  navigable  for  boats.  The  ice  on  this  lake  is  sometimes 
eleven  feet  thick  ;  at  Fort  Resolution,  and  at  Big  Island,  which 
lies  across  the  western  outlet  of  the  lake,  it  varies  from  five  to 
seven  feet. 

July  20th. — This  morning  we  crossed  from  Desmarais's 
Fishery  obliquely  to  the  north  side  of  the  lake,  through  an  archi- 
pelago of  islets  and  along  the  south  side  of  Big  Island.  There 
is  more  or  less  current  in  the  passages,  and  from  the  general  shal- 
lowness of  the  water,  it  is  probable  that  the  limestone  strata  come 
near  the  surface,  but  they  are  concealed  by  gravel  and  boulders. 
To  the  south  of  this  traverse,  on  a  strait  two  miles  wide,  which 
separates  the  site  from  Big  Island,  stood  formerly  Fort  George. 
The  limestone  beds  are  said  to  crop  out  in  its  neighborhood. 

During  the  whole  summer,  in  the  eddies  between  the  islands 
of  this  part  of  the  lake,  multitudes  of  fish  may  be  taken  with 
hooks  and  by  nets,  such  as  trout,  white-fish,  pike,  sucking-carp, 
and  inconnu.  In  spring  and  autumn  wild-fowl  may  be  procured 
in  abundance  at  several  places  in  the  neighborhood,  which  are 
their  accustomed  passes  ;  and  the  fishery  on  the  north  side  of  Big 
Island  seems  to  be  inexhaustible  in  the  winter.  With  good  fish- 
ermen and  a  proper  supply  of  nets,  a  large  body  of  men  may  be 
wintered  here  in  safety  and  plenty,  and  it  «vas  to  this  place  that  I 
contemplated  conducting  any  of  the  crews  .  f  the  Discovery  ships 
that  we  might  be  so  happy  as  to  find.  To  it,  also,  I  purpose 
to  send  a  large  portion  of  my  party  in  the  winter  of  1848-9.  In 
no  other  part  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  territories,  that  I 
am  acquainted  with,  can  so  many  people  be  maintained,  with  so 
much  certainty,  on  the  resources  of  the  country.  A  body  of  good 
native  hunters,  well  supplied  with  ammunition,  could  not  fail  to 
bring  from  the  Horn  Mountain  an  agreeable  variety  of  diet  in 

*  Dean  and  Simpson  made  their  way  through  it  on  the  24th  of  June ; 
the  ice,  however,  was  still  adhering  to  the  shore  at  som«>  points. 


103 


THE   BARKING  CROW. 


ii 


V<  i  I 


] 


form  of  reindeer  and  bison   meat,  and  in  some  seasons  the  Amer- 
ican hare  may  be  snared  in  great  numbers. 

After  we  had  rowed  about  thirty-four  or  thirty-five  miles  from  . 
our  encampment  of  the  preceding  night,  the  funnel-shaped  en- 
trance of  the  river  had  contracted  to  a  width  of  about  two  miles, 
and  the  current,  as  it  washed  the  boulders  of  the  beach,  made  a 
bubbling  noise,  like  that  of  a  strong  rapid ;  and  not  long  after- 
ward we  shot  a  rapid,  the  river  having  still  further  narrowed. 
The  barking  crow  ( Corvus  americanus)  is  not  seen  to  the  north- 
ward of  this  place.  In  the  Fauna  Boreali-Americana,  I  have 
stated  that  it  does  not  range  beyond  the  55th  parallel ;  but  more 
correct  information,  received  on  the  present  voyage,  enables  me 
to  carry  its  northern  limit  on  to  the  6 1  st.  It  becomes  rare  before 
it  ceases  altogether  to  be  seen,  and  we  have  not  noticed  it  in  flocks 
since  leaving  the  Saskatchewan.  In  its  gregarious  habits  on  the 
latter  river  it  resembles  the  European  rook,  but  differs  from  that 
bird  in  the  care  with  which  it  conceals  its  nest.  In  the  even- 
ing we  landed  to  cook  supper,  and  afterward  re-embarked  to  drift 
with  the  stream.  At  midnight,  having  come  to  the  Little  Lake, 
where  there  is  no  current,  we  could  no  longer  drive ;  we  there- 
fore anchored  under  a  small  sandy  island,  and  at  4  a.m.  on 

July  21st,  resumed  our  voyage.  Four  hours  afterward,  we 
landed  at  the  outlet  of  the  lake  to  cook  breakfast.  The  morning 
was  close  and  hazy,  with  distant  thunder ;  and  at  1 0  a.m.  the 
storm  approaching  us,  we  were  driven  to  take  shelter  for  a  time 
under  the  bank  of  the  river.  When  the  squall  abated,  we  con- 
tinued our  voyage,  notwithstanding  that  the  rain  fell  throughout 
the  day  ;  and  during  the  night  we  again  drifted  with  the  stream, 
the  crews  sleeping  in  the  boats. 

We  made  sail  on  the  22d,  at  a  quarter  before  3  a.m.,  with  a 
fair  wind,  which  soon  afterward  chopped  round  against  us,  and 
increased  to  a  fresh  breeze.  At  an  early  hour  we  passed  the 
mouth  of  Trout  River ;  and  after  breakfast  descended  the  west- 
erly reach  below  the  site  of  the  old  fort.  An  hour  later  we  passed 
the  River  La  Cache,  and  in  an  hour  and  a  half  more  came  to 
Hare-skin  River.  The  rate  at  which  we  passed  the  land  must 
have  been  at  least  seven  geographical  miles  an  hour  ;  but  the 
distances  in  this  part  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  chart  are  too  great, 
and  Fort  Simpson,  which  was  laid  down  by  him  from  dead  reck- 
oning, is  placed  twenty  miles  too  far  north. 


r 


GEOLOGY  OF  THE   DANK  OP  THE  RIVER. 


103 


The  river  having,  through  the  increase  of  the  wind,  become  too 
rough  for  the  "se  of  oars,  we  worked  down  under  sail,  and  made 
good  progress,  arriving  at  Fort  Simpson  at  five  in  the  afternoon. 
The  position  of  this  place,  as  ascertained  by  Mr.  Thomas  Simpson 
in  1836,  is  in  latitude  61°  5V  25"  N.  ;  and  longitud«  deduced 
from  lunar  distances,  121°  51'  15"  W.* 

Between  Desmarais's  Fishery,  on  Slave  Lake,  and  Fort  Simp- 
son, the  direct  distance  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty*five  geo- 
graphical miles.  In  the  wider  parts  of  the  river  the  coast  is 
shelving,  and  not  easily  approached,  in  boats,  from  the  shallow- 
ness of  the  water  ;  but  in  the  narrower  places  the  beach  is  steep, 
and  the  channel  is  full  of  boulders.  In  a  few  spots  where  sec- 
tions of  the  strata  are  visible,  a  bituminous  shale,  containing  many 
fragments  of  the  small  pteropodous  shell  Tentaculites  fissurella, 
indicates  the  formation  to  be  the  same  with  that  on  the  Athabasca 
River  and  Slave  Lake,  which  has  been  said  above  to  be  probably 
the  Marcellus  shale.  Between  the  old  fort  and  Hare-skin  River, 
the  basis  of  the  bank  is  formed  of  a  grayish  green  slate-clay, 
which,  under  the  influence  of  the  weather,  breaks  into  scales  like 
wack6,  and  at  last  forms  a  tenacious  clay.  The  whole  banks  of 
the  river  seem  to  belong  to  a  shale  formation  ;  but  from  the  want 
of  induration  of  the  beds,  they  have  crumbled  into  a  slope  more 
or  less  steep,  and  the  capping  of  sand,  clay,  and  boulders  has 
fallen  down  and  covered  the  declivity.  On  the  south,  a  long 
even  rising  ground,  named  the  Trout  Mountain,  which  runs  par* 
allel  to  the  river  at  a  distance  of  from  ten  to  twenty  miles,  is 
visible  at  intervals  the  whole  way  ;  and  a  similar  but  higher 
range,  named  the  Horn  Mountain,  exists  on  the  north. 

Of  the  composition  of  these  eminences,  I  have  no  information  ; 
but  I  suspect,  from  the  evenness  of  their  outlines  and  their  relative 
position,  that  they  are  escarpments  of  the  sandstone  and  shale  of 


*  From  this  it  appears  that,  by  some  means,  an  error  of  twenty  miles 
of  latitude  had  crept  into  the  reckoning  of  Sir  George  Back  and  Lieu- 
tenant Kendall  in  1825,  between  the  old  fort,  in  long.  120°,  where  the 
latitude  was  obtained  by  these  officers,  and  Fort  Simpson  ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  assigned  too  little  departure,  so  that  the  mistake  was  in 
the  courses  as  much  as  in  the  distance.  And  in  correcting  the  chart,  to 
give  Fort  Simpson  its  proper  geographical  position,  a  corresponding  altera- 
tion must  be  made  in  the  course  and  length  of  the  river  between  that  fort 
and  the  great  bend  below  it,  where  the  latitude  and  longitude  were  again 
ascertained  by  the  observationst  of  Back  and  Kendall. 


101 


GROWTH  OF  CORN.-riAYMAKINO. 


III 


I'M 


the  Erie  group,  remaining  after  the  excavation  of  the  valley  of  th« 
river,  such  as  has  been  already  noticed  an  existing  in  the  Clear-water 
and  Elk  Rivers,  and  as  we  shall  afterward  have  occasion  to  men- 
tion, when  describing  the  northwest  side  of  Great  Bear  Lake. 

The  bank  of  the  river  at  Fort  Simpson  is  precipitous,  and  about 
thirty  feet  high ;  but  the  river  sometimes  flows  over  it  in  the  spring 
floodsi  occasioned  by  accumulations  of  drift  ice.  It  is  composed 
of  sand  and  loam,  and  the  beach  is  lined  with  boulders  of  granite, 
greenstone,  limestone,  and  sandstone. 

Barley  is  usually  sown  here  from  the  20th  to  the  25th  of  May, 
and  is  expected  to  be  ripe  on  the  20th  of  August,  after  an  inter- 
val of  ninety-two  days.  In  some  seasons  it  has  ripened  on  the 
]5th.  Oats,  -which  take  longer  time,  do  not  thrive  quite  so  well, 
and  wheat  does  not  come  to  maturity.  Potatoes  yield  well,  and 
no  disease  has  as  yet  aflected  them,  though  the  early  frosts  some- 
times hurt  the  crop.  Barley,  in  favorable  seasons,  gives  a  good 
return  at  Fort  Norman,  which  is  further  down  the  river ;  and 
potatoes  and  various  garden  vegetables  are  also  raised  there. 
The  6dth  parallel  of  latitude  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as  the 
northern  limit  of  the  Cerealia  in  this  meridian  ;  for  though  in 
good  seasons,  and  in  warm,  sheltered  spots,  a  little  barley  might 
possibly  be  reared  at  Fort  Good  Hope,  the  attempts  hitherto  made 
there  have  failed.  In  Siberia  it  is  said  that  none  of  the  corn  tribe 
are  found  north  of  60°.  But  in  Norway  barley  is  reported  to  be 
cultivated,  in  certain  districts,  under  the  70th  parallel.  It  takes 
three  months,  usually,  to  ripen  on  the  Mackenzie,  and  on  our  ar- 
rival at  Fort  Simpson  we  found  it  in  full  ear,  having  been  sown 
seventy-five  days  previously.  In  October,  1836,  a  pit  sunk  by 
Mr.  M'Pherson,  in  a  heavy  mixture,  of  sand  and  clay,  to  the  depth 
of  16  feet  10  inches,  revealed  10  feet  7  inches  of  thawed  soil  on 
the  surface,  and  6  feet  3  inches  of  a  permanently  frozen  layer,  be- 
neath which  the  ground  was  not  frozen. 

A  number  of  milch  cows  are  kept  at  Fort  Simpson,  and  one  or 
two  fat  oxen  are  killed  annually.  Hay  for  the  winter  provender 
of  the  stock  is  made  about  one  hundred  miles  up  the  river,  where 
there  are  good  meadows  or  marshes,  and  whence  it  is  rafted  down 
in  boats.  We  met  the  haymakers,  being  three  men,  some  hours 
before  we  reached  the  fort,  on  their  way  to  cut  the  grass,  which 
is  a  bent  that  grows  iQ  water.  The  hay  will  be  brought  down  in 
September. 


RIVER  OK   THE    MOUNTAI.NB. 


lOJ 


i 


The  fort  Rtands  on  an  island  at  the  junction  of  the  lliver  of  the 
Mountains  {Riviere  auz  Lianls)  with  the  Mackenzie.     This 
large  tributary  originates  in  the  rocessos  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
by  many  small  streams  which,  uniting,  form  two  branches.    Both 
branches  rise  to  the  westward  of  the  higher  peaks,  and  atibrd 
another  of  the  many  instances  of  streams  of  magnitude  crossing 
the  chain.     By  Dease's  River,  which  is  the  westernmost  aflluent 
of  the  north  branch,  boats  pass  through  the  mountains,  and  gain, 
after  much  trying  and  perilous  navigation,  and  some  portages,  the 
Pelly  and  Lewis,  at  the  junction  of  which  the  Company  have  a 
post  named  Felly  Banks.     Native  traders  travel  thither  twice  in 
the  season  from  Lynn  Canal,  situated  to  the  north  of  the  island 
of  Sitka,  on  the  59th  parallel.     This  inlet  is  frequented  by  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company's  steamers,  and,  in  this  present  summer 
of  1848,  Mr.  Todd,  captain  of  one  of  these  steamers,  forwarded 
letters  and  newspapers  to  Mr.  Campbell,  the  officer  in  charge  at 
Pelly  Banks.     One  of  the  newspapers,  published  at  Honolulu, 
which  was  sent  on  to  Fort  Simpson,  was  transmitted  by  Mr. 
M'Pherson  to  Fort  ConBdence  in  the  winter,  and  gave  us  the 
first  intelligence  of  the  origin  of  the  gold  hunt  in  California,  and 
of  the  migration  within  a  few  days  of  two  thousand  men  from 
Oregon,  and  of  most  of  the  Company's  servants  at  Fort  Vancou- 
ver, on  that  exciting  pursuit.     Such  unexpected  channels  does 
commerce  open  for  the  conveyance  of  intelligence,  and  had  previ- 
ous arrangements  been  made,  we  might,  by  the  route  across  the 
Andes  at  Panama,  the  Atlantic  steamers  to  California,  or  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  and  this  northern  way  back  again  across  the 
Rocky  Mountain  ridge,  have  had  mucl   more  recent  intelligence 
of  our  friends  in  Europe  than  we  were  destined  to  receive  during 
our  long  winter  residence  on  Great  Bear  Lake. 

The  Lewis  flows  from  a  large  sheet  of  water,  lying  within  the 
English  boundary,  but  named  the  Russian  Lake,  because  Mr. 
Roderick  Campbell,  who  was  the  first  officer  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  who  visited  it,  met  there  a  party  of  Russian  traders. 
The  influence  of  these  rivals  in  trade  is  supposed  to  have  caused 
the  attack  made  by  the  natives  on  Mr.  Campbell's  post  in  the 
winter  of  1839,  which  resulted  in  the  loss  of  three  of  his  party  by 
famine,  and  the  narrow  escape  of  the  remainder  from  the  same 
fate,  as  related  in  the  narrative  of  Bease  and  Simpson's  voyage 
(p.  173).     Mr.  Campbell,  undaunted  by  this  calamity,  renewed 


106 


RIVER  PKLLY. 


nis  journeys  in  the  same  direction,  and,  in  consequence  of  an 
agreement  that  had  then  been  made  between  the  Hudson's  Bay 
and  Russian  Fur  Companies,  with  less  hazard.  His  first  post, 
named  after  himself,  was  on  the  Pclly,  and  at  the  supposed  dis- 
tance from  Fort  Halkett,  on  the  River  of  the  Mountains,  of  three 
hundred  miles,  by  the  winter  route,  which  is  usually  as  direct  as 
the  nature  of  the  country  will  admit.  From  Campbell's  post  to 
the  Forks  or  junction  of  the  Lewis  and  Pelly,  where  the  present 
fort  is  situated,  the  distance  is  reckoned  at  two  hundred  and  forty 
miles  on  a  southwest  course.  To  retrace  this  length  of  way,  the 
crew  of  a  light  canoe  are  said  to  consume  twelve  days  on  the 
tracking  line,  being  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  a  day,  which  is 
generally  considered  as  but  an  indifferent  day's  work  against  the 
current.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  river  is  very  tortuous, 
and  that  there  are  many  impediments  in  a  stream  flowing  through 
so  mountainous  a  region.  Of  these  two  branches,  the  Lewis  is 
the  westernmost,  and  the  river  formed  by  their  junction,  which 
retains  the  name  of  Pelly,  falls  into  the  Pacific.  By  observations 
made  by  Mr.  Campbell  on  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  at 
Pelly  Banks,  the  height  of  that  post  above  the  sea  has  been  esti- 
mated at  13T4  feet. 

After  the  union  of  its  two  arms,  the  River  of  the  Mountains 
flows  for  a  considerable  breadth  of  longitude  on  the  59th  parallel, 
and  near  the  middle  of  this  part,  at  the  influx  of  Smith's  River, 
Fort  Halkett  stands.  Fort  Liard  is  situated  lower  down,  after 
the  river  has  made  a  sharp  turn  to  the  north,  in  its  course  to- 
ward the  Mackenzie,  which  it  joins  at  Fort  Simpson.  Though 
this  post  is  more  elevated  than  Fort  Simpson,  by  at  least  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  is  only  two  degrees  of  latitude  to  the 
southward,  its  climate  is  said  to  be  very  superior,  and  its  vegeta- 
ble productions  of  better  growth  and  quality.  Barley  and  oats 
yield  good  crops,  and  in  favorable  seasons  wheat  ripens  well. 
This  place,  then,  or  the  60th  parallel,  may  be  considered  as 
the  northern  limit  of  the  economical  culture  of  wheat. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  Wapiti  or  Wawas- 
keeslioo  of  the  Crees,  the  representative  of  the  European  red  deer, 
does  not  range  to  the  north  of  the  River  of  the  Mountains,  and 
the  same  stream  marks  the  northern  limit  of  the  American  mag- 
pie, Say's  grouse,  and  the  white  crane  {Grus  americana). 

Mr.  M'Pherson  had  most  kindly  set  aside  for  me  a  cask  of  ex- 


1 


ROCKY    MOUNTAINS. 


107 


collent  corned  beef,  cured  at  the  fort,  and  some  bags  of  very  fine 
potatoes  raised  at  Fort  Liard,  with  L'everal  other  things  which  he 
knew  would  be  serviceable  at  our  winter  residence.  I  left  them 
in  store,  for  Mr.  Bell  to  embark  when  he  came  up,  together  with 
such  supplies  of  iron- work  and  dried  meat  as  the  depot  could  fur- 
nish, and  to  convey  them  to  our  future  winter  residence,  on  Great 
Bear  Lake.  The  boats  were  hauled  up,  their  bottoms  payed  over 
with  boiling  mineral  pitch,  and  such  other  repairs  made  as  were 
necessary.  I  had  intended  to  give  them  additional  false  keels  at 
this  place,  to  render  them  safer  and  more  weatherly  at  sea,  and, 
with  this  view,  had  long  bolts  and  screws  prepared  at  Portsmouth 
dockyard,  to  fit  plates  sunk  in  the  keels ;  but  the  bolts  were  un- 
luckily left  behind  at  Cumberland  House,  Mr.  Bell  not  being 
aware  of  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  designed,  and  we  could 
not  spare  time  to  make  others.  All  our  preparations  having  been 
made  on  the  23d,  we  left  the  fort  on  the  24th,  at  5  a.m.,  and 
three  hours  afterward  had  the  first  sight  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
In  nine  hours  we  were  exactly  opposite  the  end  of  the  first  range, 
where  the  Mackenzie,  seemingly  to  avoid  the  barrier  formed  by 
the  mountains,  makes  a  sudden  flexure  from  a  northwest  course 
to  a  north-northeast  one. 

Here  I  must  interrupt  the  narrative  for  a  little,  to  give  some 


I 


KUCKY   MOUNTAINS  AT  THE    OEND  OF  THE   RIVER. 


108 


ROCKY   MOUNTAINS. 


account  of  the  geological  structure  of  the  country  through  which 
the  Mackenzie  Hows. 

When  the  mountains  are  first  seen,  in  descending  the  river,  they 
present  an  assemblage  of  conical  peaks,  rising  apparently  about 
two  thousand  feet  above  the  valley  ;  and  it  is  not  until  we  come 
opposite  to  the  end  of  the  first  mountain,  that  we  observe  them  to 
be  disposed  in  parallel  ridges,  having  a  direction  of  about  south- 
southwest  and  north-northeast  ;*  which  makes  an  angle  of  rather 
more  than  forty-five  degrees  with  the  axis  of  the  great  chain,  from 
which  they  project  like  spurs  The  circumstance  of  the  valleys 
pervading  the  chain  transversely,  though  with  more  or  less  of  as- 
cent, explains  the  reason  of  the  principal  rivers  on  both  the  east- 
ern and  western  slopes  having  their  sources  beyond  the  axis  of 
the  range,  and  flowing  through  it.  From  some  passages  in  Dr. 
Hooker's  letters,  I  infer  that  the  Himalayas  have  a  similar  con- 
figuration. 

As  the  successive  spurs  and  the  valleys  between  them  open  out 
to  the  voyager  who  descends  the  river,  he  observes  that  the  east- 
ern faces  of  the  ridges  rise  abruptly  like  a  wall,  while  their  west- 
ern flanks  are  more  shelving.  This  is  not,  however,  uniformly 
the  case,  as  in  some  of  the  ridges  lofty  escarpments  occur  also  on 
their  western  sides. 

The  height  of  the  almost  precipitous  cliff' of  the  first  mountain 
at  the  bend  of  the  river  appeared  to  the  eye,  from  a  distance  of 
seven  or  eight  miles,  to  be  eight  or  nine  hundred  feet,  though  the 
width  of  the  base  of  the  hill  did  not  exceed  a  mile.  Further 
back,  the  summit  of  the  ridge  terminated  by  this  mountain  was 
judged  to  be  between  two  thousand  and  two  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred feet  high.  The  heights  here  mentioned  were  estimated 
solely  by  the  eye,  and  as  in  this  climate  heights  and  distances 
are  very  deceptive  they  must  be  considered  as  very  rough  ap- 
proximations. No  trees  could  be  detected  on  the  summits  when 
examined  with  the  telescope,  but  the  lower  hills,  and  the  slopes 
to  the  height  of  a  thousand  feet,  were  well  wooded. 

The  first  range  re-appears  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  and  is 
seen  at  intervals  running  in  the  direction  of  M' Vicar's  Bay  of 

*  I  have  never  had  leisure  to  ascertain  the  true  course  of  these  ranges 
within  six  or  seven  degrees,  but  from  the  bearings  I  have  taken  several 
times  in  passing,  I  suppose  that  south  20°  west,  and  north  20°  east,  iM 
very  near  their  direction. 


I 


ROCKY   MOUNTAINS. 


109 


M 


Great  Bear  Lake,  whose  basin  interposes  between  its  termination 
and  the  granite  and  gneiss  that  skirt  the  eastern  arms  of  that 
lake. 

At  the  bend  of  the  Mackenzie,  the  valley  which  interposes  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  ridges  does  not  appear  to  exceed  five 
miles  in  width,  but  it  was  seen  too  obliquely  to  enable  us  to  form 
a  correct  judgment.  The  river  flows  through  this  valley  for 
upward  of  fifty  miles,  when,  making  a  small  bend  to  the  west- 
ward, it  escapes  across  the  ridge.  Thus  far  the  second  ridge* 
runs  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river,  showing  a  bold  precipitous 
craggy  side  at  intervals,  some  parts  being  concealed  from  the  voy- 
ager by  the  intervening  swelling  grounds  which  form  the  floor  of 
the  valley.  Where  the  river  cuts  it,  a  high  island  of  limestone 
stands  in  mid  channel,  and  on  the  east  bank,  a  round-topped  hill, 
named  the  "  Rock  by  the  River's  Side"  t  {Roche  qui  trempe 
a  Veau),  rises  precipitously  from  the  water's  edge  to  the  height 
of  five  or  six  hundred  feet  or  more.  The  base  of  this  hill  scarcely 
exceeds  a  mile  in  diameter,  and  most  of  the  ridges  seem  to  be  of 
similar  breadth.  From  the  Rock  by  the  River's  Side  the  ridge 
continues,  but  with  interruptions,  onward  in  the  same  direction 
to  the  elevated  promontory  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  named  Sas-choh 
etha  (Great  Bear  Hill),  which  stands  between  Keith's  and 
M'Vicar's  Bays. 

The  other  spurs,  which  succeed  these  down  to  the  delta  of  the 
river,  rise  in  like  manner  like  rugged  walls  from  the  surrounding 
low,  undulating  country,  the  stream  escaping  through  them  by 
successive  gaps.  Many  of  the  escarpments,  when  seen  from  a 
distance  reflecting  the  rays  of  the  sun,  look  as  bright  and  white 
as  chalk  clifis :  and  but  for  information  which  I  have  gleaned 
from  voyagers  who  have  crossed  them,  I  should  have  been  in 
doubt  whether  they  were  not  formed  of  that  material  or  of  white 
sand,  instead  of  being  hard  limestone. 

At  this  date  only  a  few  patches  of  snow  remained  in  the  hol- 
lows, having  a  northern  exposure ;  but  in  the  following  year  they 
were  entirely  covered  with  snow  until  late  in  June,  and  for  some 
weeks  after  all  the  low  country  had  become  quite  bare.  Both 
the  first  and  second  ridges  are  distinctly  stratified  at  the  bend  of 
the  river,  and  seemingly  capped  with  trap.     Where  they  and  the 

*  Partly  seen  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  wood-cut,  p.  107 
t  See  Wood-cut,  p.  113. 


no 


BANKS  OF  THE  MACKENZIE. 


II 


l!| 


succeeding  ridges  are  cut  by  the  river,  limestone  is  the  chief  rock 
that  is  visible  ;  but  I  have  had  no  opportunity  of  examining  tho 
principal  cliffs,  and  have  made  but  a  very  cursory  inspection  of 
any.  The  spurs  which  reach  the  Mackenzie  consist,  perhaps, 
wholly  of  limestone.  Sandstone  exists  in  their  vicinity,  but  1 
believe  it  is  a  newer  deposit,  belonging  to  that  which  forms  the 
floors  of  the  valleys,  and  rests  unconformably  on  the  tilted  beds 
of  the  ridges.  No  organic  remains  were  detected  in  any  of  the 
highly  inclined  beds,  but  gypsum  and  chert  are  ot  frequent  oc- 
currence. 

Traders  who  have  crossed  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
slopes  of  the  continent  say  that  there  are  fourteen  or  fifteen  ranges 
of  hills,  and  that  when  they  are  viewed  from  the  summit  of  a 
peak,  the  mountain  tops  appear  to  be  crowded  together  in  great 
confusion,  like  a  sea  of  conical  billows.  My  informants  could  not 
tell  me  whether  granite,  clay-slate,  or  trap  rocks  entered  into  their 
composition  or  not ;  but  it  is  probable  that  such  is  the  case,  as 
we  know  it  to  be  in  more  southern  latitudes.  I  received  speci- 
mens  of  semi-opal,  plumbago,  and  specular  iron,  gathered  on  one 
of  the  ridges.  The  more  westerly  ranges  have  obtained  from  the 
traders  the  name  of  the  Peak  Mountains. 

On  the  Mackenzie,  a  shaly  formation  makes  the  chief  part  of 
the  banks,  and  also  much  of  the  undulating  valleys  between  the 
elevated  spurs.  It  is  based  on  horizontal  beds  of  limestone,  and 
in  some  places  of  sandstone,  which  abut  against  the  inclined 
strata  of  the  lofty  wall-like  ridges,  or  rest  partially  on  their  edges. 
Covering  the  shaly  beds,  there  exists  in  many  places  a  deposit 
of  sand,  sometimes  cohering  so  as  to  form  a  friable  sandstone  ; 
and  where  a  good  section  of  the  bank  occurs,  a  capping  of  gravel 
and  boulders,  of  various  thickness,  is  seen  crowning  the  whole. 
The  shale  crumbles  readily,  and  often  takes  fire  spontaneously, 
occasioning  the  ruin  of  the  bank,  so  that  it  is  only  by  the  en- 
croachments of  the  river  carrj'ing  away  the  debris  that  the  true 
structure  is  revealed.  The  boulders  that  have  dropped  from 
above  pave  the  beach  in  many  places  as  closely  and  regularly  as 
if  it  were  a  work  of  art,  the  passage  of  ice  over  them  driving  them 
irmly  and  evenly  into  the  bed  of  tenacious  clay  which  the  shale 
n  breaking  down  produces. 

I  have  no  evidence  whereby  the  geological  age  of  the  shale 
iiiay  be  certainly  deduced,  but  am  inclined  to  consider  it  as  be- 


BHALY  BEDS.-AMMALS. 


Ill 


t 


I 


longing  to  the  epoch  of  the  Marcellus  deposit,  on  account  of  its 
exact  lithological  resemblance  to  the  bituminous  beds  of  Athabasca 
River,  and  the  occurrence  of  the  Tentaculites  Jissurella  in  the 
fragments  which  hne  the  beach  at  the  west  end  of  Great  Slave 
Lake.*  The  difficulty  of  deciding  upon  the  age  of  the  beds 
through  which  the  river  flows  is  increased  by  the  occurrence 
among  them  of  a  tertiary  lignite  formation,  which  also  takes  fire 
spontaneously.  This  general  account  of  the  rocks  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie is  here  introduced  to  facilitate  the  subsequent  descriptions 
of  such  points  as  I  landed  upon. 

With  respect  to  some  of  the  more  remarkable  quadrupeds  that 
inhabit  the  Rocky  mountains,  I  may  state  that  the  mountain 
sheep,  or  big-horn  as  it  is  named  {Ovis  montana),  frequents  the 
higher  peaks  down  to  the  delta  of  the  Mackenzie.  The  Slave 
Indian  appellation  of  this  fine  animal  is  Sass-sei-yeuneh,  or 
♦'  Foolish  Bear."  It  keeps  to  the  craggy  summits,  and  can 
scarcely  be  approached  by  the  hunter  who  ascends  toward  it  from 
below ;  but  should  he  once  get  above  it,  he  can  come  near  it 
easily.  Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  equal  to  well  flavored  mutton,  but 
its  coat  resembles  tnat  of  the  reindeer,  and  is  not  woolly.  The 
goat-antelope  {Antilocapra  americana),  which  is  covered  with  a 
fine  long-stapled  wool,  has  its  northern  limit  on  the  River  of  the 
Mountains.  Its  flesh  is  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  mountain 
sheep.  Reindeer,  of  a  much  larger  size  and  darker  color  than 
the  "  Barren-ground  variety,"  frequent  the  mountain  valleys ; 
and  moose  deer,  extending  their  range  nearly  to  the  Arctic  Sea, 
through  the  wooded  districts  only,  feed  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers 
where  willows  grow.  Neither  musk-oxen  nor  bison  inhabit  this 
part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains ;  the  latter,  as  has  been  mentioned, 
having  their  northern  limit  on  the  Horn  Mountain ;  while  the 
former  keep  within  the  Arctic  circle,  and  to  the  east  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie. The  little  Pika,  or  tail-less  hare,  occupies  the  grassy 
eminences,  and  lays  up  a  stock  of  hay  for  winter  use.  Say's 
grouse  {Tetrao  Sayi),  named  Ti-choh,  i.  e.  "  big  grouse,"  has  not 
been  killed  further  north  than  the  Nohhane  Bute ;  the  pin-tailed 

*  In  1826,  Mr.  Sowerby  referred  some  fossils  which  I  obtained  from  the 
limestone  beds  of  the  Mackenzie,  to  the  Oxford  oolite  and  cornbrash.  These, 
which  were  mostly  terebratulites,  are  not  now  within  my  reach,  but  should 
his  opinion  be  confirmed  by  further  specimens  from  the  same  quarter,  they 
would  indicate  that  the  bituminous  shale  of  the  Mackenzie  belongs  to  the 
liai<. 


112 


AFFLUENTS  OF  THE   MACKENZIE. 


grouse  goes  as  far  down  as  the  delta  ;  and  the  Tetrao  canadensis 
lives  in  the  marshy  parts  of  the  forest  up  to  Feel's  River,  and  is 
named  Ti;  while  the  willow  and  white-tailed  ptarmigans  bear 
the  designation  of  Kasbah  or  Kccmpbah,  in  the  Slave  or  Chepe- 
wyan  tongue.  The  last  named  is  exclusively  an  Alpine  species. 
The  American  magpie  has  not  been  seen  to  the  north  of  the  River 
of  the  Mountains,  and  is  rare  even  there. 

Many  large  streams  join  the  Mackenzie  below  Fort  Simpson. 
One,  which  the  Nohhane  Indians  are  accustomed  to  descend, 
flows  down  the  valley  between  the  first  and  second  mountain 
ridges,  and  joins  the  Mackenzie  at  its  great  bend.  It  is  desig- 
natec  .rom  these  people,  but  it  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
stream  of  the  same  name,  which  issues  also  from  the  hunting- 
grounds  of  the  Nohhanes,  but  falls  into  the  River  of  the  Mount- 
ains. 

The  Willow  Lake  River  enters  the  Mackenzie  a  little  below 
the  bend,  from  the  right  bank.  It  is  ascended  by  the  Marten 
Lake  Indians  as  far  as  it  is  navigable  for  their  canoes,  and  then 
a  march  of  four  hours,  or  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  miles,  takes  them 
to  Marten  Lake. 

Another  river  of  considerable  size  comes  in  on  the  left  bank, 
which  is  named  the  Bekka-tess  by  the  Dahadinnes  who  frequent 
its  banks,  and  La  Riviere  de  Gravoir  by  the  voyagers.  It  joins 
the  Mackenzie  in  latitude  64^°  N.,  and  is  said  to  issue  from  a 
large  lake,  situated  on  the  summit,  or  even  on  the  western  side, 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  range.  The  impediments  to  its  naviga- 
tion have  prevented  it  from  being  used  as  a  channel  for  the  Com- 
pany's trade  ;  and  it  has  been  as  yet  only  partially  explored, 
though  it  has  been  thought  that  a  route  might  be  discovered 
♦Jirough  it  to  the  banks  of  the  Yukon.  The  Dahadinnes  speak 
a  dialect  of  the  Chepewyan  tongue.  Mr.  M'Kenzie,  the  gentle- 
man in  charge  of  Fort  Norman,  to  which  these  people  resort,  in- 
formed me  that  their  correct  designation  in  their  own  language  is 
Cheta-ut-tinnk  or  ' Dtchetata-ut-tinne,  which,  being  also  the  na- 
tional name  of  the  Beaver  and  Strong-bow  or  Mountain  Indians, 
points  them  out  as  members  of  the  same  nation. 


!; 


i« 


i< 


I 


CHAPTER   VI. 

Rock  by  the  River's  side. — Shale  Formation. — Fort  Norman. — Tertiary  Coal  Form- 
ation.— Lignite  Beds. — Fossil  Leaves. — Edible  Clay. — Spontaneous  combustion 
of  the  River  Bank. — Hill  at  Bear  Lake  River. — Hill  at  the  Rapid  on  that  River. 
— Forest. — Plants. — Birds. 

We  drifted  with  the  stream  all  night,  and  in  the  morning  of 
July  the  25th,  a  thick  fog  preventing  us  from  pulling,  we  con- 
tinued to  drift,  trusting  that  the  current  would  carry  us  clear  of 
shoals  and  low  islands.  The  sky  cleared  at  breakfast-time,  and 
by  noon  we  were  abreast  of  the  "  Rock  by  the  River's  Side." 
In  some  places,  where  there  are  islands,  the  river  is  two  or  three 
miles  wide  ;  in  others,  it  does  not  appear  more  than  a  mile,  or  a 
mile  and  a  half  The  small  island,  which  lies  in  the  channel 
just  above  the  Rock  by  the  River's  Side,  is  composed  of  blackish 


ROCK    UY    THK   RIVEB'S   SIDE. 

gray  compact  limestone,  dipping  to  the  south-half-east,  a,t  an 
angle  of  about  twenty  degrees  ;  the  upper  bed,  which  is  thinner 
and  more  slaty  than  the  others,  being  composed  of  irregularly 


ft 


H 


114 


ROCK  BY  THE  RIVER'S  SIDE.-RIVER  TERRACES. 


oblong  distinct  concretions.  On  the  upper  or  south  side  of  th« 
Rock  by  the  River's  Side  the  stone  is  a  bituminous  limesione, 
yielding  the  smell  of  stinkstein  when  struck  ;  the  precipitous  face 
of  the  rock  appears  to  be  the  same  kind  of  limestone.  Immedi- 
ately below  the  Rock,  for  the  distance  of  half  a  milo,  lime- 
stone similar  to  that  of  the  small  island  occurs  in  gently  inclined 
beds. 

In  the  body  of  this  high  bluff  the  beds  are  nearly  vertical ; 
and,  as  well  as  I  could  judge  from  the  view  obtained  in  descend- 
ing the  stream,  they  were  disposed  as  if  the  axis  of  the  ridge  had 
been  the  direction  of  the  elevating  force,  the  beds  inclining  to- 
ward the  summit  from  both  sides.  In  some  parts  there  seemed 
to  be  inclined  beds  lying  non-conformably  over  the  ends  of  the 
nearly  vertical  ones,  but  I  could  not  be  certain,  without  closer 
examination,  that  what  I  saw  was  not  merely  oblique  sections 
of  the  edges  of  the  lower  beds. 

A  thermal  spring,  much  resembling  sea-water  in  its  saline  con- 
tents, issues  from  the  front  of  the  cliff,  and  the  fissure  from  whence 
it  flows  is  incrusted  with  crystallized  gypsum.*  Shale  beds  abut 
against  the  lower  side  of  the  rock,  covering  the  limestone  beds 
above  mentioned  ;  but  they  are  in  a  great  measure  concealed  by 
the  shelving  debris  of  the  bank.  Contiguous  to  the  upper  or 
south  side  of  the  Rock  there  are  sloping  banks  of  gravel,  capped 
by  a  vertical  wall  of  friable  sandstone.  And  three  miles  higher 
up  the  stream,  there  are  two  river  terraces,  more  complete  than 
any  I  noticed  elsewhere  on  the  Mackenzie,  though  in  many  places 
a  high  and  low  bank  can  be  traced.  These  terraces  are  composed 
of  fine  sand  :  and  the  slope  between  them  is  so  steep  as  to  require 
to  be  ascended  on  all  fours.  Both  terraces  are  very  regular  in 
their  outlines,  and  are  covered  with  well  grown  Pinus  banksiana. 
The  uppermost  is  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the 
river.  From  this  terrace,  the  Rock  by  the  River's  Side  is  clear- 
ly seen  to  be  part  of  a  chain,  which  is  crossed  there  by  the  river, 
as  has  been  already  mentioned.  This  is  not  so  evident  from  the 
channel  of  the  stream.  The  high  sand-banks  continue  almost 
without  a  break  for  twenty  miles  further  up,  and  in  some  places 
they  are  seen  to  rest  upon  a  gray  shale.  At  one  place  where 
there  is  a  good  section,  it  was  perceived  that  the  surface  of  the 

*  Dr.  Davy,  who  kindly  analyzed  some  water  from  this  spring,  ascer- 
tained that  the  chief  saline  ingredient  was  sulphate  of  magnesia. 


BLACK-WATER  RIVER. 


115 


shale  on  which  the  sand  reposed  was  uneven,  and  much  indented 
also  by  pot-holes  and  projecting  tongues ;  the  gravel  and  sand 
descending  into  the  pits,  and  the  points  of  shale  rising  among  the 
sand.  The  similarity  of  these  shale  and  sand-clifis  to  those  at 
the  junction  of  the  Clear-water  and  Elk  Rivers  is  very  great ;  but 
the  shale  generally  is  not  so  bituminous  as  at  the  latter  locality. 
The  surface  of  the  country  above  is  strewed  with  gravel  and 
boulders,  and  in  the  decay  of  the  bank  these  fall  down  and  line 
the  channel  of  the  river.  When  the  water  is  high,  as  it  is  in 
the  spring,  little  flat  beach  is  to  be  seen  ;  but  in  the  autumn,  the 
pavement  of  boulders  to  which  I  have  already  alluded  is  exposed. 
Among  these,  above  the  Rock  by  the  River's  Side,  I  observed 
a  considerable  number  of  granites,  some  gneiss,  many  sienites, 
basalts,  and  greenstones ;  also  felspar  rock,  felspar  porphyries, 
Lydian-stones,  quartz  rock,  and  limestones  of  various  kinds,  with 
quartzose  sandstones,  white,  red,  and  spotted. 

I  have  been  disposed  to  give  a  more  full  abstract  of  the  notes 
I  made  in  descending  and  ascending  this  part  of  the  river,  be- 
cause, in  following  its  oblique  course  of  more  than  fifty  miles, 
from  the  first  ridge  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  at  the  bend,  to  the 
second  at  the  Rock  by  the  River's  Side,  all  the  various  strata  ol 
the  valley  are  seen,  and,  if  properly  examined,  there  is  little  rea- 
son to  doubt  that  a  key  to  the  geological  formations  of  the  entire 
length  of  the  Mackenzie  might  be  obtained. 

On  the  left  bank,  six  miles  below  the  Rock  by  the  River's 
Side,  beds  of  shale  appear,  having  a  slight  dip  to  the  southward ; 
and  the  ridge,  which  is  prolonged  on  that  side  from  the  rock  above- 
named  in  a  north-northeast  direction,  appears  very  rugged,  with 
irregularly  serrated  summits,  the  crest  being  apparently  extreme- 
ly narrow.  The  country  between  the  ridges  seems  to  be  pretty 
even,  except  where  it  is  cut  by  rivulets ;  and  the  high  bank  of 
the  river  is  level,  though  in  places  it  looks  hummocky  or  hilly, 
because  of  the  gullies  which  intersect  it. 

In  the  evening  we  landed  to  cook  supper  at  the  mouth  of 
Black-water  River,  which  issues  from  a  lake  of  the  same  name 
lying  on  the  eastern  bank ;  and,  embarking  again  to  drift  during 
the  night,  passed  a  bend  of  ninety  degrees,  which  the  river  makes 
to  the  westward,  and  which  is  known  to  the  voyagers  by  the 
appellation  of  "  The  Angle"  {L'Sqtterre).  It  marks  the  passage 
of  the  river  through  another  range,  of  which  a  high  hill  on  the 


no 


FORT  NORMAN 


<i 


eastern  bank,  named  Clark's  Hill,  is  the  most  conspicuous  part 
The  ridge  continued  from  this  hill  crosses  Boar  Lake  River  in 
the  middle  of  its  course,  and  there  forms  a  rapid. 

A  short  way  below  the  "  Angle,"  the  Red  Rock  River,  named 
also  Riviere  des  Grosses  Roches,  flows  in  from  the  west.  It  looks 
wide  at  its  mouth,  but  is  not  a  large  stream  Fifteen  miles  fur- 
ther down,  the  Gravel  or  Dahadinne  River,  already  mentioned, 
flowing  also  from  the  mountains  on  the  left,  comes  in  below  the 
site  of  an  old  fort.  We  were  opposite  to  this  when  we  resumed 
our  oars  on  the  morning  of  the  26th  at  four  o'clock,  and  soon 
afterward,  passing  a  sandy  promontory  on  the  left  hand,  named 
the  "Crumbling  Beaver"  {Castor  qui  d^boule),  we  arrived  at 
Fort  Norman.  Obtaining  here  a  bottle  of  milk  as  a  grateful 
addition  to  our  breakfast,  we  landed  two  hours  later  to  prepare 
that  meal,  and  at  noon  reached  the  mouth  of  Bear  Lake  River. 
Between  Fort  Norman  and  this  river  a  tertiary  coal  formation 
occurs,  which  deserves  particular  notice. 

The  coed,  when  recently  extracted  from  the  beds,  is  massive, 
and  most  generally  shows  the  woody  structure  distinctly,  the  beds 
appearing  to  be  composed  of  pretty  large  trunks  of  trees  lying 
horizontally,  and  having  their  woody  fibres  and  layers  much 
twisted  and  contorted,  similar  to  the  white  spruce  now  growing 
in  exposed  situations  in  the  same  latitude.  Specimens  of  this 
coal,  examined  by  Mr.  Bowerbank,  were  pronounced  by  him  to 
be  decidedly  of  coniferous  origin,  and  the  structure  of  the  wood 
to  be  more  like  that  of  Pinus  than  Araucaria  ;  but  on  this  lat- 
ter point  he  was  not  so  certain.  It  is  probable  that  the  examin- 
ation of  a  greater  variety  of  specimens  would  detect  several  kinds 
of  wood  in  the  coal,  as  a  bed  of  fossil  leaves  connected  with  the 
formation  reveals  the  existence  at  the  time  of  various  dicotyle- 
donous trees,  probably  Acerinece,  and  of  one  which  I  am  inclined 
to  consider  as  belonging  to  the  yew  tribe.  To  these  I  shall  refer 
again. 

When  exposed  for  even  a  short  time  to  the  atmosphere,  the 
coal  splits  into  rhomboidal  fragments,  which  again  separate  into 
thin  layers,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  preserve  a  piece  large  enough 
to  show  the  woody  structure  in  perfection.  Much  of  it  falls 
eventually  into  a  coarse  powder ;  and  if  exposed  to  the  action 
of  moist  air  in  the  mass  it  takes  fire,  and  burns  with  a  fetid 
smell,  and  little  smoke  or  flame,  leaving  a  brownish-red  ash,  not 


TERTIARY   COAL  FORMATION. 


117 


one-tenth  of  the  original  bulk  of  coal  taken  from  the  purer  beds, 
for  some  contain  much  more  earthy  matter. 

Different  beds,  and  even  different  parts  of  the  same  bed,  when 
traced  to  the  distance  of  a  few  hundred  yards,  present  examples 
of  "  fibrous  brown-coal,"  "  earth-coal,"  "  conchoidal  brown-coal," 
and  "  trapezoidal  brown-coal."  Some  beds  have  the  external 
characters  of"  compact  bitumen  ;"  but  they  get  rally  exhibit  in 
the  cross  fracture  concentric  layers,  although  from  their  jet-like 
composition  the  nature  of  the  woody  fibres  can  not  be  detected 
by  the  microscope.  Some  pieces  have  a  strong  resemblance  to 
charcoal  in  structure,  color,  and  lustre.  Very  frequently  the  coal 
may  be  named  a  "  bituminous  slate,"  of  which  it  has  many  of 
the  lithological  characters,  but  on  examination  with  a  lens  it  is 
seen  to  be  composed  of  comminuted  woody  matter,  mixed  with 
clay  and  small  imbedded  fragments  resembling  charred  wood. 
Crystals  of  selenite  occur  in  this  slate,  and  also  minute  portions 
of  resin,  or  perhaps  of  amber.  When  this  shaly  coal  is  burnt,  it 
leaves  light,  whitish-colored  ashes.  The  shape  of  the  stems  and 
branches  of  the  trees  is  best  preserved  when  they  contain  siliceous 
matter  or  iron-stone  ;  and  in  this  case,  the  bark  of  the  tree  is 
often  highly  bituminized,  and  falls  off  from  the  specimen. 

From  the  readiness  with  which  the  coal  takes  fire  spontaneous- 
ly, the  beds  are  destroyed  as  they  become  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere ;  and  the  bank  is  constantly  tumbling  down,  so  that  it  is 
only  when  the  debris  have  been  washed  away  by  the  river,  that 
good  sections  are  exposed.  The  beds  were  on  fire  near  Bear 
River,  when  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie  discovered  them,  in  1785, 
and  the  smoke,  with  fiame  visible  by  night,  has  been  present  in 
some  part  or  other  of  the  formation  ever  since. 

From  one  to  four  beds  of  coal  are  exposed  above  the  water 
level  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  the  thickest  of  which  exceeds 
three  yards,  and  was  visible  a  short  way  above  Bear  Biver  in  the 
autumn  only — the  Mackenzie  being  then  seven  or  eight  feet  below 
its  spring  level. 

Interstratified  with  the  coal  beds,  there  are  layers  of  gravel, 
which  occasionally,  through  the  intermixture  of  clay  more  or  less 
iron-shot,  acquire  tenacity  enough  to  form  vertical  clifis,  but  more 
often  are  very  crumbly.  The  pebbles  composing  the  gravel  vary 
in  size  from  that  of  a  pea  to  that  of  an  orange,  and  are  formed 
of  Lydian-stone,  flinty  slate,  white  quartz,  quartose  sandstone,  and 


118 


FOSSIL  LEAVES. 


>f, 


conglomerate,  clay-stone,  and  slate-clay.  The  gravel  is  sometimes 
seamed  by  thin  layers  of  fine  sand,  and  its  beds  vary  in  thickness 
up  to  thirty  or  forty  feet. 

In  place  of  the  gravel,  a  friable  sandstone  is  often  interposed 
between  the  coal-beds  or  rests  upon  them.  It  is  fine-grained, 
often  dark  from  the  dissemination  of  bituminous  matter,  and  has 
so  little  tenacity,  that  in  many  places  it  is  excavated  by  the  sand* 
martens.  Being  porous,  it  fills  with  water,  and  is  frozen  into  a 
compact,  hard  rock,  for  most  of  the  year ;  but  becomes  moist, 
and  breaks  down  under  the  influence  of  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun 
in  spring. 

Potter's  day,  of  a  gray  or  brown  color,  alternates  with  the 
beds  already  named,  in  layers  varying  from  one  foot  to  forty  or 
more  in  thickness.  This  clay  is  often  highly  bituminous,  and  is 
penetrated  by  ramifications  of  carbonaceous  matter,  resembling 
the  roots  of  vegetables.  About  ten  miles  above  Great  Bear 
River,  a  layer  of  this  material,  lying  immediately  over  a  bed  of 
coal  which  was  on  fire,  has  been  baked  so  as  to  resemble  a  fine 
yellowish-colored  biscuit  porcelain.  In  a  part  of  this,  I  found 
numerous  impressions  of  leaves,  most  of  them  dicotyledonous,  but 
one  of  them  apparently  coniferous,  and  belonging,  probably,  to 
the  yew  genus.  The  existence  on  many  of  the  leaves  of  the  lat- 
ter plant  of  little  round  bodies  like  the  fructification  of  ferns,  in- 
vested the  specimens  with  much  interest.  The  clay  had  unfortu- 
nately cracked  so  much  under  the  influence  of  the  heat  to  which  it 
had  been  subjected,  that  I  could  not  obtain  entire  specimens  of  the 
larger  dicotyledonous  leaves,  but  in  the  general  character  of  their 
venation  they  resemble  the  Acerineee.  Some  portions  of  the  clay 
were  semi-vitrified,  and  so  hard  as  to  receive  no  impression  from  a 
file :  and  I  gathered  pieces  of  this  kind,  composed  of  blue  semi- 
vitrified  layers,  alternating  with  others  of  a  rich  buff  color.  All 
the  indurated  clay,  containing  leaves,  splits  easily  into  thin  layers, 
in  every  one  of  which  there  were  impressions,  so  that  the  various 
kinds  of  leaves  must  have  been  deposited  thickly  above  one  an- 
other at  this  place.  The  fossiliferous  clay  is  covered  by  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  feet  of  sand  and  sandstone,  and  by  some  thin  layers 
of  conglomerate. 

A  pipe-clay  is  very  generally  associated  with  the  coal  beds, 
and  is  frequently  found  in  contact  with  the  lignite.  It  exists  in 
beds  varying  in  thickness  from  six  inches  to  a  foot,  and  is  gener- 


ic 


EDIDf.E  CLAY.-PORCELAIN   EARTH. 


no 


ally  of  a  yeiiowish-white  color,  but  in  Bome  places  has  a  light 
lake-red  tint.  It  is  smooth,  without  gritliness,  and  when  masti- 
cated has  a  flavor  somewhat  like  the  kernel  of  a  hazel  nut.  When 
newly  dug  I'roui  its  bed,  it  is  plastic,  but  in  drying  becomes  rather 
meagre  and  adheres  to  the  tongue  :  its  streak  is  less  glistening 
than  that  of  the  ordinary  English  pipe-clay.  As  the  natives  eat 
this  earth  in  timet  of  scarcity,  and  suppose  that  thereby  they 
prolong  their  lives,  1  requested  Dr.  Davy  and  the  late  Dr.  Prout 
to  examine  it,  but  neither  of  these  able  chemists  could  detect  any 
nutritious  «iatter  in  it.  Neither  have  I  been  able  with  the  mi- 
croscope to  discover  in  it  the  remains  of  any  infusorial  animals* 
Mr.  Nuttall  speaks  of  a  similar  substance  under  the  name  of 
pink-clay,  which  he  observed  in  the  lignite  deposits  on  the  Ar- 
kansas. It  is  known  generally  among  the  residents  at  the  fur 
posts  on  the  Mackenzie  by  the  appellation  of"  white-mud,"  and 
is  used  for  whitewashing  houses,  and  also,  when  soap  is  scarce, 
for  washing  clothes. 

In  one  place  in  the  vicinity  of  the  burned  cliff  where  the  leaves 
were  found,  several  beds  of  porcelain- earth  occur  from  two  to 
three  yards  thick,  and  apparently  replacing  the  sandstone  of  other 
parts  of  the  formation.  It  has  a  whitish  color,  and  at  first  sight 
looks  like  chalk,  but  some  of  its  beds  have  a  grayish  hue  from 
the  quantity  of  carbonaceous  matter  disseminated  in  them.  Its 
texture  is  fine-granular ;  it  adheres  slightly  to  the  tongue,  yields 
readily  to  the  nail,  is  meagre,  and  soils  the  fingers  slightly.  Be- 
sides the  coaly  matter,  it  contains,  also,  a  few  minute  scales  of 
mica,  and  some  of  quartz.  It  is  not  plastic,  and  becomes  more 
friable  when  moistened  with  water ;  neither  does  it  effervesce 
with  acids.  This  lignite  formation  extends  from  the  Rocky 
Mountain  spur  of  which  Clark's  Hill  forms  a  portion,  to  the  spur 
of  which  the  hill  on  the  lower  side  of  the  mouth  of  Great  Bear 
River  is  a  prominent  point,  being  directly  across  the  valley  about 
twenty-  five  miles,  but  considerably  further  by  the  course  of  the 
Mackenzie.  The  depth  to  which  the  deposit  descends  below  the 
bed  of  the  Mackenzie  was  not  ascertained,  but  the  height  from 
the  surface  of  the  water  to  the  top  of  the  bank  varies  from  ninety 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Ten  or  twelve  feet  or  more  of  the 
crest  of  the  bank  consists  of  diluvial  gravel  with  boulders,  and  the 

*■  Baron  Humboldt  mentions  a  tribe  of  Indians  residing  on  the  Orinoco, 
who  eat  large  quantities  of  clay  when  food  is  scarce. 


rio 


ELEVATED   RIVER'8  BANK. 


h  i 


soil  IS  generally  peaty  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  two.  The  beds 
are  usually  almost  horizontal  or  have  a  very  moderate  inclination, 
but  in  some  few  places  they  dip  very  considerably,  and  in  the 
second  reach  of  the  Mackenzie  above  Great  Bear  River  a  bed 
of  stone  passes  obliquely  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  clay 
bank.  By  the  destruction  of  the  coal  beds  the  cliff  falls  down, 
the  slope  is  covered  with  the  gravel  and  boulders,  and  the  latter 
pave  the  channel  of  the  river  also.  The  strong  current  of  the 
river  varies  its  direction  from  time  to  time,  and  as  the  deposition 
or  removal  of  alluvial  islands  expose  or  protect  the  banks,  the 
debris  of  the  ruined  cliffs  accumulates  or  is  carried  away.  This 
constant  waste  of  the  bank  would  proceed  much  more  rapidly, 
were  it  not  that  the  ground  is  still  frozen  hard  when  barriers  of 
ice,  during  the  high  spring  floods,  often  raise  the  river  thirty  feet 
above  its  ordinary  level.  Then  the  frozen  earth  resists  the  action 
of  the  water  as  a  rock  would  do,  and  the  surface  yields  only  in 
proportion  as  it  thaws,  which  is  slowly,  since  the  water  loaded 
with  ice  is  kept  down  to  the  freezing  point. 

I  observed  that  the  bank  of  the  river  was  generally  higher  than 
the  land  behind  it,  by  at  least  the  thickness  of  the  diluvial  cap- 
ping, and  sometimes  by  a  part  of  the  sand  or  clay  of  the  tertiary 
beds,  and  that  the  narrow  elevated  bank  extended  in  the  same 
form  along  the  principal  affluents,  a  marked  instance  of  which 
occurs  on  the  south  side  of  Great  Bear  River.  In  consequence 
of  this  configuration  of  the  surface,  the  spring  floods  of  melting 
snow  accumulate,  and  at  length  make  their  escape  through  gul- 
lies, contributing  further  to  the  ruin  of  the  bank,  and  giving  it  a 
broken  and  hilly  outline  when  seen  from  the  river.  Landslips 
are  of  common  occurrence,  and  are  occasioned  by  pressure  of 
water  collecting  in  Assures  produced  by  the  partial  subsidence 
of  the  cliff.* 

*  Similar  tertiary  coal  format  "^a;:  occur  on  the  flanks  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains ;  the  most  southerly  ono  ->f  which  I  have  any  account,  being 
in  the  Raton  Pass,  in  latitude  37°  15'  N.,  longitude  104°  35'  W.,  and 
upward  of  seven  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Leaves  of  dico- 
tyledonous trees,  obtained  in  these  beds  by  Lieutenant  Abert  in  1847,  are 
figured  in  Colonel  Emory's  report  to  Congress  (pp.  522,  547).  Nuttall 
observed  lignite  beds  associated  with  the  pink-colored  pipe-clay  on  the 
Arkansas,  somewhere  near  the  48th  parallel.  Sir  Alexander  M'Kenzie 
states  that  a  narrow  strip  of  marshy,  boggy,  and  uneven  ground,  producing 
coal  and  bitumen,  runs  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  he  specifies  latitude  52°  N.,  longitude  112}°  W.,  on  the  southern 


HILL  AT  BEAR  LAKE  RIVER. 


121 


a 


'^ 


The  Mackenzie  traverses  the  basin  in  which  the  tertiary  coal 
is  deposited  very  obliquely,  and  the  Great  Bear  Lake  River  cuts 
it  more  directly  across. 

The  hill  on  the  north  side  of  the  last  named  river  rises  about 
six  or  seven  hundred  feet  above  the  water,  every  where  steeply, 
and  in  some  places  precipitously.  It  is,  as  has  been  stated,  part 
of  one  of  the  spurs  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  a  gap  in  which  fur- 
nishes a  channel  for  the  passage  of  the  Mackenzie.  Its  base, 
measured  directly  across,  is  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile.  The 
Great  Bear  River  flows  between  its  south  flank  and  the  tertiary 
coal  beds  described  above  ;  but  on  its  north  flank  horizontal  beds 
of  limestone  and  bituminous  shale  appear,  again.  The  strata  of 
the  hill  itself  are  highly  inclined  upward  on  both  its  flanks  toward 
its  axis,  and  some  are  vertical.  I  did  not  pi-ocure  organic  remains 
from  any  of  the  upheaved  beds  forming  these  ridges  or  spurs, 
whereby  their  age  might  be  determined,  but  they  are  evidently 

branch  of  the  Saskatchewan,  and  latitude  56°  N.,  longitude  116°  W. 
(Edgecoal  Creek)  in  the  Peace  River,  as  places  where  coal  beds  are  ex- 
posed. Mr.  Drummond  procured  me  specimens  of  coal  with  its  associated 
rocks  at  Edmonton  (latitude  53°  45'  N.,  longitude  113°  20'  W.)  on  the 
north  branch  of  the  Sasktvtchewan,  and,  consequently,  between  the  places 
mentioned  by  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie.  According  to  Mr.  Drummond  the 
coal  was  in  beds  varying  in  thickness  from  six  inches  to  two  feet,  and  in- 
terstratified  with  clay  and  sandstone.  The  examples  he  selected  were  pre- 
cisely similar  to  the  slaty  and  conchoidal  varieties  which  are  found  at  the 
mouth  of  Great  Bear  River,  and  the  resemblance  between  the  sandstone 
of  the  two  localities  is  equally  close.  He  also  found  a  black  tertiary  pitch 
coal  which  breaks  into  small  conchoidal  and  cubical  fragments,  which  Mr. 
Small,  a  clerk  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  who  gave  me  the  first  in- 
formation of  these  beds,  likened  v/ell  to  Spanish  liquorice.  At  Edmonton 
the  more  slaty  coal-beds  pass  gradually  into  a  thin,  slaty,  friable  sandstone, 
which  is  much  impregnated  with  carbonaceous  matter,  and  contains  frag- 
ments of  fibrous  lignite.  Hand  specimens  of  this  can  not  be  distinguished 
from  others  gathered  from  the  shale  cliff's  on  the  Athabasca  River.  High- 
ly bituminized  shale,  considerably  indurated,  exists  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
coal  at  Edmonton,  and  clay-ironstones  occur  in  the  clay  beds. 

Chief  Factor  Alexander  Stewart  told  me  that  beds  of  coal  are  on  fire 
on  the  Smoking  River,  which  is  a  southern  affluent  of  the  Peace  River, 
and  crosses  the  56th  parallel  of  latitude,  and  also  that  others  exist  on  the 
borders  of  Lesser  Slave  Lake,  that  lies  between  Smoking  River  and  Ed- 
monton. There  are  coal  beds  on  fire,  also,  at  the  present  time  near  Dun- 
vegan  on  the  main  stream  of  the  Peace  River.  All  these  places  are  near 
the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  or  the  spurs  issuing  from  that  chain, 
and  their  altitude  above  the  sea  varifis  from  1800  to  2000  feet  and  up- 
ward. The  beds  at  Great  Bear  River  are  probably  not  above  250  feet 
above  the  sea  level. 

F 


122 


B\ 


HILL  AT  THE  RAPID.— SHALE  FORMATION. 


older  than  the  limestone  and  shale  formation  which  ahuts  against 
them  or  covers  their  edges,  and  are,  very  probably,  judging  from 
the  scarcity  of  fossils,  of  the  protozoic  epoch. 


HILL  AT   THE   RAPID  ON   BEAR  LAKE  RIVER. 

The  Hill  at  the  Rapid,  twenty-four  miles  higher  up  Bear 
Lake  River,  is  very  similar  to  the  one  just  noticed,  and  its  beds 
have  the  same  anticlinal  arrangement.  It  is,  as  has  been  already 
stated,  a  member  of  the  same  spur  with  Clark's  Hill,  and  from 
its  summit  the  ridge  may  be  seen  extending  through  a  compara- 
tively le>'el  country  toward  the  west  end  of  Smith's  Bay  in  Great 
Bear  I^ake.  The  floor  of  the  valley  lying  between  it  and  the 
spur  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  is  well  wooded,  but  is  much  inter- 
sected by  lakes,  marshes,  and  considerable  streams,  some  of  which 
fall  into  the  Mackenzie,  and  others  into  Bear  Lake  River.  Im- 
mediately to  the  westward  of  the  Hill  at  the  Rapid,  but  separa- 
ted from  it  by  a  rivulet,  there  are  horizontal  beds  of  friable  sand- 
stone, and  beyond  them  a  thick  deposit  of  bituminous  shale,  which 
extends  northward  into  the  high  promontory  of  the  Scented  Grass 
Hill,  that  divides  Smith's  Bay  from  Keith's  Bay  in  Great  Bear 
Lake.  The  excavation  of  the  body  of  the  lake  terminates  the 
shale  formation  in  this  direction,  but  more  to  the  westward  it 
can  be  traced  onward  to  the  Arctic  Sea.* 

*  Various  detailed  accounts  of  some  of  the  tertiary  coal  beds,  and  of  th« 
elevated  spurs  which  cross  Bear  Lake  River,  are  contained  in  the  Geo- 


rOREST.-PLANT8. 


Ifli 


ISt 

)m 


lear 

»eds 

ady 

rom 

ira- 

reat 

the 

ter- 

lich 

Im- 

ara- 

ind- 

lich 

rass 

(ear 

the 

1  it 


th« 
Jeo- 


. 


As  has  been  already  saidj  the  general  aspect  of  the  forest  does 
not  alter  in  the  descent  of  the  Mackenzie.  The  white  spruce 
continues  to  be  the  chief  tree.  In  this  quarter  it  attains  a  girth 
of  four  or  five  feet,  and  a  height  of  about  sixty  in  a  growth  of 
from  two  to  three  hundred  years,  as  shown  by  the  annual  layers 
of  wood.  One  tree,  cut  down  in  a  sheltered  valley  near  Clark's 
Hill,  measured  the  unusual  length  of  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
two  feet,  but  was  comparatively  slender.  Most  of  the  timber  is 
twisted,  particularly  where  the  trees  grow  in  exposed  situations. 
The  Banksian  pine  was  not  traced  to  the  north  of  Great  Bear 
Lake  River  ;  but  the  black  spruce,  in  a  stunted  form,  is  found 
on  the  borders  of  swamps  as  far  as  the  woods  extend.  The  dog- 
wood, silvery  oleaster  {Elceagnus  argentea),  Shepherdia,  and 
Amelanchier  grow  on  banks  that  in  Europe  would  be  covered 
with  gorse  and  broom,  and  the  southern  Saliz  Candida  is  re- 
placed by  the  more  luxuriant  and  much  handsomer  Salix  sped- 
osa,  which  is  the  prince  of  the  willow  family.  The  Hedysarum 
Mackenzii  and  boreale  flower  freely  among  the  boulders  that 
cover  the  clayey  beaches ;  while  the  showy  yellow  flowers  and 
handsome  foliage  of  the  Dryas  Drummondii  cover  the  limestone 
debris,  which  give  shelter  also  to  the  Androsace  Chameej'asmi. 
In  the  heart  of  the  spruce-flr  forests,  the  curious  and  beautiful 
Calypso  borealis  lurks,  along  with  some  very  fine,  large,  one- 
flowered,  ladies'  slippers  (Cyprtpedia).  There  is,  in  fact,  not- 
withstanding the  near  neighborhood  of  the  Arctic  circle,  no  want 
of  flowering  plants  to  engage  the  attention  of  a  student  of  nature  ; 

logical  Appendix  to  Franklin's  Second  Overland  Journey;  and  the  maps 
on  a  large  scale,  given  in  that  work,  may  be  consulted  with  advantage  by 
any  one  who  wishes  to  become  well  acquainted  with  the  topography  of  the 
country,  or  to  trace  the  course  of  the  ridges  here  described  in  the  text. 

The  limestone  which  forms  the  body  of  the  hill  at  the  mouth  of  Great 
Bear  Lake  River  is  blackish-gray,  full  of  sparry  veins,  or  brownish-gray 
and  bituminous,  associated  with  calcareous  breccia.  On  the  northern  flank 
of  the  hill,  abutting  against  the  vertical  beds,  there  are  layers  of  bitumin- 
ous shale,  some  of  which  effervesce  with  acids,  while  others  approach  in 
hardness  to  flinty  slate.  Underlying  the  shale,  horizontal  beds  of  lime- 
atone  are  exposed  for  some  miles  along  the  Mackenzie,  and  from  them 
there  issue  springs  of  saline  sulphureous  waters  and  mineral  pitch. 

The  horizontal  sandstone  beds,  above  the  Hill  at  the  Rapid,  of  the  same 
river,  contain  fossils,  some  of  which  were  considered  by  Mr.  Sowerby  to  be- 
long to  the  same  age  with  the  English  oolitic  limestones  ;  but  they  require 
re-examination,  and  then  we  may  learn  whether  the  very  extensive  bitu- 
minous formation  belongs  to  the  Marcellus  uhah  or  to  the  lias  bedn. 


194 


BIRDS. 


and  many  of  the  feathered  inhabitants  of  the  district  recall  to 
the  traveler  or  resident  fur-trader  pictures  of  southern  domestic 
abodes.  The  cheerful  and  familiar  Sylvia  cestiva  is  one  of  the 
earliest  arrivals  in  spring,  coming  in  company  with  the  well- 
known  American  robin  {Turdus  migratorius)  and  the  purple 
and  rusty  grakles.  A  little  later,  the  varied  thrush  makes  its 
appearance  from  the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  The  white-bellied 
swallow  {Hirundo  bicolor)  breeds,  at  Fort  Norman,  in  holes  of 
rotten  tree?  ;  and  the  Sialia  arctica,  a  representative  of  the  blue- 
bird so  common  in  the  United  States,  enlivens  the  banks  of  the 
Mackenzie,  coming,  however,  not  from  the  Atlantic  coasts,  but 
from  the  opposite  sida  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  range.  On  the 
Mackenzie,  there  is  an  intermingling  of  the  floras  of  both  coasts, 
as  well  as  of  the  migratory  feathered  tribes,  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ain range  not  proving  a  barrier  to  either. 

One  of  the  birds  which  we  traced  up  to  its  breeding-places  on 
Bear  Lake  River,  but  not  to  the  sea-coast,  is  the  pretty  little  Bo- 
napartean  gull  {Xema  Bonapartii).  This  species  arrives  very 
early  in  the  season,  before  the  ground  is  denuded  of  snow,  and 
seeks  its  food  in  the  first  pools  of  water  which  form  on  the 
borders  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  and  wherein  it  finds  multitudes  of 
minute  crustacean  animals  and  larvsB  of  insects.  It  flies  in  flocks, 
and  builds  its  nests  in  a  colony  resembling  a  rookery,  seven  or 
eight  on  a  tree  ;  the  nests  being  framed  of  sticks,  laid  flatly.  Its 
voice  and  mode  of  flying  are  like  those  of  a  tern ;  and,  like  that 
bird,  it  rushes  fiercely  at  the  head  of  any  one  who  intrudes  on  its 
haunts,  screaming  loudly.  It  has,  moreover,  the  strange  prac- 
tice, considering  the  form  of  its  feet,  of  perching  on  posts  and 
trees  ;  and  it  may  be  often  seen  standing  gracefully  on  a  summit 
of  a  small  spruce  fir. 

The  insectivorous  habits  of  this  bird,  and  its  gentle,  familiar 
manners,  contrast  strongly  with  the  predaceous  pursuits  and  vo- 
raciousness of  the  short-billed  gull  {Larus  brachyrhynchus  of  the 
Fauna  Boreali- Americana).  If  a  goose  was  wounded  by  our 
sportsmen,  these  powerful  gulls  directly  assailed  it,  and  soon  to- 
tally devoured  it,  with  the  exception  of  the  larger  bones.  In  the 
spring  of  1 849,  when  Mr.  Bell  and  I  were  encamped  at  the  head 
of  Bear  Lake  River,  waiting  for  the  disruption  of  the  ice,  the 
gulls  robbed  us  of  many  geese,  leaving  nothing  but  well-picked 
skeletons.     Mr.  Bell  who  was  the  chief  sportsman  on  this  occa- 


■H 


FROGS. 


125 


r 


sion,  and  spent  the  day  in  traversing  the  half-thawed  marshes  in 
quest  of  game,  hung  the  birds,  as  he  shot  them,  to  the  branch  of 
a  tree,  or  deposited  them  on  a  rock  ;  but,  on  collecting  the  pro- 
duce of  his  chase  in  the  evening,  he  found  that  the  gulls  had  left 
him  little  besides  the  bones  to  carry.  If  by  chance  a  goose,  when 
shot,  fell  into  the  river,  a  gull  speedily  took  his  stand  on  the  car- 
case, and  proceed  to  tear  out  the  entrails,  and  devour  the  flesh, 
as  he  floated  with  it  down  the  current.  Even  the  raven  kept 
aloof,  when  a  gull  had  taken  possession  of  a  bird. 

The  harlequin  duck  ( Clangula  histrionica)  also  frequents  Bear 
Lake  River ;  but  is  comparatively  rare  in  other  districts,  and  is 
not  easy  of  approach.  It  congregates  in  small  flocks,  which, 
lighting  at  the  head  of  a  rapid,  sufier  themselves  to  glide  down 
with  the  stream,  fishing  in  the  eddies  as  they  go.  A  sportsman, 
by  secreting  himself  among  the  bushes  on  the  strand,  convenient- 
ly near  to  an  eddy,  may,  if  he  has  patience  to  wait,  be  sure  of 
obtaining  a  shot.  In  this  way  I  procured  specimens.  The  os- 
prey  and  white-headed  eagle  both  build  their  nests  on  the  banks 
of  Bear  Lake  River,  and  the  golden-winged  woodpecker  migrates 
thus  far  north,  and  perhaps  further,  though  it  did  not  come  under 
our  observation  in  a  higher  latitude. 

A  small  frog  {Bu/o  americanus)  is  common  in  every  pond, 
and  Mr.  Bell  informed  me  that  he  had  seen  it  on  Peel  River, 
which  is  the  most  northern  locality  I  can  name  for  any  American 
reptile.*  A  frog  resembling  it,  but  perhaps  of  a  different  species, 
abounds  on  the  Saskatchewan,  and  its  cry  of  love  in  early  spring 
80  much  resembles  the  quack  of  a  duck,  that  while  yet  a  novice 
in  the  sounds  of  the  country,  it  led  me  more  than  once  to  beat 
round  a  small  lake  in  quest  of  ducks  that  I  thought  were  marvel- 
ously  well  concealed  among  the  grass. 

On  Bear  Lake  River,  the  frogs  make  the  marshes  vocal  about 
the  beginning  of  June.  Throughout  Rupert's  Land,  they  come 
abroad  immediately  after  the  snow  has  melted.  In  the  swampy 
district  between  Lake  Superior  and  Rainy  Lake,  they  are  par- 
ticularly noisy.  While  we  were  descending  the  Savannah  River 
on  the  20th  of  May,  we  were  exposed  to  the  incessant  noise  of 
one  called  by  the  voyagers /e  crapaua,\  whose  cry  has  an  evident 

*  See  note,  p.  126. 

t  This  is  probably  the  Bufo  americanus,  also.  Mr.  Gray  of  the  Britisli 
Museum,  who  examined  my  specimens,  found  old  and  young  examples  of 


1! 


I 


126 


RKPTILES. 


affinity  with  the  brekekex  of  Asia  Minor,  and  closely  resembles 
the  braying  sound  of  a  watchman's  rattle ;  but  a  hundred  of  the 
latter,  sprung  in  a  circle,  would  not  have  equaled  the  voices  of 
the  frogs  that  we  heard  at  one  time.  A  smaller  species,  called 
la  grenouille,  inhabit  the  same  places,  and  has  a  shrill,  less  un- 
pleasing  note  than  the  other,  yet  which  was,  nevertheless,  tire- 
some from  its  monotony. 

As  a  contribution  to  what  is  known  of  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  reptiles,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  frogs 
may  be  set  down  as  attaining  the  68th  parallel  of  latitude  ; 
snakes,  as  reaching  the  56th;  and  tortoises,  as  disappearing  be- 
yond the  51st,  at  the  south  end  of  Lake  Winipeg.  There  the 
Emys  geographica  of  Le  Sueur,  named  asate  by  the  Chippe- 
ways,  occurs ;  and  also  one  with  a  flexible  neck,  called  by  the 
same  people  misHnnah,  which  is  probably  the  snapping  turtle.* 

B.  americanut  from  Lake  Winipeg,  and  young  ones  from  Great  Bear  Lake. 
There  were  also  many  specimens  of  Rana  sylvatica  (la  grenouille)  from  the 
former  locality ;  some  of  Hyla  versicolor  of  Le  Conte,  or  H.  verrucosa  of 
Daudin ;  and  a  solitary  individual  of  a  Hylodes,  which  he  thinks  may  he 
new.  It  resembles,  he  says,  "  H.  maculatus  of  Agassiz,  but  differs  in  color. 
The  back  is  gray,  with  three  cylindrical  dark  bands,  interrupted  and  di- 
verging from  each  other  on  the  hind  part  of  the  back.  The  side  of  the 
face  has  a  black  streak,  which  is  continued  over  the  base  of  the  fore-arm, 
and  along  the  side  of  the  body,  gradually  descending  toward  the  belly. 
The  toes  are  free  and  cylindrical,  that  is,  scarcely  tapering,  and  truncate 
at  the  end."   (/.  E.  Gray  in  let.) 

*  By  the  same  post  which  brought  me  a  proof  of  this  sheet,  I  had  a 
letter  from  Mr.  Murray,  dated  on  the  River  Yukon,  in  which  he  inforraa 
me  that  a  "  frog"  and  "  a  grass  snake"  had  been  killed  near  his  encamp- 
ment, and  that  another  snake  had  been  killed  on  the  north  bend  of  the 
Porcupine  River,  far  within  the  Arctic  circle. 


" 


] 


CHAPTER   VII. 


k 


Peregrine  Falcon. — The  Rapid. — Ramparts. — Hare  Indians. — Fort  Good  Hope. — 
Hares. — Kutchin. — Tlieir  Contests  with  the  Eskimos. — A  Fatal  Dance. — A  Hare 
Indian  devoured  by  a  Brown  Bear. — Vegetation. — Narrows. — Richardson  Chain 
of  Hills. — Fort  Separation. — Cache  of  Pemican  and  Memorandum. — Alluvial 
Delta. — Yukon  River. — Reindeer  Hills. — M'Gillivray  Island. — Harrison  Island. 
Termination  of  the  Forest. — Sacred  Island. — Richard's  Island. — Point  En- 
counter. 

We  continued  to  descend  the  river  until  7  in  the  evening, 
"when  we  encamped  for  the  night,  as  I  did  not  consider  it  to  be 
safe  to  drift  here,  there  not  being  one  person  in  the  boats  who  had 
ever  been  in  this  river  before  but  myself,  and  I  could  not  trust 
to  my  recollections  of  the  best  channels  after  the  lapse  of  so  many 
years  since  my  former  visit. 

About  twelve  or  fourteen  miles  below  the  influx  of  Great  Bear 
River,  the  channel  of  the  Mackenzie  approaches  the  spur  on  its 
eastern  bank,  and  flows  parallel  to  it  for  some  distance.  At  the 
spot  where  we  encamped  the  beach  was  formed  of  displaced  bitu- 
minous shale  with  imbedded  granite  boulders,  both  evidently 
derived  from  the  ruined  bank,  a  section  of  which  showed  layers 
of  gravel  consisting  of  rolled  pieces  of  shale  and  a  few  limestone 
pebbles,  alternating  with  sand  and  coarser  rolled  pieces  of  lime- 
stone. This  seemed  to  be  a  tertiary  deposit  formed  out  of  the 
subjacent  beds,  but  not  by  the  river  flowing  at  its  present  level. 

In  the  course  of  the  day's  voyage  we  noticed  a  peregrine  falcon's 
nest,  placed  on  the  cliff  of  a  sandstone  rock.  This  falcon  is  not 
rare  throughout  the  Mackenzie,  where  it  preys  on  the  passenger 
pigeons  and  smaller  birds.  Mr.  M'Pherson  related  to  me  one  of 
its  feats,  which  he  witnessed  some  years  previously  as  he  was 
ascending  the  river.  A  white  owl  {Styx  nyctea),  in  flying  over 
a  cliff,  seized  and  carried  off  an  unfledged  peregrine  in  its  claws, 
and,  crossing  to  the  opposite  beach,  hghted  to  devour  it.  The 
parent  bird  followed,  screaming  loudly,  and,  stooping  with  ex- 
treme rapidity,  killed  the  owl  by  a  single  blow,  after  which  it 
flew  quickly  back  to  its  nest.  On  coming  to  the  spot,  Mr. 
M'Pherson  picked  up  the  owl,  but,  though  he  examined  it  nar- 


128 


THE  RAPID. 


i 


rowly,  he  could  not  detect  in  what  part  the  death  blow  had  been 
received ;  nor  could  he,  from  the  distance,  perceive  whether  the 
peregrine  struck  it  with  wing  or  claws. 

July  21th. — Embarking  at  3  this  morning,  we  continued  our 
voyage  down  the  river,  and  for  upward  of  twenty  miles  pursued 
a  course  nearly  parallel  to  the  spur  which  the  Mackenzie  crosses 
at  the  influx  of  Great  Bear  River.  In  latitude  65°  32'  N., 
longitude  127  W.,  we  were  opposite  to  a  magnificent  cUff'in  this 
ridge,  only  two  or  three  miles  inland,  apparently  about  four 
hundred  feet  high,  and  some  miles  in  length.  The  escarpment 
faces  directly  southward,  is  remarkably  white,  and  the  layers 
composing  it  are  nearly  horizontal,  but  with  some  undulation. 
The  heights  of  the  peaks  appeared  to  me  to  be  about  eight  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  water.  The  beach  is  composed  of  fragments 
of  bituminous  shale  with  pieces  of  lignite ;  and  five  or  six  miles 
further  down,  there  is  a  good  section  of  the  shale  beds  interstrati- 
fied  with  dark  colored  sandstone. 

At  the  "  Rapid"  the  Mackenzie  crosses  another  spur,  mak- 
ing  three  elbows  in  its  passage  through  it.  The  channel  of  the 
river  there  is  formed  of  limestone,  and  is  shallow,  producing, 
when  the  water  is  low,  a  considerable  fall  on  the  east  side,  and  a 
shelving  rapid  on  the  west.  At  the  elbow  of  the  river,  above 
the  rapid,  one  of  the  hills,  which  rises  steeply  from  the  water's 
edge  on  the  east  bank,  is  composed  of  limestone  beds,  wrapping 
over  one  another  like  the  coats  of  an  onion,  and  curving,  at 
the  place  where  this  structure  was  most  distinctly  seen,  at  a 
spherical  angle  of  65°,  or  thereabouts.  These  inclined  beds  are 
capped  and  covered  on  the  flanks  by  strata  of  sandstone,  which 
breaks  down  readily  and  forms  a  steep  talus  of  pale-red  sand. 
A  clifl'  of  the  upper  and  more  compact  sandstone  overhangs  the 
crumbling  layers  beneath  it. 

Another  eminence  of  the  same  spur,  which  rises  from  the  rapid 
a  few  miles  lower  down,  shows  the  same  conical  elevation  with 
curved  concentric  beds.  In  one  spot  there  is  a  fault,  with  dis- 
location of  the  beds.  On  both  flanks  of  these  inclined  beds  there 
are  layers  of  aluminous  shale  interstratified  with  limestone  and 
sandstone.  Where  these  shale  beds  rest  on  the  inclined  rocks, 
they  are  also  inclined,  but  they  rapidly  assume  the  horizontal 
position  as  they  recede  from  the  hill. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  the  summer,  a  steamboat  could  ascend  the 


^ 


SANDSTONE  CUFFS. 


129 


s 


rapid  without  difficulty  ;  and  this  great  river  might  be  navigated 
by  vessels  of  considerable  burden,  from  the  Portage  of  the  Drown- 
ed in  Slave  River,  down  to  its  junction  with  the  sea,  being  a 
navigation  of  from  twelve  to  thirteen  hundred  miles. 

In  a  dilatation  of  the  river,  about  ten  miles  below  the  rapid, 
bituminous  shale  lies  horizontally  in  the  hollows  of  undulated 
beds  of  limestone.  Having  cooked  supper  at  this  spot,  we  em- 
barked to  drift  for  the  remainder  of  the  night. 

At  5  in  the  morning  of  the  28th,  we  were  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Ramparts,  where  the  river  is  hemmed  in  to  the 
width  of  from  four  hundred  to  eight  hundred  yards,  and  has  a 
strong  current.  This  is  the  "  second  rapid  "  of  Mackenzie,  who 
states  that  it  is  fifty  fathoms  deep  ;  but  in  obtaining  such  sound- 
ings, his  lead  must  have  fallen  into  a  crevice,  or  have  been  car- 
ried down  the  channel  of  the  stream  by  the  strength  of  the  cur- 
rent ;  for  gentlemen  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  who  are 
well  acquainted  with  the  locality,  informed  me  that  a  bed  of 
stone  crosses  the  stream,  and  at  the  close  of  the  summer,  when 
the  river  is  at  the  lowest,  produces  a  fall,  except  on  the  east  side, 
where  there  is  a  channel  that  boats  can  ascend  by  towing.  In 
the  dilatation  of  the  river  above  the  Rampart  defile,  there  are 
some  fine  examples  of  sandstone  cliffs,  which  have  decayed  so  as 
to  form  caves,  pillars,  embrasures,  and  other  architectural  forms. 
The  beds  have  slate  clay  partings  and  seams  of  clay  ironstone. 
Associated  with  them  there  is. a  marly  stone,  containing  coral- 
lines, referred  by  Mr.  Sowerby  to  Amplexus  ;  and  covering  the 
sandstone  in  many  places,  and  alternating  with  the  upper  beds, 
there  is  a  deposit  of  bituminous  shale. 

In  making  its  way  through  the  defile,  the  river  bends  sudden- 
ly to  the  east-northeast,  and,  as  the  dip  of  the  beds  forming  the 
clifTs  on  each  side  is  in  the  contrary  direction,  the  strata  rise  into 
sight  in  succession  as  we  descend  the  river.  The  clifTs  have 
been  denuded  of  the  covering  of  shale  which  exists  higher  up  the 
stream,  but  the  limestone  of  which  they  are  chiefly  formed  is 
stained  with  bitumen,  either  in  patches  or  whole  layers.  At  the 
upper  end  of  the  defile,  a  fine  granular,  foliated  limestone  is  in- 
terleaved with  beds  containing  madrepores,  and  parted  by  seams 
of  carbonaceous  matter.  Near  the  middle  of  the  defile  the  lime- 
stone contains  the  Terchratula  spharoidalis  (or  a  nearly  allied 
-necies)  which  is  a  fossil  of  the  inferior  oolite,  also  some  Producti 


180 


HARE  INDIANS.— HARES. 


and   the  coralline  named  Amplexus.     Several  seams  of  black 
•hale,  about  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  thick,  exist  among  the 


SECTION   OF   TH':    RAMPARTS. 


limestones,  and  rise  with  ihem  in  succession  above  the  level  of 
the  water  ;  but  there  are  not  more  than  two  or  three  of  these 
seams  in  the  height  of  the  clifT  at  any  one  part.  The  shale  is 
of  various  degrees  of  hardness,  and  passes  into  a  brownish  black 
flinty  slate.  The  dip  of  the  beds  is  not  uniform  throughout  the 
defile,  being  more  or  less  undulated,  and  for  some  way  the  layers 
are  horizontal.  In  places  here  and  there,  the  limestone  beds  are 
excavated  into  deep  pot-holes  filled  with  shale,  resembling  the 
gravel  pits  which  dip  into  chalk  beds. 

On  the  top  of  the  Rampart  ClifTs  we  found  a  large  body  of 
Hare  Indians  encamped.  This  is  a  common  summer  haunt  of 
these  people,  who  resort  thither  to  avail  themselves  of  the  pro- 
ductive fishery  which  exists  above  the  de^'ile.  At  this  time, 
owing  to  the  river  not  having  subsided  so  rapidly  as  usual,  they 
were  taking  only  a  small  number  of  fish,  and,  consequently,  were 
complaining  of  want  of  food.  This  people,  and  most  of  the  tribes 
who  live  the  whole  year  on  the  immediate  banks  of  the  Macken- 
zie, depend  greatly  for  subsistence  on  the  hare  {Lepus  ameri- 
canus).  Of  these  animals  they  kill  incredible  numbers  ;  but  every 
six  or  SQven  years,  from  some  cause,  the  hares  disappear  suddenly 
throughout  the  whole  country ;  so  that  not  one  can  be  found 
either  dead  or  alive.  In  the  following  year  a  few  re-appear ;  and 
m  three  years  they  are  as  numerous  as  before.  The  Canadian 
lynx  migrates  when  the  hares,  on  which  it  chiefly  preys,  become 
scarce.  The  musk-rat  is  subject  to  periodical  murrains,  when 
great  numbers  lie  dead  in  their  nests  ;  but  the  dead  hares  are  not 
found,  whence  we  may  conjecture  that  when  their  numbers  be- 
come excessive  they  disappear  by  migration.     I  could  not  learn, 


1 


pi 


HARE  INDIANS  AM>    > 


>t()8. 


131 


however,  that  the  Indians  had  ever  seen    horn  travel'  >g  in  large 
bands. 

The  Hare  Indians  are  a  tribe  of  the  Tirme  or  Cht  pewyan  na- 
tion, and  speak  a  language  differing  only  as  a  provincial  diai  ^ 
They  are,  like  the  rest  of  the  nation,  a  timid  race,  and  li' '  in 
continual  dread  of  the  Eskimos,  whom  they  suppose  not  oii.^  tu 
be  very  warlike  and  ferocious,  but  also  endowed  with  great  con- 
juring powers,  by  which  they  can  compass  the  death  of  an  enemy 
at  a  distance.  The  possession  of  fire-arms  does  not  embolden  the 
Tinne  to  risk  an  open  encounter  with  the  Eskimo  bowmen  ;  and 
unless  when  they  are  assembled  in  large  numbers,  as  we  found 
them  at  the  Ramparts,  they  seldom  pitch  a  tent  on  the  banks  of 
the  river,  but  skulk  under  the  branches  of  a  tree,  cut  down  so  as 
to  appear  to  have  fallen  naturally  from  the  brow  of  the  cliff;  and 
they  do  not  venture  to  make  a  smoke,  or  rear  any  object  that  can 
be  seen  from  a  distance.  On  the  first  appearance  of  a  canoe  or 
boat,  they  hide  themselves,  with  their  wives  and  children,  in  the 
woods,  until  they  have  reconnoitred,  and  ascertained  the  character 
of  the  object  of  their  fears.  More  than  once  in  our  descent  of  the 
river,  when  we  had  landed  to  cook  breakfast  or  supper,  and  were 
not  at  all  aware  of  the  vicinity  of  natives,  a  family  would  crawl 
from  their  hiding-places,  and  come  to  our  fire.  They  always 
pleaded  want  of  food ;  and  as  their  wretched  appearance  spoke 
strongly  of  their  necessities,  they  invariably  shared  our  meals ; 
but  not  unfrequently  they  sold  us  a  fish  or  two  before  we  parted  ; 
being  probably  what  they  had  reserved  for  their  next  meal,  if  wc 
had  not  furnished  them  with  one.  We  never  found  them  with 
abundance  of  food  ;  for,  in  times  of  plenty,  they  do  not  think  it 
necessary  to  lay  up  a  stock,  but  let  the  future  provide  for  itself 

It  is  supposed  that  formerly  the  Eskimos  were  in  the  habit  of 
ascending  the  river  to  the  Ramparts,  to  collect  fragments  of 
flinty  slate  for  lant^e  and  arrow-points ;  but  they  have  been  only 
once  so  far  up,  since  the  trading-posts  were  established.  An  old 
Indian,  who  was  alive  within  a  few  years,  told  Mr.  Bell  that  on 
that  occasion  he  was  wounded  by  an  arrow ;  but  that  he  suc- 
ceeded in  escaping  to  the  top  of  the  cliff,  from  whence  he  killed 
two  Eskimos  with  his  fowling-piece. 

As  we  passed  the  encampment,  the  Indians  rushed  down  to  the 
river's  side,  and,  launching  their  canoes,  accompanied  us  to  Fort 
Good  Hope,  which  now  stands  near  its  earliest  site,  a  short  way 


tas 


FORT  GOOD  HOPE. 


below  the  defile.  At  the  time  of"  Sir  John  Franklin' i*  descent  of 
the  river  in  1825  and  182G,  the  post  stood  about  one  hundred 
miles  further  down  ;  but  it  was  removed  to  its  present  position  in 
1836,  after  the  destruction  of  the  former  establishment  by  an 
overflow  of  the  river.  The  flood,  carrying  with  it  large  masses 
of  ice,  rose  thirty  feet ;  and,  mowing  down  the  forest  timber, 
swept  onward  to  the  fort,  which  it  filled  with  water,  thereby  de- 
stroying a  quantity  of  valuable  furs.  Mr.  Bell,  who  was  the  res- 
ident officer  at  the  time,  escaped  with  the  other  inmates  in  a  boat 
to  the  centre  of  the  island  ;  and  shortly  afterward,  the  dam  of  ice 
giving  way,  the  flood  subsided  as  rapidly  as  it  had  risen,  leaving 
the  buildings  still  standing,  though  much  injured.  A  few  turnips, 
radishes,  and  some  other  culinary  vegetables,  grow  at  Fort  Good 
Hope  in  a  warm  corner,  under  shelter  of  the  stockades ;  but  none 
of  the  Cerealia  are  cultivated  there,  nor  do  potatoes  repay  the  labor 
of  planting.  Mr.  M'Beath,  who  had  charge  of  the  post,  supplied 
us  with  some  reindeer  venison,  which  he  had  kept  fresh  in  his  ice- 
cellar,  dug  under  the  floor  of  his  hall.  This  gentleman  informed 
us  that  no  rain  had  fallen  this  season  in  his  vicinity,  except  two 
very  slight  showers  on  one  day  :  there  had  been  no  thunder- show- 
ers. From  him  we  learnt  also  that  a  rumor  of  guns  having  been 
heard  on  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  supposed  to  have  been 
fired  from  the  Discovery  ships,  originated  in  a  story  brought  by 
the  Kutchin  or  Loucheux  to  Peel's  River  Fort,  but  that  the  of^- 
cer  in  charge  placed  no  reliance  upon  it.  He  also  gave  us  the  un- 
pleasant intelligence  of  three  Eskimos  having  been  killed  in  Peel's 
River  last  summer.  A  large  body  of  that  nation,  having  ascend- 
ed the  Peel  River,  it  was  surmised,  with  hostile  intentions,  were 
fired  upon  by  the  Kutchin,  and  three  of  them  killed,  upon  which 
they  retreated. 

The  Kutchin  and  Eskimos  of  the  estuary  of  the  Mackenzie, 
meet  often  for  purposes  of  trade,  and  make  truces  with  each  other, 
but  they  are  mutually  suspicious,  and  their  intercourse  often  ends 
in  bloodshed.  The  Kutchin  have  the  advantage  of  fire-arms, 
but  the  Eskimos  are  brave  and  resolute,  and  come  annually  to 
Separation  Point,  at  the  head  of  the  delta,  for  the  purposes  of 
barter.  Most  of  the  Kutchin  speak  the  Eskimo  language,  and 
from  them  the  latter  people  have  become  aware  of  the  existence 
of  a  post  on  the  Peel.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  Eskimos 
had  a  purpose  of  opening  a  trade  directly  with  the  white  people ; 


KtJTCIIIN    AND   EBKIMOS. 


133 


but  ihid,  being  so  obviously  contrary  to  the  interest  of  the  Kutch- 
iii,  wuH  likely  to  meet  with  all  the  oppoHition  they  could  oiler,  and 
hence  their  liring  on  the  Eskimos  without  parley.  The  Kutchin 
give  a  very  bad  character  of  their  neighbors  for  treachery,  and 
throw  on  them  the  whole  blame  of  their  mutual  quarrels ;  but 
the  faults  are  certainly  not  confined  to  one  side ;  and,  doubtless, 
were  an  intercourse  once  fairly  eatablished  between  the  Eskimos 
and  the  Company's  posts,  it  might  be  kept  up  as  peaceably  here 
as   t  id  with  the  same  people  elsewhere. 

In  the  course  of  Mr.  Bell's  residence  on  Peel's  River,  an  event 
occurred  in  the  history  of  these  people,  which,  in  its  principal  feat- 
ure, bore  no  small  resemblance  to  the  skirmish  between  the  par- 
ties of  Joab  and  Abner,  related  in  the  second  chapter  of  the  Sec- 
ond Book  of  Kings.  A  party  of  Kutchin  having  met  a  number 
of  Eskimos,  their  demeanor  to  one  another  was  friendly,  and  the 
young  men  of  each  nation  rose  up  to  dance.  The  Eskimos,  how- 
ever, being  accustomed  to  carry  their  knives  concealed  in  their 
wide  sleeves,  did  so  on  this  occasion,  and,  grasping  them  suddenly, 
on  a  preconcerted  signal  in  the  midst  of  the  dance,  thrust  them  at 
their  Kutchin  companions,  by  which  three  of  the  latter  fell  mor- 
tally wounded.  A  melee  ensued,  in  which  several  were  slain  on 
both  sides.  This  is  the  story  told  by  the  Kutchin  survivors,  but 
the  Eskimos  would,  perhaps,  give  a  different  color  to  the  matter 
were  they  the  narrators.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  iu  a  few  years,  the 
interference  of  the  traders  will  put  an  end  to  these  disastrous  con- 
flicts, which  have  long  ceased  in  other  parts  of  the  fur  countries.* 

*  An  unexpected  and  cruel  massacre  of  a  party  of  EHkimos,  has  been  re- 
ported to  the  Admiralty  by  Commander  Pullen,  since  this  and  some  of  the 
following  sheets  were  set  iu  type.  This  sad  occurrence  is  rendered  more 
lamentable,  from  a  Canadian  in  the  employment  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  having  been  a  prime  actor  in  the  atl'air.  It  appears  that  in  the 
spring  of  1850,  two  men  belonging  to  Peel  River  Fort  had  landed  on  Point 
Separation,  on  which  a  body  of  Kutchin  were  at  the  time  encamped.  Soon 
afterward  a  small  number  of  Eskimos  approached  in  their  kaiyaks.  The 
Canadian  would  have  fired  upon  them  instantly,  but  was  restrained  by  his 
companion,  who  did  all  that  he  could  to  prevent  the  bloodshed  that  ensued 
The  leading  Eskimo  called  to  the  Kutchin  to  lay  down  their  guns ;  and,  to 
show  his  own  peaceful  intentions,  he  fired  his  arrows  into  the  pand,  and  then 
showed  his  empty  quiver.  His  signs  of  amity  were  replied  to  by  the  Canadian 
firing  upon  him,  and  the  Kutchin  following  his  example,  the  party  was  de- 
stroyed. I  fear  that  our  endeavors  to  establish  friendly  relations  with  the 
Eskimos  in  the  estuary  of  the  Mackenzie,  may  have  lured  these  poor  people 
to  the  bold  advance  among  their  enemies  which  ended  so  fatally  for  them. 


■ill 


1 1 


134 


INDIAN  DEVOURED  BT    A   BEAR. 


By  Mr.  Bell,  I  was  also  informed  of  the  melancholy  death  of 
an  Indian  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Good  Hope.  This  poor  man, 
having  set  several  spares  for  bears,  went  to  visit  them  alone. 
The  event  showed  that  he  had  found  a  large  bear,  caught  by  the 
head  and  leg,  and  endeavored  to  kill  it  with  arrows,  several  of 
which  he  shot  into  the  neck  of  the  animal.  He  seems  to  have 
been  afraid  to  approach  near  enough  to  give  full  efiect  to  his 
weapons,  and  the  enraged  bear,  having  broken  the  snare  flew 
upon  him  and  tore  him  in  pieces.  The  man's  son,  a  youth  of 
about  sixteen  years  of  age,  becoming  alarmed  by  the  lengthened 
absence  of  his  father,  took  his  gun,  and  went  in  quest  of  him, 
following  his  track.  On  approaching  the  scene  of  the  tragedy, 
the  bear  hastened  to  attack  him  also,  but  was  shot  by  the  lad  as 
he  was  rushing  at  him.  The  boy  found  his  father  torn  limb  from 
limb,  and  mostly  eaten,  except  the  head,  which  remained  entire. 
The  bear,  whose  carcass  was  seen  by  Mr.  Bell,  was  a  brown  one, 
and  of  great  size.  Fragments  of  the  snare  remained  about  his 
neck  and  leg. 

These  brown  bears  are  very  powerful ;  and  the  same  gentle- 
man who  told  me  the  above  story  informed  me  that  on  the  Por- 
cupine River,  to  the  west  of  the  Peel,  he  saw  the  footmarks  of  a 
large  one,  which,  having  seized  a  moose-deer  in  the  river,  had 
dragged  it  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  along  the  sandy  banks,  and 
alterward  devoured  it  all,  but  part  of  the  hind-quarters.  The 
bones  were  crushed  and  broken  by  the  animal's  teeth,  and,  from 
their  size  and  hardness,  Mr.  Bell  judged  the  moose  to  have  been 
upward  of  a  year  old,  when  it  would  weigh  as  much  as  an  ox  of 
the  same  age.  The  species  of  these  northern  brown  bears  is  as 
yet  undetermined.  They  greatly  resemble  the  Ursus  arctos  of 
the  old  continent,  if  they  are  not  actually  the  same  ;  and  are 
stronger  and  more  carniverous  than  the  black  bears  ( Ursus  amer- 
icanus),  which  also  frequent  the  Mackenzie.  The  grisly  bears 
{Ursus ferox)  reach  the  same  latitudes,  but  do  not  generally  de- 
scend from  the  mountains. 

After  a  halt  of  little  more  than  two  hours  with  Mr.  M'Beath, 
we  resumed  our  voyage  down  the  river,  and,  rowing  until  supper- 
time,  the  crews  retired  to  rest  in  the  boats,  which  were  suffered 
to  drift  with  the  current  all  night  under  the  guidance  of  a  steers- 
man. On  the  morning  of  the  29th,  the  fog  was  so  dense  that 
for  some  hours  we  allowed  the  boats  to  follow  the  current,  being 


LOFTY   BANKS.— VEGETATION. 


135 


afraid  to  row,  lest  we  should  run  aground.  At  night  we  en- 
camped not  far  from  the  Old  Fort.  The  shale,  sandstone,  and 
limestone  beds,  continue  throughout  the  space  intervening  between 
the  former  and  present  sites  of  Fort  Good  Hope.  In  some  places 
the  friable  sandstones,  yielding  readily  to  the  torrents  of  water 
which  flow  over  the  brow  of  the  cliff  in  spring,  were  cut  into 
deep  ravines  at  regular  distances,  producing  conical,  truncated 
eminences,  like  shot-piles.  In  others,  beds  of  bituminous  shale, 
one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high,  existed,  interleaved  with  two 
or  three  beds  of  limestone,  and  in  several  places  the  shale  banks 
were  crowned  with  a  thick  deposit  of  sand,  which  rose  above  the 
level  of  the  country  behind.  This  peculiar  arrangement,  which 
has  been  already  mentioned  as  occurring  not  only  on  the  Macken- 
zie, but  extending  also  some  way  up  many  of  its  affluents,  is  con- 
spicuous in  the  reach  immediately  above  the  old  site  of  Fort  Good 
Hope,  and  has  the  aspect  of  ridges  of  sand  left  in  these  situations 
on  the  subsidence  of  waters,  that  have  swept  over  the  neighbor- 
ing country.  These  banks  rise  much  beyond  any  floods  of  the 
present  day,  some  of  them  being  fully  two  hundred  feet  above  the 
river.  In  this  neighborhood,  the  drift  timber  showed  that  the 
spring  accumulations,  at  the  disruption  of  the  ice,  occasionally 
raises  the  river  at  least  forty  feet.  Here,  as  well  as  higher  up, 
there  is  generally  a  capping  of  diluvium,  with  boulders,  which 
roll  down  and  line  the  beach.  Among  these,  sandstones  pre- 
dominate ;  but  there  are  many  of  a  beautiful  porphyritic  granite, 
and  others  of  sienite,  hornblendic  rocks,  greenstone,  &c.  No  clay- 
slate  nor  mica-slate  boulders  were  observed. 

Vegetation  here  preserves  the  same  general  character  that  it 
has  higher  up  the  river.  Salix  speciosa  continues  to  grow  twen- 
ty feet  high  in  favorable  localities  ;  the  humbler  Salix  myrsinites 
skirts  stony  rivulets  ;  and  the  Salix  longifolia  covers  the  flooded 
sandbanks,  and  arrests  the  mud.  The  Hedysarum  boreale  fur- 
nishes long  flexible  roots,  which  taste  sweet  like  the  liquorice, 
and  are  much  eaten  in  the  spring  by  the  natives,  but  become 
woody  and  lose  their  juiciness  and  crispness  as  the  season  ad- 
vances. The  root  of  the  hoary,  decumbent,  and  less  elegant,  but 
larger-flowered  Hedysarum  Ma<:kenzii  is  poisonous,  and  nearly 
killed  an  old  Indian  woman  at  Fort  Simpson,  who  had  mistaken  it 
for  that  of  the  preceding  species.  Fortunately,  it  proved  emetic  ; 
and  her  stomach  having  rejected  all  that  she  had  swallowed,  she 


136 


KUTCHIN.-NARROWS. 


*    <i 


was  restored  to  health,  though  her  recovery  was  for  some  time 
doubtful.*  On  the  beach  I  observed  a  patch  of  parsley  {Apium 
petroselinum)  in  flower ;  probably  having  sprung  from  seed  scat- 
tered by  a  party  going  to  Peel  River,  as  I  met  with  the  plant  in 
no  other  quarter. 

July  30th. — In  this  day's  voyage  we  saw  many  small  parties 
of  Kutchin,  seemingly  all  in  want  of  provisions,  owing  to  the 
high  water  spoiling  their  fishery.  From  one  man,  however,  we 
purchased  a  fine  white-fish  (Coregonus),  weighing  nearly  eight 
pounds.  These  families  are  the  most  easterly  of  the  Kutchin  ; 
and,  far  from  exhibiting  the  manly  conduct  and  personal  cleanli- 
ness for  which  their  nation  is  noted  on  the  banks  of  the  Porcu- 
pine and  Yukon,  have  much  of  the  abject  demeanor  of  their  neigh- 
bors, the  Hare  Indians.  Their  jackets  differ  from  those  of  the 
Chepewyans  in  being  peaked,  after  the  manner  of  those  of  the 
Eskimos.  From  their  being  able  to  remain  in  the  close  vicinity 
of  the  latter  people,  it  is  evident  that  they  possess  more  courage 
than  the  Hare  Indians. 

In  the  morning  we  passed  an  affluent  thirty  or  forty  yards 
wide,  coming  in  from  the  eastward,  which  is  probably  the  stream 
mentioned  by  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie  as  one  on  whose  banks 
Indians  and  Eskimos  collect  flints.  These  flints  are  doubtless 
either  chert  from  the  limestone  beds,  or  flinty  slate,  which  exists 
plentifully  in  some  parts  of  the  shale  formation. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  the  31st,  we  ran  through  the  "  Nar- 
rows," a  defile  similar  to  that  of  tho  Ramparts,  and  in  passing 
which  the  river  makes  a  similar  sharp  elbow.  The  cliffs  are 
composed  of  sandstone,  in  some  places  horizontal,  in  others  dip- 
ping to  the  south  by  east  at  a  small  angle.  The  stone  is  of  va- 
rious textures ;  some  of  it  having  a  conchoidal  fracture,  and  con- 
taining much  calcareous  matter.  The  basis  is  earthy,  and  the 
coarsest  stone  is  composed  of  small,  rounded,  and  also  sharply 
angular  grains  of  opake,  white,  green,  or  blue  quartz,  with  grains 
of  Lydian-stone  and  coal ;  the  basis  being  also  tinged  with  coaly 
matter.  Other  beds  pass  into  a  kind  of  wacke,  or  shale,  which 
breaks  down  quickly  into  very  small  angular  fragments.  This 
shale  is  often  incrusted  with  alum  in  powder,  and  it  is  sometimes 

*  There  must  have  been  some  mistake  in  the  information  which  I  fur- 
nished to  Sir  William  J.  Hooker,  respecting  these  two  plants,  as  the  H. 
Mackenzii  is  said  in  the  Flora  Boreali-jlmericana  to  have  the  edible  root. 


RICHARDSON   HILLS.— PEMICAN   BURIED. 


137 


stained  with  iron,  and  contains  spheroidal  nodules  of  clay-iron- 
stone. The  cliffs  vary  in  height  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet,  and  the  capping  of  clay  and  loam  with  houlders  is  thin. 
The  shale  formation  extends  along  the  banks  of  Peel's  River ; 
and  Mr.  Bell  informed  me  that  he  had  procured  crystallized  alum 
from  some  beds  in  that  quarter.  The  Mackenzie  is  about  one 
mile  and  a  half  wide  in  these  straits.  The  current  sets  at  the 
rate  of  three  miles  an  hour,  and  we  got  soundings  with  eight 
fathoms  in  mid-channel.  By  a  mutual  understanding  between 
the  Eskimos  and  Kutchin,  the  Red  River,  which  falls  into  the 
Narrows,  is  considered  as  the  boundary  between  the  two  nations. 

On  emerging  from  the  Narrows,  we  had  a  distant  view  of  the 
Richardson  chain  of  hills,  which  skirts  the  western  branch  of  the 
Mackenzie,  and  a  little  before  noon  reached  Point  Separation. 
Mr.  Rae  observed  for  the  latitude ;  but  the  sun  being  obscured 
by  passing  clouds,  the  observation  would  have  been  doubtful,  had 
it  not  corresponded  exactly  with  the  position  assigned  to  the  spot 
in  Sir  John  Franklin's  map,  of  67°  49'  north  latitude.  The  vari- 
ation of  the  compass  by  the  sun's  meridional  bearing  was  south 
55°  east,  being  five  degrees  more  than  in  1826. 

In  compliance  with  my  instructions,  a  case  of  pemican  was 
buried  at  this  place.  We  dug  the  pit  at  the  distance  of  ten  feet 
from  the  best-grown  tree  on  the  point,  and  placed  in  it,  along 
with  the  pemican,  a  bottle  containing  a  memorandum  of  the 
objects  of  the  Expedition,  and  such  information  respecting  the 
Company's  post  as  I  judged  would  be  useful  to  the  boat  party  of 
the  •'  Plover,"  should  they  reach  this  river.  The  lower  branches 
of  the  tree  were  lopped  off,  a  part  of  its  trunk  denuded  of  bark, 
and  a  broad  arrow  painted  thereon  with  red  paint.  A  stake  was 
also  erected  on  the  beach,  and  a  paper  attached  thereto,  directing 
attention  to  the  tree.  We  considered  it  likely  that  the  stake 
might  be  taken  down  by  Indians  or  Eskimos ;  but  as  the  latter 
people  lop  trees  in  the  same  manner,  we  did  not  think  the  cir- 
cumstance of  one  being  so  cut  here  would  induce  people  of  either 
nation  to  dig  in  the  vicinity.  To  conceal  as  effectually  as  we 
could  that  the  earth  had  been  moved,  the  soil  was  placed  on  a 
tarpaulin,  and  all  that  was  not  required  to  fill  the  hole  was  car- 
ried to  a  distance.  The  place  then  being  smoothed  down,  a  fire 
of  drift  timber  was  made  over  it,  that  the  burnt  wood  might  in- 
dicate the  exact  spot  to  the  "  Plover's"  party,  who  were  furnished 


138 


FORMER   VISIT  TO  SAME  SPOT. 


with  a  memoranium  mentioning  that  these  precautions  would  be 
used.  Along  with  the  pemican,  a  letter  for  the  purser  of  the 
"  Herald,"  which  his  friends  had  committed  to  my  care,  was 
placed  in  the  pit.* 

In  performing  these  duties  at  this  place,  I  could  not  but  recall 
to  mind  the  evening  of  July  3d,  1826,  passed  on  the  very  same 
spot  in  company  with  Sir  John  Franklin,  Sir  George  Back,  and 
Lieutenant  Kendall.  We  were  then  full  of  joyous  anticipation 
of  the  discoveries  that  lay  in  our  several  paths,  and  our  crews 
were  elated  with  the  hope  of  making  their  fortunes  by  the  parlia- 
mentary reward  promised  to  those  who  should  navigate  the  Arctic 
Seas  up  to  certain  meridians.  When  we  pushed  off  from  the 
beach  on  the  morning  of  the  4th  to  follow  our  separate  routes, 
we  cheered  each  other  with  hearty  good-will  and  no  misgivings. 
Sir  John's  voyage  fell  some  miles  short  of  the  parliamentary  dis- 
tance, and  he  made  no  claim.  My  party  accomplished  the  whole 
space  between  the  assigned  meridians ;  but  the  authorities  de- 
cided that  the  reward  was  not  meant  for  boats,  but  for  ships. 
Neither  men  nor  officers  made  their  fortunes ;  and,  what  I  more 
regretted,  my  friend  and  companion.  Lieutenant  Kendal],  re- 
mained in  that  rank  till  the  day  of  his  death,  notwithstanding 
his  subsequent  important  scientific  services.  On  the  present  oc- 
casion, I  endeavored  to  stimulate  our  crews  to  an  active  look-out, 
by  proinising  ten  pounds  to  the  first  man  who  should  announce 
the  Discovery  ships. 

Most  of  the  islands  constituting  the  delta  of  the  Mackenzie  are 
alluvial,  and  many  of  the  smaller  ones  are  merely  a  ring  of  white 
spruce  trees  and  willows  on  a  sand  or  mud  bank,  inclosing  ponds 
or  marshes  filled  with  drift  timber.  Some  of  the  larger  ones  have 
a  drier  and  firmer  soil,  but  are  low  and  even,  except  near  the 
8ca,  where  a  few  conical  hummocks  rise  abruptly  above  the  gen- 
eral level  to  the  height  of  eighty  or  ninety  feet.  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin saw  these  hummocks  on  EUice  Island ;  and,  as  they  occur 
also  near  the  western  boundary  of  the  delta,  I  shall  have  occasion 
to  notice  them  again.  The  Richardson  Mountains,  which  skirt 
the  western  channel  of  the  river,  appear  like  a  continuous  ridge 

*  Commander  Pullen,  with  two  boats  from  the  "  Plover,"  in  Sept.  1849, 
visited  this  depot,  and  found  it  safe.  The  lopped  tree  had  previously,  in 
autumn,  1848,  been  examined  by  a  party  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company'ii 
servants  going  to  Peel  River,  but  they  did  not  discover  the  pit,  having  no 
key  to  enable  them  to  find  it. 


I 


YUKON   RIVER. 


ISO 


be 
he 


I 


ji 


when  viewed  from  Point  Separation ;  but  it  is  more  probable  that 
they  are  the  termination  of  a  succession  of  spurs  from  the  main 
chain  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  come  obliquely  to  the  coast 
of  the  estuary.  The  general  altitude  of  the  ridges  does  not  ap- 
parently  exceed  one  thousand  feet ;  but  some  peaks,  as  Mount 
Goodenough,  Mount  Gifibrd,  and  Mount  Fitton,  are  perhaps  con- 
siderably higher. 

In  ascending  from  the  west  bank  of  the  delta,  the  brow  of  the 
first  range  is  attained  at  the  distance  of  about  forty  miles  from 
the  river,  of  which  the  first  four  miles  are  over  a  low,  marshy, 
alluvial  plain,  covered  with  willows.  Two  or  three  almost  pre- 
cipitous ascents  and  descents  across  other  mountains  bring  the 
traveler  to  a  small  stream,  called  the  Rat  River,  which  flows  to 
the  westward.  This  is  said  to  issue  from  a  lake,  which  also 
gives  origin  to  a  still  smaller  stream,  bearing  likewise  the  appel- 
lation of  the  Rat,  and  taking  an  opposite  course  to  join  the  west- 
ern branch  of  the  Mackenzie.  The  western  Rat  River  is  an 
affluent  of  a  considerable  stream,  named  the  Porcupine,  which, 
running  to  the  west-southwest  for  two  hundred  and  thirty  miles, 
enters  the  Yukon,  a  river  emulating  the  Mackenzie  in  size,  and 
flowing  parallel  to  it,  but  on  the  western  side  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Of  the  country  watered  by  this  great  river,  and  its 
inhabitants,  I  shall  take  occasion  to  speak  hereafter. 

The  eastern  channel  of  the  delta  of  the  Mackenzie  is  also 
flanked  by  a  ridge,  named  the  Reindeer  Hills,  which  I  consider 
to  be  a  prolongation  of  the  spur  that  the  Mackenzie  crosses  at 
the  "Narrows."  They  are  not  so  rugged  or  peaked  in  their  out- 
line as  the  Richardson  chain,  or  the  spurs  which  the  Mackenzie 
passes  through  higher  up  ;  and  their  general  height  does  not  ap- 
pear to  exceed  seven  or  eight  hundred  feet. 

Having  finished  the  operations  at  the  cache,  we  resumed  the 
voyage,  and,  retracing  our  way  for  a  few  miles,  entered  the  east- 
ern channel  of  the  delta,  and  pursued  it  until  seven  in  tl^  >  even- 
ing, when  we  encamped,  about  twenty-two  miles  bt.jw  Point 
Separation.  The  banks  of  the  river  here,  and  the  numerous  isl- 
ands are  well  wooded.  The  balsam  poplars  rise  to  the  height  of 
twenty  feet,  and  the  white  spruces  to  forty  or  fifty.  Numbers  of 
sand-martens  burrow  in  the  banks.  These  birds  winter  in  Flor- 
ida. Mr.  Audubon  informs  us,  that  in  Louisiana  they  begin  to 
breed  in  March,  and  rear  two  or  three  broods  in  a  season.  In 
the  Middle  States  their  breeding-time  commences  a  month  later* 


I 


140 


SAND-MARTENS. 


and  in  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  it  rarely  takes  place  before 
the  beginning  of  June.  Near  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  the 
banks  are  scarcely  thawed  enough  to  admit  of  excavation  by  the 
feeble  instruments  of  this  bird  before  the  end  of  June ;  and  in  the 
beginning  of  September,  the  frosts  prostrating  the  insects  on 
which  the  martens  feed,  they  and  their  young  broods  must  wing 
their  way  southward.  I  was  unable  to  procure  a  specimen  of 
this  marten,  though  it  breeds  in  multitudes  along  the  whole 
course  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  am  therefore  unable  to  decide 
whether  it  is  the  Hirundo  riparia  or  Hirundo  serripennis  of 
Audubon  ;  but  from  its  nearly  even  tail,  I  rather  incline  to  think 
it  may  be  the  latter ;  and  if  so,  it  may  not  be  the  same  species 
which  breeds  in  the  Southern  States.  The  sand-marten  was  first 
seen  by  us  on  the  28th  of  May,  as  we  were  descending  the  River 
Winipeg,  near  the  50th  parallel,  and  we  know,  from  our  observ- 
ations in  1826,  that  it  reaches  the  delta  of  the  Mackenzie  by 
the  beginning  of  July  ;  affording  thus  an  index  to  the  progress 
of  spring  in  difTerent  latitudes.  On  the  Winipeg  it  was  accom- 
panied by  the  purple  swift  {Progne  purpurea),  whose  northern 
limit  we  did  not  ascertain. 

We  resumed  our  voyage  at  three  in  the  morning  on  the  1st  of 
August,  and  when  we  landed  to  cook  breakfast,  saw  some  recent 
footmarks  of  Eskimos.  As  these  people  are  employed  at  this 
time  of  the  year,  in  hunting  the  reindeer  on  the  hills  which  we 
were  skirting,  we  were  in  constant  expectation  of  seeing  some  of 
their  parties.  The  Reindeer  Hills,  as  viewed  from  the  eastern 
channel,  seem  to  be  an  even-backed  range ;  but  when  examined 
with  the  telescope,  they  are  seen  to  consist  of  many  small,  oblong, 
rocky  eminences,  apparently  of  limestone,  and  are  sparingly  wood- 
ed. In  the  course  of  the  morning  we  crossed  the  mouths  of  three 
pretty  large  affluents,  coming  in  from  the  hills,  and  also  two  cross 
canals,  dividing  M'Gillivray  Island  into  three  sections. 

About  thirty-five  miles  from  Point  Separation,  or  in  latitude 


\ 


MASS  OF  TRAP.-HARRISON  ISLAND. 


141 


68°  10'  N.,  the  channel  washes  the  foot  of  a  low  dome-shaped 
blufr,  in  which  the  intrusion  of  a  mass  of  trap,  which  now  forms 
the  top  of  the  hill,  has  tilted  up  a  bed  of  limestone,  and  separated 
it  from  one  of  sandstone. 

In  the  afternoon  we  passed  another  considerable  affluent  from 
the  hills  in  lat.  68°  18'  N. ;  some  hours  later,  another  one  of  less 
size ;  and  very  soon  afterward  crossed  a  channel  which  bounds 
Harrison  Island  on  the  south.  This  island,  like  M'Gillivray's, 
is  divided  into  several  portions  by  minor  creeks.  The  boats  were 
under  sail  all  the  afternoon,  and  must  have  been  observed,  about 
5  o'clock,  by  the  hunting-parties  of  the  Eskimos,  for  at  that  time 
we  noticed  a  line  of  six  or  eight  signal  smokes,  raised  in  succes- 
sion along  the  hills,  and  speedily  extinguished  again.  As  the 
Eskimos  use  fire-wood  very  sparingly  for  cooking,  and,  like  the 
Indians  generally,  burn  only  dry  wood  which  emits  but  little 
vapor,  we  knew  that  the  smokes  we  saw  were  intended  to  spread 
the  intelligence  of  the  arrival  of  strangers  in  the  country,  and 
therefore  that  we  might  expect  to  find  a  considerable  body  as- 
sembled on  some  part  of  the  river  to  meet  us.  In  the  evening 
we  landed  to  cook  supper,  and  re-embarked  to  continue  under 
sail  all  night,  with  a  very  light  breeze ;  oui  progress  was,  how- 
ever, slow,  owing  to  the  uncertain  eddies  and  currents,  produced 
by  the  junction  of  the  several  cross-channels.  At  midnight  we 
passed  the  creek  which  bounds  Harrison  Island  on  the  north, 
in  68°  37'  N.  Here  several  gently  swelling  elevations  inter- 
pose between  the  river  and  the  main  ridge  of  the  Reindeer 
Hills.  The  valleys  and  borders  of  the  rivers  are  well  wooded, 
but  the  summits  of  the  eminences  present  only  scattered  spruce 
firs,  with  stunted  tops  and  widely  spreading  depressed  lower 
branches.  The  canoe-birch  (Betula  papyracea)  is  frequent,  and 
the  trees  we  measured  were  about  five  inches  in  diameter.  The 
Populus  balsamifera  and  Alnus  viridis  grow  to  the  height  of 
twenty  feet,  and  the  Salix  spedosa  to  upward  of  twelve.  The 
Ribes  rubrum,  Rubus  chamcemorus,  and  Vacdnium  vitis  ideaa, 
bore  at  this  time  ripe  fruit.  The  Rosa  blanda,  Kalmia  glauca, 
Nardosmia  palmata,  and  Lupinus  perennis,  were  also  observed 
flourishing  in  this  high  latitude,  together  with  several  other  plants 
which  extend  to  the  sea-coast.  Among  the  birds,  we  saw  the 
great  tern  ( Sterna  cayana),  the  Caryle  alcyqn,  and  ScolecopJui- 
gus  ferrugineus,  the  latter  in  flocks. 


1 


us 


REINDEER  HILLS. 


(I 


August  2d. — For  five  or  six  hours  this  morning  we  ran  past 
the  ends  of  successive  ridges  separated  by  narrow  valleys.  The 
diagiam  gives  the  outlines  of  one  of  these  spurs  seen  on  the  south- 
ern flank.  It  is  about  three  hundred  feet  high,  and  its  acclivities 
are  furrowed  deeply,  producing  conical  eminences  which  are  im 
pressed  with  minor  furrows.  The  vegetation  is  scanty ;  a  few 
small  white  spruces  struggle  up  the  sides ;  and  the  soil,  where  it 


8AN0    HILLS.      LAT.  68''  fiCf   N 


is  exposed  to  view,  is  a  fine  white  sand.  Large  boulders  lie  on 
the  sides  of  the  hills,  and,  judging  from  the  structure  of  the  only 
point  on  which  time  permitted  rne  to  land,  the  whole  appears  to 
be  similar  to  the  sand  deposit  with  its  capping  of  boulder  gravel 
which  covers  the  shale  on  Athabasca  and  Mackenzie  Rivers.  On 
the  point  in  question,  the  white  sandy  soil  was  ascertained  to 
come  from  the  disintegration  of  a  sandstone,  which  has  just  co- 
herence enough  when  in  situ  to  form  a  perpendicular  bank,  but 
crumbles  on  being  handled.  It  consists  of  quartz  of  various  colors, 
with  grains  of  Lydian-stone  loosely  aggregated,  and  having  the 
interstices  filled  with  a  powdery  matter,  like  the  deposits  of  some 
calcareous  springs.  Similar  sandstones  occur  at  the  "  Narrows." 
Above  it,  there  is  a  bed  of  gravel,  also  formed  of  variously  colored 
grains  of  quartz,  mixed  with  chert  from  limestone.  Most  of  the 
jiuartz  is  opaque,  and  veined  or  banded,  but  some  of  it  is  trans- 


CONICAL   HILL. 


14S 


i 


lucent.  Some  bits  are  bluish,  others  black,  and  many  pebbles 
are  colored  of  various  shades  of  mountain  green.  The  latter  are 
collected  by  the  Eskimos  and  worn  by  them  as  labrets.  The 
gravel  covers  the  whole  slope  of  the  point,  which  is  so  steep  as 
to  require  to  be  ascended  on  all  fours.  In  one  part  a  torrent  had 
made  a  section  of  a  bed  of  fine  brown  sand,  twenty  feet  deep. 
On  this  bank  I  gathered  the  Bupleurum  rammculoides,  which 
grows  in  Beering's  Straits,  but  had  not  been  found  so  far  west- 
ward as  the  Mackenzie  before ;  also  the  Seseli  divaricatum, 
which  had  not  been  previously  collected  to  the  north  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan. 

In  latitude  68°  55'  N.  the  trees  disappeared  so  suddenly,  that 
I  could  not  but  attribute  their  cessation  to  the  influence  of  the 
sea-air.  Beyond  this  line  a  few  stunted  spruces  only,  were  seen 
struggling  for  existence,  and  some  scrubby  canoe-birches,  clinging 
to  the  bases  of  the  hills.  Further  on,  the  Reindeer  Hills  lower- 
ed rapidly,  and  we  soon  afterward  came  to  Sacred  Island,  which 
with  the  islets  beyond  it,  is  evidently  a  continuation  of  the  sandy 
deposit  noticed  above.  Had  time  permitted,  I  should  have  gone 
past  Sacred  Island,  northward,  to  deposit  some  pemican  on  Whale 
Island,  but  at  so  advanced  a  period  of  the  summer,  I  was  un- 
willing to  incur  the  loss  of  a  day  which  that  route  was  certain 
to  occasion,  and  perhaps  even  of  two  days. 

We  did  not  land  on  Sacred  Island,  but  observed  in  passing 
that  it  still  continued  to  be  a  burying-place  of  the  Eskimos ;  two 
graves  covered  by  the  sledges  of  the  deceased,  and  not  of  many 
years'  construction,  being  visible  from  the  boats.  This  is  the 
most  northerly  locality  in  which  the  common  red  currant  grows 
on  this  continent,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain.  Five 
miles  beyond  the  island,  we  landed  on  the  main  shore,  to  obtain 
a  meridional  observation,  by  which  the  latitude  was  ascertained 
to  be  69°  4'  14"  N.,  and  the  sun's  bearing  at  noon,  south  51° 
east.  About  three  miles  further  on,  we  had  a  distant  view  of 
an  eminence  lying  to  the  eastward,  which  resembled  an  artificial 
barrow,  having  a  conical  form,  with  very  steep  sides  and  a  trun- 
cated summit.  This  summit,  in  some  points  of  view,  presented 
three  small  points,  in  others,  only  two,  divided  from  one  another 
by  an  acute  notch.  In  the  afternoon  I  landed  on  Richard's 
Island,  which  rises  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  or  two  hundred 
feet  above  the  water,  has  an  undulated  grassy  surface,  and  is  bor- 


POINT  ENCOUNTER. 


■  I; 


CONICAL   HILL    UKYUiND    POINT   ENCOUNTKH 


dered  by  clayey  or  sandy  cliffs  and  shelving  beaches.  The  main 
shore  has  a  similar  character.  The  channel  varies  in  depth  from 
two  to  six  fathoms,  but  is  full  of  sand-banks,  on  which  the  boats 
frequently  grounded. 

At  ten  in  the  evening  we  encamped  on  Point  Encounter,  in 
latitude  69°  16'  N.,  and  set  a  watch  at  the  boats,  and  also  on 
the  top  of  the  bank,  which  is  here  nearly  two  hundred  feei  high. 
The  tide  ebbed  at  the  encampment,  from  seven  in  the  evening 
till  half  an  hour  after  midnight.  The  ensign  was  planted  on  the 
summit  of  the  cliff  all  the  evening,  and  was  no  doubt  seen  by  the 
Eskimos,  who  were  in  our  neighborhood,  ar.d  most  probably  re- 
connoitred our  encampment,  but  we  saw  nothing  of  them. 

The  readers  of  the  narrative  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  Second 
Overland  Journey  will  recollect  that  off  this  point  the  Eskimos 
made  a  fruitless  attempt  to  drag  the  boats  of  the  eastern  detach- 
ment on  shore,  for  the  purpose  of  plundering  them. 


lain 
rom 
Dats 

in 

on 

gh. 

ng 

the 

the 

re- 

ond 
tnos 
ch- 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

Enter  the  Estuary  of  the  Mackenzie. — Interview  witli  the  Eskimos. — Remarks 
on  that  People. — Winter-houses  near  Point  Warren. — Cojihind  Htitchi.son 
Bay. — F'lat  Coast  with  Hummocks. — Level  bopgy  Lund. — Mirage. — A  Party 
of  Eskimos  visit  us. — Point  Atkinson. — Kashim. — Old  Woman. — Old  Man. — 
Young  Men. — Cape  Brown. — Eskimos. — Russell  Inlet. — Cape  Dalhousio. — 
Sabine  Xema. — Liverpool  Bay. — Nicholson  Island. — Frozen  ClilTs  of  Cnfjo 
Maitland — Rock  Ptarmigan. — Eskimo  Tents. — Ilarrowhy  Bay. — Baillie's  Isl- 
ands.— River  of  the  Toothless  Fish  or  Beghula  Tess6. — Eskimo  of  C!/ipe  Bath- 
urst. — Their  Summer  and  its  Occupations. — Shale  Formation  of  the  Sea-coast. 

August  3cl,  1848. — Having  given  some  verbal  instructions  to 
the  crews  of  the  boats,  respecting  their  conduct  in  the  presence 
of  the  Eskimos,  we  embarked  at  four  in  the  morning,  and,  cross- 
ing a  shallow  bar  at  the  east  end  of  a  sandbank,  stood  through 
t'e  estuary  between  Richard's  Island  and  the  main,  with  a  mod- 
erate easterly  breeze,  which  carried  us  gradually  away  from  the 
main  shore.  About  an  hour  after  starting,  we  perceived  about 
two  hundred  Eskijpios  coming  oft'  in  their  kaiyaks,  carrying  one 
man  each,  and  three  umaiks  filled  with  women  and  old  men, 
eight  or  ten  in  each.  The  kaiyaks  are  so  easily  overbalanced, 
that  the  sitter  requires  to  steady  it  before  he  can  use  his  bow  or 
throw  his  spear  with  advantage,  unless  when  three  lie  alongside 
each  other,  and  lay  their  paddles  across,  by  which  the  central 
man  is  left  at  liberty  to  use  both  hands.  By  taking  the  precau- 
tion, therefore;  of  net  allowing  the  Eskimos  to  hamper  us,  by 
clinging  to  the  boats,  and  continuing  to  make  some  way  through 
the  water  with  the  oars,  we  were  pretty  sure  that  they  could  not 
take  us  altogether  by  surprise  ;  and  I  felt  confident  that  as  long 
us  they  saw  that  we  were  on  our  guard,  and  prepared  to  resist 
any  aggression,  none  would  be  attempted.  I  had,  moreover, 
especially  directed  Duncan  Clark,  who  was  cockswain  of  the  third 
boat,  in  which  there  was  no  other  officer,  to  keep  close  to  mine, 
which  he  could  easily  do  as  his  was  the  swifter  of  the  two  ;  but 
the  novelty  of  the  scene  caused  h'tn  to  neglect  this  command,  for- 
tunately with  no  serious  bad  consequence,  though  a  conflict  might 
have  been  the  result  of  his  inattention  to  orders. 

G 


140 


INTF.RVir.VV   WITir   K8KIMOH. 


ii 

I! 


Mr.  llac  and  I  carried  on  a  barter  with  the  men  in  the  kai- 
yaks,  paying  them  very  liberally  for  any  thing  they  had  to  oiler 
in  exchaiifre,  such  as  arrows,  bows,  knives  of  copper  or  of  bone,  Sec, 
and  thereby  finnishiiig  them  with  much  iron- work,  in  the  shapo 
of  knives,  files,  hatchets,  awls,  needles,  &c.  The  articles  we  re- 
ceived were  of  no  value  to  us;  but  a  gift  is  generally  considered 
by  the  American  nations  as  an  acknowledgment  of  inferiority,  and 
it  is  better  to  exact  something  in  exchange  for  any  article  that 
you  may  wish  to  bestow.  The  men  were  very  persevering  in 
their  attempts  to  hold  on  by  the  boats,  and  we  were  obliged  to 
strike  them  severely  on  the  hands  to  make  them  desist.  Previous 
experience  had  taught  me  the  absolute  necessity  of  firmness  in 
repressing  this  practice,  and  I  was  pleased  as  well  as  surprised  to 
see  the  patience  with  which  they  generally  endured  this  treatment 
— a  few  only  of  the  bolder  spirits  showing  a  momentary  anger, 
but  all  acquiescing  at  length  in  the  rule  we  had  laid  down.  The 
freshness  of  the  breeze  which  blew  during  our  intercourse  render- 
ed it  easier  to  deal  with  them,  as  they  dropped  behind  directly 
they  had  ceased  to  ply  their  paddles ;  but  they  had  no  difficulty 
in  out-stripping  our  boats  whenever  they  exerted  themselves  ; 
and  I  have  little  doubt  but  that  they  are  able  to  propel  their 
light  kaiyaks  at  the  rate  of  seven  miles  an  hour. 

While  we  were  thus  engaged,  we  heard  the  report  of  two  mus- 
kets from  the  third  boat,  which  had  dropped  two  or  three  hun- 
dred yards  astern.  It  appeared  that  the  kaiyaks  had  not  been  so 
rigidly  kept  ofT  by  Clark,  but  had  been  allowed  to  hamper  the 
oars  so  as  to  retard  the  boat's  way.  Some  of  the  Eskimos,  pad- 
dling close  up  to  the  stern,  had  tried  to  drag  the  cockswain  over- 
board by  the  skirts  of  his  jacket ;  and  performed  other  various 
aggressive  acts,  evidently  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  to  what 
lengths  they  might  proceed  with  impunity.  The  umiaks,  which 
had  been  kept  aloof  from  the  foremost  boats,  made  a  push  for  the 
third  one,  and  one  of  them  running  across  her  bows,  the  men 
and  women  it  contained  instantly  began  to  plunder  the  boat,  and 
to  struggle  with  the  crew,  who,  being  only  six  in  number,  would 
have  been  soon  overpowered.  Immediately  on  hearing  the  re- 
ports of  the  muskets,  which  were  fired  in  the  air  merely  as  sig- 
nals, I  wore  my  boat  round  amid  the  shouts  of  the  Eskimos  who 
were  hovering  near  us,  and  who  thought  that  I  was  about  to 
comply  with  their  urgent  requests  that  we  should  land  and  en- 


INTERVIKW   WITH   EHKIMOS. 


147 


camp  in  their  neighborhood,  lluuliiig  up  under  the  stern  of 
Clurk's  boat,  I  declared  that  I  would  inunediately  Tire  upon  the 
BBHailaut^  if  they  did  not  desist,  and  my  crew  at  the  same  time 
presenting  their  muskets,  the  attempt  was  at  once  quelled.  I 
found,  on  subsequent  inquiry,  that  nothing  had  b'.en  carried  away 
but  a  small  box  on  which  the  cockswain  sat,  which  contained  his 
shaving  apparatus,  and  some  other  trilling  articles  belonging  to 
himself,  together  with  the  boats  ensign.  Though  vexed  at  the 
loss  of  the  latter,  I  could  not  but  be  glad  that  he  was  the  only 
one  of  the  crew  who  sufiered,  and  I  looked  upon  the  theft  of  his 
property  as  poetical  justice  for  his  want  of  firmness.  The 
umiaks,  not  being  sulFered  again  to  approach  our  boats,  soon 
pulled  toward  the  shore,  but  the  majority  of  the  kaiyaks  contin- 
ued to  keep  company  with  us,  the  men  conversing  and  begging 
as  if  nothing  unpleasant  had  occurred.  At  length,  as  we  had 
been  drawing  away  from  the  shore  all  the  morning,  we  totally 
lost  sight  of  the  land  ;  and  the  kaiyaks  assembling  together,  the 
men  held  a  short  consultation,  and  then  paddled  toward  their  en- 
campment, being  guided  in  their  course  by  a  dense  column  of 
smoke,  which  their  families  on  shore  had  raised.  Four  or  five 
of  them  continued  to  follow  us  for  a  short  time,  after  the  great 
body  had  gone  away,  evincing  their  boldness,  even  when  much 
inferior  in  numbers,  but  they,  also,  went  off  on  receiving  some 
presents,  which  we  could  then  make  to  them  without  fear  of 
misconstruction. 

Our  inquiries  were  directed  chiefly  to  obtaining  information  of 
the  Discovery  Ships,  but  the  Eskimos,  one  and  all,  denied  having 
ever  seen  any  white  people,  or  heard  of  any  vessels  having  been 
on  their  coast.  None  acknowledged  having  been  present  at  the 
various  interviews  of  their  countrymen  with  white  people  in  182G, 
and  perhaps  the  circumstances  attending  those  meetings  might 
have  deterred  them  from  confessing  that  they  were  relatives  of 
the  parties  that  assailed  Sir  John  Franklin's  boats  at  that  time  ; 
and  as  most  of  the  men  were  stout  young  fellows,  and  few  beyond 
the  prime  of  life,  only  two  or  three  of  the  old  men  in  the  umiaks 
could  have  been  actually  engaged  in  the  struggle  which  then  took 
place.  One  fellow  alone,  in  answer  to  my  inquiries  after  white 
men,  said,  "A  party  of  men  are  living  on  that  island,"  pointing, 
as  he  spoke,  to  Richard's  Island.  As  I  had  actually  landed  there 
on  the  preceding  day,  I  was  aware  of  the  falsehood  he  was  utter 


MS 


THE   ESKIMOS. 


ing; 


It' 


and  his  object  was  clearly  to  induce  us  to  put  about  and  go 
on  shore,  which  he  and  others  had  been  soliciting  us  to  do  from 
the  commencement  of  our  conversation.  I,  therefore,  desired 
Albert  to  inform  him,  that  I  had  been  there,  and  knew  that  he 
was  lying.  He  received  this  retort  with  a  smile,  and  without 
the  slightest  discomposure,  but  did  not  repeat  his  assertion. 
Neither  the  Eskimos,  nor  the  Dog-rib  or  Ilare  Indians,  feel  the 
least  shame  in  being  detected  in  falsehood,  and  invariably  practice 
it,  if  they  think  that  they  can  thereby  gain  any  of  their  petty  ends. 
Even  in  their  familiar  intercourse  with  each  other,  the  Indians 
seldom  tell  the  truth  in  the  first  instance  ;  and  if  they  succeed  in 
exciting  admiration  or  astonishment,  their  invention  runs  on  with- 
out check.  From  the  manner  of  the  speaker,  rather  than  by  his 
words,  is  his  truth  or  falsehood  inferred ;  and  often  a  very  long 
interrogation  is  necessary  to  elicit  the  real  fact.  The  comfort, 
and  not  unfrequently  the  lives,  of  parties  of  the  timid  Slave  or 
Hare  Indians  are  sacrificed  by  this  miserable  propensity.  Thus, 
a  young  lellow  often  originates  a  story  of  his  having  discovered 
traces  of  an  enemy  for  which  there  is  no  real  foundation.  This 
tale,  though  not  credited  at  first,  makes  some  impression  on  the 
fears  of  the  others,  and  soon  receives  confirmation  from  their  ex- 
cited imaginations.  The  story  increases  in  importance,  a  panic 
seizes  the  whole  party,  they  fly  with  precipitation  from  their  hunt- 
ing grounds,  and  if  they  are  distant  from  a  trading  post,  or  large 
body  of  their  nation,  many  of  the  number  often  perish  in  their 
flight  by  famine. 

The  Eskimos  are  essentially  a  littoral  people,  and  inhabit 
nearly  five  thousand  miles  of  sea-board,  from  the  Straits  of  Belle- 
isle  to  the  Peninsula  of  Alaska  ;  not  taking  into  the  measurement 
the  various  indentations  of  the  coast-line,  nor  including  West  and 
East  Greenland,  in  which  latter  locality  they  make  their  nearest 
approach  to  the  western  coasts  of  the  Old  World.  Throughout 
the  great  linear  range  here  indicated,  there  is  no  material  change 
in  their  language,  nor  any  variation  beyond  what  would  be  es- 
teemed in  England  a  mere  provincialism.  Albert,  who  was  born 
on  the  East  Main,  or  western  shore  of  James's  Bay,  had  no  great 
difliculty  in  understanding  and  making  himself  understood  by  the 
Eskimos  of  the  estuary  of  the  Mackenzie,  though  by  the  nearest 
coast-line  the  distance  between  the  two  localities  is  at  least  two 
thousand  five  hundred  miles.     Traces  of  their  encampments  have 


THE  ESKIMOS. 


149 


been  discovered  as  far  north  in  the  New  World  as  Europeans  have 
hitherto  penetrated  ;  and  their  capability  of  inhabiting  these  hy- 
perborean rerrions  is  essentially  owing  to  their  consuming  blubber 
for  food  and  fuel,  and  their  invention  of  the  use  of  ice  and  snow 
as  building  materials.  Though  they  employ  drift-timber  when 
it  is  available,  they  can  do  without  it,  and  can  supply  its  place 
in  the  formation  of  their  weapons,  sledges,  and  boat-frames,  wholly 
by  the  teeth  and  bones  of  whales,  morses,  and  other  sea  animals. 
The  habit  of  associating  in  ninnbers  for  the  chase  of  the  whale 
has  sown  among  them  the  elements  of  civilization  ;  and  such  of 
them  as  have  been  taken  into  the  Company's  service  at  the  fur 
posts  fall  readily  into  the  ways  of  their  white  afccociates,  and  are 
more  industrious,  handy,  and  intelligent  than  the  Indians.  The 
few  interpreters  of  the  nation  that  I  have  been  acquainted  with 
(four  in  all)  were  strictly  honest,  and  adhered  rigidly  to  the  truth  ; 
and  I  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  within  their  own  com- 
munity the  rights  of  property  are  held  in  great  respect,  even  the 
hunting  grounds  of  families  being  kept  sacred.  Yet  their  covet- 
ousness  of  the  property  of  strangers  and  their  dexterity  in  thieving 
are  remarkable,  and  they  seem  to  have  most  of  the  vices  as  well 
as  the  virtues  of  the  Norwegian  Vikings.  Their  personal  bravery 
is  conspicuous,  and  they  are  the  only  native  nation  on  the  North 
American  continent  who  oppose  their  enemies  face  to  face  in  open 
fight.  Instead  of  flying,  like  the  Northern  Indians,  on  the  sight 
of  a  stranger,  they  did  not  scruple  in  parties  of  two  or  three  to 
come  off  to  our  boats  and  enter  into  barter,  and  never  on  any  oc- 
casion showed  the  least  disposition  to  yield  any  thing  belonging 
to  them  through  fear. 

As  the  narratives  of  the  recent  Arctic  voyages  contain  descrip- 
tions of  the  manners,  customs,  and  features  of  these  people,  and 
the  sketches  of  Captains  Beechey,  Lyons,  Sir  George  Back,  Lieu- 
tenant Kendall,  and  others,  give  correct  delineations  of  the  per- 
sonal appearance  and  costume,  I  shall  not  say  more  of  them  in 
this  place. 

As  soon  as  the  last  of  the  kaiyaks  disappeared  beyond  our  hori- 
zon, we  struck  the  boats'  masts,  and,  pulling  obliquely  in  toward 
the  shore,  landed  to  cook  our  supper  at  a  place  where  there  were 
three  winter  Eskimo  habitations,  and  which  is  situated  about 
seven  or  eight  miles  to  the  eastward  of  Point  Warren.  These 
buildings  are  generally  placed  on  points  where  the  water  is  deep 


150 


vvrNTKii  HOUSES. 


enoiiijh  for  a  boat  to  come  to  the  beach,  such  a  locality  bring 
probably  selected  by  the  natives  to  enable  them  to  tow  a  whalo 
or  seal  more  closely  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  cut  up.  The 
knowledge  of  this  fact  induced  us  generally  to  look  for  the  build- 
ings when  we  wished  to  land.  The  houses  are  constructed  of 
drift-timber  strongly  built  togelher  and  covered  with  earth  to  the 
thickness  of  from  one  to  two  feet.  Light  and  air  are  admitted 
by  a  low  door  at  one  end  ;  and  even  this  entrance  is  closed  by  a 
slab  of  snow  in  the  winter  time,  when  their  lamps  supply  them 
with  heat  as  well  as  light.  Ten  or  twelve  i)eople  may  seat  them- 
selves in  the  area  of  one  of  these  houses,  though  not  comlortably; 
and  in  the  winter  the  imperfect  admission  of  fresh  air  and  the 
ellluvia  arising  from  the  greasy  bodies  of  a  whole  family  must 
render  them  most  disagreeable  as  well  as  unwholesome  abodes. 
I  have  been  told  that  when  the  family  alone  are  present,  the  sev- 
eral members  of  it  sit  partly  or  even  wholly  naked. 

As  soon  as  supper  was  prepared,  we  withdrew  to  the  boats  to 
eat  it,  having  anchored  them  under  a  sand-bank  about  a  bow-shot 
from  the  shore.  We  had  scarcely  assumed  this  position  when  a 
party  of  Eskimos  were  perceived  coming  round  a  point  a  little  to 
the  westward,  crouching  under  the  bank,  and  evidently  hoping 
to  surprise  us  at  the  fire,  of  which  they  had  seen  the  smoke.  As 
soon  as  they  knew  they  were  perctiived  they  brandished  their  bows 
and  knives,  made  gestures  of  defiance,  and  threw  their  bodies  into 
various  most  extraordinary  attitudes,  as  they  are  accustomed  to 
do  when  they  meet  with  a  strange  party,  of  whose  intentions  they 
are  uncertain. 

As  we  were  all,  both  men  and  officers,  exhausted  by  the  con- 
stant clamor,  watchfulness,  and  exertion  sustained  throughout 
the  morning,  and  I  wished  the  men  to  have  some  repose,  we  de- 
termined on  having  no  communication  with  this  warlike  group, 
since  we  could  hope  for  no  additional  information  from  people 
residing  so  near  the  large  body  we  had  so  recently  parted  from. 
On  coming  to  the  winter-houses,  they  showed  themselves,  at  first 
cautiously,  then  openly,  and  ceased  to  gesticulate.  Soon  after- 
ward one  began  to  wade  out  to  the  sand-bank,  and  another  to 
launch  a  kaiyak  which  he  had  brought.  Thereupon,  to  intimate 
that  we  declined  to  receive  them,  Mr.  llae  fired  a  ball  so  as  to 
strike  the  water  a  lew  ieet  on  one  side  of  him.  The  bold  lellow 
leaped  into  the  air.  cut  several  capers  of  defiance,  and  then  re- 


COl'LAND   HUTCIIIHON    BAY. 


1^1 


treated  with  the  others  into  one  of  the  houses,  whore  they  thought 
themselves  safe,  and  from  whence  they  continued  to  watch  us. 
After  a  time  one  of  them  waded  out  to  the  sand-bank,  planted  a 
stick  on  it,  and  pulling  ofl'  his  reindeer  jacket,  hung  it  up,  inti- 
mating that  he  wished  to  have  its  value,  and  then  retreated  to 
the  shore.  We,  however,  declined  bartering,  and  at  10  p.  m. 
weighed  anchor,  and,  standing  out  to  sea,  worked  to  windward 
all  night  against  a  stifl'  breeze. 

August  AlJi. — We  gained  only  a  few  miles  by  the  night's 
operations,  having  to  contend  with  a  tumbling  sea,  which  drove 
us  to  leeward  ;  and  at  3  in  the  morning,  on  the  wind  moderating 
eufficiently  to  allow  us  to  use  the  oars,  wo  struck  the  masts  and 
pulled  for  three  hours  across  Copland  Hutchison  Inlet,  when  wo 
landed  on  its  eastern  side  to  prepare  breakfast.  The  shore  in 
this  quarter  is  for  the  most  part  low,  but,  at  intervals  of  seven  or 
eight  miles  or  more,  some  of  the  conical  eminences  already  men- 
tioned occur.  They  have  not  the  ridged  and  escarped  aspect 
of  sand  hills,  but,  on  account  of  their  isolation,  look  more  like 
artificial  barrows,  though  unquestionably  they  can  wot  be  works 
of  art.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  they  are  remnants  of  the 
sand  formation  which  covers  the  shale  so  extensively  along  the 
banks  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  that  they  have  received  their  coni- 
cal form  from  the  washing  of  high  tides  during  the  occasional 
inundations  of  the  low  lands  by  the  sea. 

Copland  Hutchison  Inlet  is  about  ten  miles  across,  and  its 
mouth  is  obstructed  by  sand-banks.  A  river  seems  to  flow  into 
it,  as  we  could  trace  sandy  clifTs  for  some  distance  inland,  like 
the  banks  of  a  stream.  Though  many  small  ponds  existed  at  the 
place  where  we  landed,  they  were  mostly  brackish,  and  we  had 
to  search  for  some  time  before  we  obtained  fresh  water.  On,  at 
length,  discovering  some,  we  filled  our  breakers,  to  avoid  a  simi- 
lar detention  at  our  next  meal.  Drift-wood  was  also  scarce. 
From  these  causes  we  were  unusually  long  at  breakfast ;  and 
soon  after  embarking  we  landed  again  to  observe  the  meridional 
altitude  of  the  sun  ;  by  which  the  latitude  was  ascertained  to  be 
09°  44'  N.,  and  the  variation  of  the  needle  58°  E. 

As  we  advanced  to  the  eastward,  in  the  afternoon,  the  coast 
became  still  flatter,  so  that  the  beach  was  under  the  horizon 
when  we  were  in  no  more  than  half  a  fathom  of  water.  The 
hummouks  above-mentioned,  which  came  into  view  in  succession, 


■ 


I 


152 


LEVEL  BOGGY  LAND.— MIRAGE. 


H 


looming  like  conical  islands,  as  we  ran  along  with  a  light  wester- 
ly breeze,  were  the  only  lantl  in  sight.  In  blowing  weather,  the 
only  resource  for  boats  on  this  coast  is  to  keep  a  good  ofTing,  as 
the  surf  then  breaks  high  on  the  shelving  flats.  During  the  after- 
noon the  sky  was  lurid,  as  if  loaded  with  fog,  and,  though  the 
horizon  was  tolerably  clear,  objects  were  very  much  altered  by 
mirage.  Altogether  I  have  never,  either  in  this  chmate  or  in 
any  other,  seen  a  more  disagreeable  atmosphere,  and  we  all  pre- 
dicted a  coming  storm.  At  night,  the  wind  heading  us,  so  that 
we  could  not  fetch  the  easternmost  hummock  in  sight,  we  ran 
under  a  sand- bank,  and  anchored  in  a  foot  and  a  half  of  water 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  shore.  On  the  tide  ebbing, 
the  boats  were  left  dry. 

The  perfectly  flat  land  here  is  covered,  to  the  depth  of  four  or 
five  feet,  with  a  moorish  or  peaty  soil,  which  is  much  cracked, 
and  in  many  places  treacherously  soft  and  boggy.  Small  lakes 
and  ponds  intersect  it  in  all  directions,  mostly  filled  with  brackish 
water,  but  some  of  them  containing  water  fresh  enough  for  cook- 
ing, though  by  no  means  good.  The  irregular  ponds  and  marshy 
places  make  the  course  to  any  particular  point  exceedingly  devious, 
and  I  had  a  long  walk  to  reach  one  of  the  eminences,  though  its 
direct  distance  from  the  beach  was  little  more  than  a  mile.  This 
hill  rose  from  the  boggy  ground,  in  a  conical  form,  to  the  height 
of  about  one  hundred  feet,  its  base  having  a  diameter  about  equal 
to  its  height.  A  ditch,  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  wide,  which  sur- 
rounded it,  was  passable  only  at  two  points ;  and,  on  ascending 
the  hill,  I  found  that  hollow,  like  the  crater  of  a  volcano ;  in 
which,  about  fifteen  feet  below  its  brim,  stood  an  apparently  deep 
lake  of  very  clear  and  sweet  water.  The  interior  beach  of  this 
curious  pond  was  formed  of  fine  clean  gravel,  and  the  hill  itself 
apparently  consisted  of  sand  and  gravel  with  a  coating  of  earth. 
From  its  summit,  I  saw  many  similar  heights  to  the  eastward,  and 
southeastward,  that  is,  in  an  inland  direction,  and  they  seemed  to 
rise,  like  islands,  out  of  a  great  inlet  or  bay,  for  the  low  land  con- 
necting them,  if  such  existed,  was  not  visible.  I  looked  long  on 
the  scene,  but  could  not  satisfy  myself  whether  what  I  beheld  was 
.actually  water,  or  merely  the  mirage  of  a  low  fog  simulating  an 
inlet  of  the  sea.  I  was  inclined  to  consider  that  the  latter  was 
the  real  state  of  the  case,  since,  during  the  whole  afternoon,  the 
hills  we  had  passed,  as  well  as  the  one  on  which  I  then  stood, 


,f 


VISIT  OF  ES«KIMOS. 


158 


seemed  equally  to  rise  out  of  a  hazy  sea,  when  we  were  at  the 
distance  of  only  four  or  five  rniles  from  them.  Could  I  have  con- 
vinced myself  that  the  isolated  peaks  I  saw  were  really  islands,  I 
should  have  thoujjht  that  I  was  on  the  borders  of  the  cxionsivc 
Eskimo  Lake,  laid  down  as  problematical  in  Sir  John  Franklin's 
chart,  but  which  I  now  believe  does  not  exist.  The  Indians, 
upon  whose  report  it  was  indicated,  meant,  most  probably,  by  the 
expression  they  used,  the  sea  itself,  or  perhaps  the  inlet  of  Liver- 
pool Bay,  which  lies  further  to  the  westward.  Round  the  lower 
part  of  the  hill,  about  eight  or  ten  feet  above  the  then  level  of 
the  sea,  lay  a  ring  of  large  drift-timber,  showing  that,  in  certain 
states  of  the  wind,  the  sea  rises  so  as  to  inundate  all  the  low  lands. 
Nothing  that  we  observed  in  the  whole  course  of  our  voyage  led 
us  to  think  that  the  spring  tides  rise  more  than  three  feet  on  any 
part  of  this  coast,  and  their  rise  was  more  generally  only  about 
twenty  inches. 

Reindeer  frequent  these  flat  lands  at  this  season  to  feed  on 
bents  and  grasses,  and  the  ponds  are  full  of  geese  and  ducks. 
Many  red-throated  divers  {Colymbus  sepfentrionalis)  also  resort 
thither,  and  utter  a  most  mournful  cry  when  any  one  invades 
their  retirement;  the  Lapland  finch  {PlectropJmnes  lapponicus) 
and  horned  lark  {Phileremos  cmnutus)  make  a  breeding  station 
of  this  coast,  and  we  observed  the  young  birds  running  in  imm- 
bers  over  the  ground. 

•  While  Mr.  Rae  was  out  hunting,  the  crews  were  cooking  sup- 
per on  shore,  and  I  remained  with  two  boat-keepers  at  the  boats, 
I  received  a  visit  from  two  middle-aged  Eskimos  and  their  wives ; 
the  latter  being  fat,  jolly-looking  dames,  and  considerably  young- 
er than  their  husbands.  Albert  was  absent,  so  that  I  could  not 
profit  by  the  interview  to  ask  as  many  questions  as  I  desired  to 
do,  but  I  made  out  that  if  we  kept  in  shore  of  the  sand-banks, 
we  should  have  water  enough  for  our  boats  when  the  tide  rose, 
and  would  find  a  passage  out  to  sea  at  a  point  on  which  their 
winter  houses  stood^-or,  as  they  invariably  termed  such  stations 
in  their  own  lavguata,  Iglulik.  They  had  not  seen  any  white 
men  on  their  coast,  but  with  a  ready  flattery  expressed  their  af- 
fection for  them.  Having  been  very  liberal  to  my  visitors,  not 
only  in  purchasing  all  the  small  articles  of  trafiic  they  had  to 
offer,  but  also  by  making  them  some  useful  presents  of- files, 
hatchets,  and  knives,  with  a  conside-.able  quantity  of  beads,  I 


154 


rOINT  ATKINSON. 


became  tired  of  their  company  and  of  the  constant  vigilance  re- 
quired to  prevent  them  from  pilfering,  and  therefore  requei)ted 
that  they  would  go  away,  since  I  would  give  them  nothing  more. 
Their  smiling  countenances  and  deferential  manner  prevented  me 
from  using  any  threat,  but  I  had  to  repeat  my  request  several 
times,  and,  at  length,  from  the  urgency  with  whish  I  spoke,  one 
of  the  women  seemed  to  think  that  I  was  afraid  of  their  using 
violence,  and  opening  the  hood  of  her  jacket,  she  showed  me  that 
there  was  a  little  naked  infant  in  it.  She  then  explained  that 
when  they  went  to  war  they  left  the  children  behind,  and  that 
she  and  the  other  woman  had  brought  their  young  ones  as  a 
pledge  of  their  pacific  intentions.  I  prevailed  upon  them  at  length 
to  go,  by  assuring  them  that  I  would  part  with  nothing  more  at 
that  time,  but  would  give  them  something  on  a  future  occasion, 
if  they  came  again  to  us. 

Mr.  Rae  went  in  pursuit  of  reindeer  in  the  afternoon,  but  the 
talking  of  the  men  who  were  wandering  about  scared  away  the 
animals.  He  was  more  successful  in  the  night,  and,  by  taking 
Halkett's  portable  boat  on  shore  with  him,  killed  nineteen  brent 
geese,  and  some  ducks.  The  water-fowl  at  this  time  were  moult- 
ing in  the  small  lakes,  and  became  an  easy  prey. 

August  5t,h. — A  strong  gale  of  wind  raised  a  high  surf  on  the 
shoals  under  which  we  lay,  so  that  we  could  not  launch  the  boats 
over  them  seaward.  We,  therefore,  made  sail  when  the  tide 
rose,  and  ran  on  the  inside  of  them  until  we  became  involved 
among  the  flats,  and  the  boats  were  left  quite  dry.  During  low 
water,  we  marked  off  the  best  channels  with  poles.  The  tide 
began  to  flow  at  11^  a.m.,  and  by  21  p.m.,  there  was  water 
enough  for  us  to  proceed,  by  launching  the  boats  over  some  bars 
which  intervened  between  the  place  where  we  were  detained, 
and  deeper  water.  Following  a  narrow  channel  till  5  in  the 
afternoon,  we  secured  the  boats  in  a  snug  harbor  under  a  tongue 
of  sand  at  Point  Atkinson.  A  strong  northwest  gale  had  raised 
a  high  sea,  and  we  could  do  no  otherwise  than  remain  here  at 
anchor  until  the  wind  and  sea  subsided. 

Point  Atkinson  is  a  flat,  low  piece  of  ground,  with  a  range  of 
sand  hills,  forty  or  flfty  feet  high,  thrown  up  along  its  northern 
side  by  the  winds  and  waves.  When  we  visited  it  in  1825,  its 
extreme  point  was  a  small  island  separated  from  the  main  by  a 
ditch,  but  this  wad  now  choked  up  and  formed  a  marshy  pond, 


KASIIIM.— OLD  WOMAN. 


100 


the  water  of  which  being  brackish,  and  fetid  as  well  as  greasy, 
from  the  quantity  of  whale  oil  with  which  the  ground  was  satu- 
rated, was  totally  unfit  for  use.  The  oil  had  acted  as  a  manure 
on  the  soil,  and  produced  a  luxuriant  crop  of  grass  from  one  to 
two  feet  high  {Elijmus  QiioUis,  Calamagrostis  striata,  Sjmrtina 
cyiiosuroides,  and  some  shorter  Caricca).  A  small  village  of  sev- 
en or  eight  huts  stood  on  the  point,  among  which  is  the  Kashim, 
or  house  of  assembly,  described  and  figured  in  the  narrative  of  my 
former  voyage  along  this  coast.  I  am  not  aware  that  a  house  of 
this  description,  appropriated  as  a  council  chamber  and  eating-place 
for  the  males,  has  been  described  as  existing  among  the  more  east- 
ern Eskimos.  They  possess,  however,  the  appellation  for  it  in  their 
language.  It  is  of  more  importance  among  the  western  tribes, 
as  I  shall  have  occasion  to  mention  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

The  sea  has  carried  away  much  of  the  sandy  bank  on  which 
the  Kashim  stood,  and  the  spray  now  washes  its  walls,  so  that  it 
will  likely  be  overthrown  in  a  few  seasons.  It  is  still  supported 
by  whale-skulls  built  round  its  outside  wall.  After  seeing  the 
boats  secured.  Mr.  Rae  and  I  walked  through  the  village  by  a 
well-beaten  path  which  meandered  among  the  long  grass ;  and 
on  looking  into  one  of  the  smaller  houses,  found  an  old  crone  sit- 
ting warming  herself  over  a  few  embers.  She  seemed  surprised 
when  she  saw  our  faces,  but  exhibited  no  signs  of  fear,  and  soon . 
began  to  talk  very  volubly.  Some  rows  of  very  inviting  herring- 
salmon  being  hung  to  dry  on  poles  by  her  tent,  she  gave  me  five 
or  six  at  my  request,  and,  while  Mr.  Rae  had  gone  to  the  boats 
to  procure  some  articles  to  repay  her  and  for  presents,  she  told 
me  that  she  must  go  to  a  party  who  were  encamped  on  the  shore 
about  a  mile  off.  I  endeavored  to  persuade  her  to  remain  till  she 
got  the  articles  I  had  sent  for,  but  she  was  bent  on  going,  and, 
having  made  up  a  small  bundle  of  some  of  her  property,  walked 
off  with  a  quickness  and  elasticity  of  step  which  her  first  appear- 
ance was  far  from  warranting.  The  deep  furrows  of  her  counte- 
nance, and  its  weather-beaten  aspect,  gave  her  the  appearance  of 
advanced  age ;  and  while  she  sat  she  seemed  to  be  a  woman  of 
ordinary  stature,  a  little  bowed  down  ;  but  when  she  stood  up  she 
looked  dwarfish,  her  height  not  exceeding  four  feet.  Two  tents, 
toward  which  she  bent  her  steps,  were  visible  from  the  boats,  but 
we  thought  it  better  to  let  the  inmates  recover  from  their  surprise 
at  our  arrival,  and  to  Scek  an  interview  in  their  own  way. 


156 


OLD    MAN 


11 


I 


After  a  time  wc  saw  a  man  coming  toward  us.  He  made  his 
approach  very  slowly,  and  by  a  devious  path,  keeping  a  mudd) 
channel  between  us  and  him.  On  Mr.  Rae  going  alone  and  un 
armed  to  meet  him,  he  waited  his  approach  with  evident  trepida- 
tion, and,  when  *ney  met,  began  to  express  by  signs  and  words 
that  he  was  old,  infirm,  and  nearly  blind,  which  was  by  no  moans 
the  truth.  Mr.  Rae  invited  him  to  come  to  our  tents,  which 
were  by  this  time  pitched,  and,  after  much  persuasion,  induced 
him  to  come  on,  but  not  until  he  had,  on  tne  request  of  the  old 
man,  blown  in  each  of  his  ears,  tapped  his  breast,  and  touched 
his  eyes,  as  a  charm,  either  to  remove  his  maladies,  or  more  prob- 
ably to  avert  any  evil  influence  which  the  white  men  might  pos- 
sess. After  the  performance  of  these  ceremonies  he  came  to  us  ; 
and  as  his  confidence  increased  he  gradually  laid  aside  the  appear- 
ance of  infirmity,  and  began  to  bustle  about  and  pry  into  every 
thing,  until  at  length  he  became  troublesome.  Though  repeatedly 
spoken  to,  and  told  that  we  would  not  sufl'er  him  to  handle  any 
thing  belonging  to  us,  he  was  scarcely  restrained,  and  required 
constant  watching  to  prevent  him  from  stealing.  He  took  up  his 
abode  in  one  of  the  huts,  and,  after  we  had  retired  to  rest,  made 
an  attempt  to  raise  one  of  the  boat's  anchors,  and  continued  to 
prowl  about  until  the  sentinel  on  duty  checked  him  by  showing 
.his  musket.  In  the  middle  of  the  night  he  entered  one  of  the 
tents,  with  a  long  knife  in  his  hand,  but  retreated  on  being  spoken 
to.  Perhaps  he  had  no  intention  of  committing  any  violence,  as 
he  habitually  carried  this  knife,  which  was  of  Russian  manufac- 
ture, either  in  his  hand  or  up  his  sleeve.  Through  Albert  I  learnt 
that  the  two  natives  whom  we  had  seen  on  the  preceding  day 
were  sons  of  this  man,  and  that  they,  with  their  families  and 
some  young  people  who  were  hunting  with  them,  would  come  to 
the  vUlage  in  a  few  days  to  engage  in  the  chase  of  whales,  when 
they  would  be  joined  by  one  or  two  parties  then  in  the  pursuit  of 
game  on  the  east  side  of  a  river  which  falls  into  M'Kinley  Bay. 
This  small  community  does  not  wander  far  from  their  winter 
station  on  Point  Atkinson.  The  hunters  pursue  reindeer  and 
water-fowl  on  the  neighboring  flats  in  summer,  chase  the  whale 
during  one  month  or  six  weeks  of  autumn,  live  with  their  families 
m  the  village  during  the  dark  winter  months,  and  in  spring  travel 
seaward  on  the  ice  to  kill  seals,  at  which  time  they  dwell  in  snow 
houses.     The  old  man  and  several  of  his  elderly  companions  who 


,t 


I 


YOUNG  MEN.-HEAVY  GALE. 


157 


i 


subsequently  came  to  the  village  declared  that  they  had  no  re- 
membrance of  my  former  visit  to  this  coast,  and  said  that  now 
was  the  first  time  that  they  had  seen  white  men.  They  do  not 
go  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  dread  their  turbu- 
lent countrymen  in  that  quarter. 

As  none  of  the  ponds  or  ditches  which  intersect  Point  Atkinson 
in  all  directions  contain  drinkable  water,  we  were  on  first  landing 
at  some  loss.  The  old  woman,  however,  had  told  us  that  her 
people  procured  water  from  the  seaward  side  of  the  sand-hills, 
and,  by  following  a  path  which  led  in  that  direction,  we  discovered 
three  wells,  carefully  built  round  with  drift-timber,  below  high- 
water  mark  ;  which,  when  we  first  saw  them,  were  completely 
sanded  up.  On  clearing  them  out  water  contaminated  with  fetid 
whale  oil  flowed  in  abundantly,  but  this  being  repeatedly  drawn 
of}]  until  the  surrounding  sand  was  washed  from  its  impurities, 
we  at  length  obtained  tolerable  water  for  making  tea.  These 
wells  are  evidently  supplied  from  rain  falling  on  the  sand-hills, 
and  kept  up  to  the  level  at  which  we  found  it  by  the  pressure  of 
the  sea. 

August  6th. — The  old  woman  whom  we  first  saw,  another 
still  older,  and  an  aged  blind  man,  came  to  the  village  this  day  ; 
and  in  the  afternoon  three  fine  young  men  brought  some  ducks, 
which  we  purchased  from  them.  They  were  eager  to  sell  water- 
fowl for  buttons,  beads,  or  any  trifle  we  chose  to  offer,  and  our 
crews  eventually  obtained  a  considerable  number  in  that  way ; 
but  they  were  very  unwilling  to  dispose  of  the  fish  which  hung 
on  poles  in  the  village.  After  letting  us  have  a  few,  they  refused 
to  part  with  any  more,  even  for  a  good  price,  assigning  as  a  rea- 
son, that  they  belonged  to  a  man  who  was  absent.  They  either 
prize  that  kind  of  food  very  highly,  or  are  scrupulous  about  using 
the  property  of  an  absent  countryman. 

A  heavy  gale  continued  all  day,  and  raised  a  very  high  surf  on 
the  beach.  As  the  weather  was  extremely  cold,  we  required  a 
considerable  quantity  of  fire- wood,  and  converted  two  of  the  Eskimo 
scaffblds  to  that  use ;  but  I  informed  the  owners  that  we  would 
pay  for  it  before  we  went,  to  which  arrangement  they  gave  a  ready 
assent.  At  high-water,  about  a  quarter  before  seven  o'clock,  a.m., 
the  sea  rose  so  much  that  the  shoal  off  the  point  was  covered,  and 
the  surf  began  to  reach  our  boats,  so  that  we  had  to  shift  them 
further  in.     The  wind  blowing  on  the  shore  had  increased  the 


\-  IT 


158 


CAPE  BROWN. 


Hi 


■ 


rise  of  water  considerably  beyond  an  ordinary  tide.  It  was  low- 
water  again  a  few  minutes  before  one.  In  the  afternoon  the  gale 
began  to  moderate,  and  in  the  evening  three  men  came  to  the 
village,  two  of  them  being  of  the  party  who  had  visited  the  boats 
three  days  before.  They  told  us  that  their  women  were  coming 
in  the  umiaks  on  the  following  day. 

We  had  now  a  pretty  numerous  body  around  us,  and  all  were 
perfectly  orderly  except  the  man  that  we  first  saw,  who  seemed 
to  be  the  chief,  or  perhaps  the  sJuiman  or  conjuror,  of  the  com- 
munity. His  features  were  forbidding,  but  the  younger  men  had 
intelligent  countenances,  modest  and  cheerful  manners,  and  were 
neither  forward  nor  troublesome.    They  we  "e  of  moderate  stature. 

August  7th. — The  wind  continuing  to  abate  throughout  the 
day,  and  the  sea  to  subside,  we  prepared  to  resume  our  voyage  as 
soon  as  the  evening  tide  had  flowed  sufliciently  to  admit  of  the 
boats  being  launched  over  the  sand-flats.  In  the  afternoon  we 
saw  the  women  and  children  approaching  slowly  in  the  umiaks. 
They  stopped  about  a  mile  off,  and,  notwithstanding  the  signals 
and  shouts  of  their  husbands,  hung  back.  The  men  called  out 
umiet  kai-it,  "  Boats,  come  here,"  with  a  peculiar  elevated  in- 
tonation, which  could  be  heard  at  a  (^reat  distance,  similar  to  that 
practiced  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Swiss  Alps.  We  did  not 
await  their  arrival,  hut,  having  found  water  enough  about  half  a 
mile  to  the  westward  of  the  point,  pushed  out  to  sea ;  and  partly 
under  sail,  partly  by  rowing,  coasted  during  the  night  a  very  low 
shore,  varied  by  a  few  higher  islands,  which  the  very  flat  sands 
surrounding  them  prevented  us  from  approaching. 

At  eight  in  the  morning  of  the  8th  August  we  landed  on  one 
of  a  cluster  of  clayey  and  sandy  islands,  near  Cape  Brown  ;  and 
while  we  were  preparing  breakfast  were  visited  by  four  Eskimos, 
who  told  us  that  they  had  just  killed  several  reindeer  on  a  neigh- 
boring island.  On  desiring  to  have  some  of  the  venison  in  ex- 
change for  a  knife  they  went  away  in  their  kaiyaks,  and,  before 
we  had  finished  breakfast,  returned  again,  bringing  with  them 
only  the  toughest  and  most  inferior  parts  of  the  animals.  I  paid 
them  what  was  promised,  and  made  them  some  presents  besides, 
but  reprimanded  them  for  their  want  of  hospitality,  and  told  them 
that  I  meant  to  have  given  them  an  ax  had  they  been  more 
liberal.  These  people,  like  the  other  parties  we  had  previously 
communicated  with,  declared  that  no  large  ships  nor  boats  had 


RUSSELL   INLET.-XEMA   SARLMI. 


l.W 


* 


* 


been  seen  on  their  coasts,  and  that  wo  wore  tho  first  white  men 
they  had  ever  beheld.  I  could  not  discover  that  any  remembrance 
of  my  visit  to  their  shores,  twenty-three  years  previously,  existed 
among  any  of  tho  parties  I  saw  on  the  present  voyage,  though  1 
never  failed  to  question  them  closely  on  the  subject. 

After  breakfast  we  crossed  Russell  Inlet,  and  as  we  passed  Cape 
Brown  several  Eskimos  put  off  from  the  shore,  and  three  of  them 
overtook  us  though  we  were  going  with  a  stiff  breeze  at  the  ut- 
most speed  of  our  boats,  or  about  six  geographical  miles  an  hour. 
To  those  that  came  up  we  made  presents,  and  put  the  usual 
questions. 

In  the  evening  we  anchored  the  boats  under  tho  westernmost 
of  two  islands  lying  immediately  off  Cape  Dalhousie,  and,  having 
landed,  pitched  our  tents  on  the  beach.  The  islands  here,  and 
the  Cape  itself,  consist  of  loam  or  sand,  and  present  steep  clifls 
toward  the  sea  forty  or  fifty  feet  high.  The  surface  is  level,  ex- 
cept where  ravines,  occasioned  by  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  the 
beginning  of  summer,  intersect  it ;  and  all  the  islands  are  so  sur- 
rounded by  sandy  flats  that  a  boat  can  not  come  near  the  beach. 
On  the  present  occasion  we  anchored  three  or  four  hundred  yards 
from  the  shore. 

The  island  on  which  we  encamped  is  a  breeding-place  of  the 
Xenia  sabinii,  the  handsomest  of  all  the  gulls.  Many  of  the  pa- 
rents were  flying  about  accompanied  by  their  spotted  young,  also 
on  the  wing.  This  is  the  most  westerly  ascertained  breeding 
station  of  the  species,  which  has  been  found  at  Spitzbergen, 
Greenland,  and  Melville  Peninsula.  Mr.  Rae  shot  some  fine 
male  specimens,  whose  plumage  and  dimensions  agreed  exactly 
with  the  description  in  the  Fauna  Boreali- Americana.  The 
eggs  are  deposited  in  hollows  of  the  short  and  scanty  mossy  turf 
which  clothes  the  ground. 

August  9th. — Through  the  carelessness  of  the  night-watch  the 
boats  were  suffered  to  ground  on  the  ebbing  of  the  tide,  and  it  was 
not  till  eight  o'clock  that  the  water  had  flowed  sufficiently  to 
permit  of  our  embarking.  We  then  stood  across  Liverpool  Bay 
with  a  very  light  breeze,  and  about  two  o'clock  had  sight  of  the 
eastern  coast  near  Nicholson  Island,  the  western  shore  being 
visible  at  that  time,  but  soon  afterward  sinking  below  the  horizon. 
At  half-past  nine,  p.m.,  we  reached  the  eastern  shore,  and  encamped 
under  the  frozen  clifl^  of  Cape  Maitland.     This  cape  is  an  island, 


I 


i 


ItiO 


CAPE  MAITIiANn.-C8KIMO  TENTS. 


and  on  Iho  forinor  voyajre  I  passed  through  Iho  channel  wliich 
(Uvides  it  iVoin  tlie  niuin.  ItH  Hiiilhee  i»  nearly  level,  the  Hoil  is 
loam  or  clay,  and  the  clitli}  which  bound  it  are  about  eighty  feet 
high,  and,  beinu:  worn  at  the  base  by  the  aetion  of  the  waves, 
overhaup  the  narrow  beach  by  eight  or  ten  feet.  IjundslipB  are 
frequent,  and  occasion  u  frozen  surface  to  bo  constantly  ex|N)se(l 
to  view.  The  island  does  not  diiier  from  the  neighboring  lands 
in  its  subsoil  being  frozen  :  since  permanent  ground  ice  is  found 
every  where  at  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  beneath  the  surface. 
All  access  from  below  would  have  been  cut  oil'  by  the  overhang- 
ing cliir,  were  it  not  for  deep  gullies  which  here  and  there  all()rd  a 
steep  path  to  the  top.  Vegetation  was  very  scanty,  and  through- 
out this  voyage  1  observed  that  flowering  plants  were  more  scarce, 
and  the  herbage  generally  thiinier,  than  in  1820.  The  bulk  of 
the  clillig  composed  of  a  black  clay  or  loam,  which  is  disposed  in 
undulated  beds,  and,  in  some  places,  the  section  exhibits  a  spheri- 
cal mass  eight  or  ten  yards  in  diameter,  with  concentric  layers, 
like  the  coats  of  an  onion.  A  few  pebbles  occur  in  the  loam,  and 
the  beach  is  formed  of  sand  and  small  pebbles  washed  from  the 
cliiis,  and  consisting  mostly  of  trap  mixed  with  quartz,  and  a  little 
white  sandstone  and  limestone. 

In  182G  1  observed  many  slabs  of  red  sandstone  in  the  chan- 
nel behind  the  island,  but  there  were  none  at  our  present  en- 
campment. I  caused  a  pit  to  be  dug  at  the  top  of  the  cliii',  and 
found  that  the  thaw  had  penetrated  sixteen  inches.  A  thermome- 
ter laid  on  the  bottom  of  the  pit  indicated  33°  F.,  the  tempera- 
ture in  the  shade  being  at  the  time  42°  F.  High  water  occur- 
red at  1  A.M.,  and  the  ebb  flowed  to  the  northward  along  the 
island. 

The  distance  wo  ran  from  our  encampment  at  Cape  Dalhousie 
to  Point  Maitland,  measured  by  Massey's  log,  was  thirty-five 
geographical  miles,  or  thirty-one  direct  (excluding  the  angle  wo 
made),  which  agrees  exactly  with  Lieutenant  Kendall's  map  of 
1820.  Mr.  Rae  killed  some  rock  ptarmigan  in  the  night.  The 
old  males  were  moulting  at  this  time. 

August  10//* — Having  breakfasted  before  embarking,  we  left 
our  sleeping  place  at  C  a.m.  Soon  afterward  wo  saw  two  Eski- 
mo tents  on  the  extreme  point  of  the  island  ;  but  as  the  inmates 
did  not  show  themselves,  and  we  did  not  wish  to  be  delayed,  wo 
proceeded  onward  without  disturbing  them,  and  crossed  the  mouth 


I 


n.Ml.l.lK/H   IHI.ANnfl. 


161 


' 


of  Ilarrowby  Hny.  At  4  p.m.  Haillio'8  IhIqikIh  mine  in  Bif,'ht, 
niid  wo  held  on  our  courno  bulwoen  them  and  the  main.  Sonio 
JixkimoH  cominjr  oil'  here,  wo  learne<l  from  thciii  that  a  larpo 
river  fallH  into  the  bottom  of  Ijiver|M)ol  Hay  ;  and  wc  had  previ- 
ously received  the  same  information  from  the  party  whieh  wo 
saw  on  the  Hth.  KukimoH  inhabit  the  banks  of  this  river,  but 
the  families  residing  at  Capo  liathurst  do  not  po  bo  far.  Tlio 
river  can  bo  no  other  than  tho  "  JJeph'ula  toHSc  "  of  the  Hare 
Indians,  wh(»  frequent  Fort  Good  Hope.  These  Indians  say 
that  it  is  a  larpo  river,  abounding  in  tho  fish  from  whieh  it  is 
named  ("  toothless  fish,"  Saht.j  MackcHzii) ;  that  it  rises  near 
Smith's  Bay  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  and  is  eight  or  ten  days'  jour- 
ney to  tho  eastward  of  Fort  Good  Hopo  overland  (one  hundred 
miles  or  thereabout).  They  also  said,  that  som«j  years  ago  they 
fell  in  with  a  party  of  Eskimos  v,  ho  were  hunti.' ff  on  its  bunks, 
and,  a  quarrel  ensuing,  several  of  iho  hitter  A/ere  killed. 

We  could  not  find  a  convenient  lau  'ing-i)iacc  either  on  ]3ail- 
lio's  Islands  or  on  the  main  shore,  owing  o  the  ^!  rtneh.  of  tho 
coasts,  and  were  compelled  to  anchor  tho  boats  .  sirly  a  milo 
from  tho  beach.  Tho  men  waded  ashore  to  olleet  driftwood 
and  cook  supper,  after  which  wo  all  cm^  .1  ked  to  sloej  .11  the 
boats.  We  had  scarcely  completed  our  \rra  ;  .jements  li)r  passing 
tho  night,  when  wc  became  aware  of  a  fleet  of  kaiyaks  with 
three  umiaks  coming  down  upon  us  in  a  crescontic  line,  looming 
formidably  in  tho  faint  twilight.  As  I  did  not  wish  the  men's 
rest  to  be  interrupted  by  visitors,  a  baP  was  iired  across  their 
path  to  arrest  their  progress,  on  which  they  assembled  in  a  group 
evidently  in  consultation.  Albert  now  hailed  them  by  my  direc- 
tion, and  said  that  we  were  going  to  sleep,  and  that  the  sentinels 
would  firo  on  any  one  who  came  near  the  boats  by  night,  but 
that  we  should  bo  glad  to  trade  with  them  in  the  morning. 
When  they  fully  understoot'  •  ^r  wishes,  after  a  little  further 
parley,  they  retired  and  did  not  afterward  trouble  us. 

At  2  o'clock  A.M.,  on  the  Uth,  we  weighed  anchor,  and  nine 
Eskimos,  with  their  ka'vaks,  and  three  umiaks,  containing  the 
women,  having  come  oi],  they  led  us  by  a  sufficiently  deep  chan- 
nel to  the  westward  of  a  dry  bank  or  a  sandy  island,  over  a  bar 
on  which  wo  found  from  four  to  five  fathoms  of  water.  On 
crossing  this  wo  passed  suddenly  from  muddy  water  into  a  green 
sea,  iu  which  we  had  no  bottom  with  the  hand-lead.     In  lb2G 


% 


102 


PEMICAN    DEPOSITED. 


we  sought  a  way  out  to  the  eastward  of  the  island,  and,  the  bar 
there  being  muddy  and  shallow,  found  no  little  difficulty  in  for- 
cing the  boats  through.  The  northern  channel  would  form  a 
good  ship  harbor. 

From  these  people  we  learnt  that  during  their  summer  of  two 
moons  they  see  no  ice  whatever,  that  they  were  now  assembling 
to  hunt  whales,  and  would  go  out  to  sea  to-morrow  for  that  pur- 
pose. The  black  whale,  their  present  object,  they  call  ai-c-iverk, 
and  the  white  whale,  which  also  frequents  this  coast,  keilaloo-ak. 
In  some  summers  they  kill  two  black  whales,  very  rarely  three, 
and  sometimes  they  are  altogether  unsuccessful.  In  the  course 
of  conversation,  we  were  told  that  the  several  families  have  hunt- 
ing grounds  near  their  winter  houses,  on  which  the  others  do  not 
trespass ;  and  the  proprietors  of  several  points  of  land  in  sight 
were  named  to  me.  They  knew  but  little  of  the  country  beyond 
their  own  vicinity  ;  and  one  of  them  having  told  me  that  Cape 
Bathurst  was  an  island,  I  affirmed  that  it  was  not,  on  which, 
with  an  air  of  surprise,  he  exclaimed,  "  Are  not  all  lands  islands?" 
None  of  them  could  remember  my  former  visit,  though  I  had  com- 
municated with  a  part  of  their  countrymen  only  a  few  miles  from 
their  present  residence.  We  told  them  that  we  were  looking  for 
ships  and  men  of  our  nation  whom  we  expected  to  meet ;  and 
they  said  they  would  be  glad  of  the  visits  of  white  men,  and 
would  treat  them  hospitably.  In  exchange  for  some  fish,  seal 
and  whale-skin  leather,  and  a  few  other  things,  we  supplied  them 
well  with  knives,  files,  hatchets,  and  beads.  Part  of  the  number 
who  wished  to  come  to  the  boats  the  preceding  evening  had,  on 
our  declining  the  interview,  gone  to  their  winter  houses  on  the 
western  shores  of  Baillie's  Islands ;  and  those  who  accompanied 
us  from  our  anchorage  in  the  morning  landed  on  the  extremity 
of  Cape  Bathurst,  where  their  winter  houses  stood. 

It  was  pait  of  my  instructions  to  bury  some  pemican  at  this 
cape,  and  to  erect  a  signal-post ;  but  the  presence  of  the  natives 
hindered  me  from  doing  so  As  soon,  however,  as  we  had  gone 
far  enough  to  be,  as  we  supposed,  beyond  their  view,  we  put  on 
shore,  and  having  dug  a  hole  on  the  top  of  the  cliff,  deposited 
therein  a  case  of  pemican,  with  a  memorandum  explaining  ihe 
objects  of  the  expedition.  Every  precaution  was  used  to  replace 
the  turf,  so  as  not  to  betray  that  it  had  been  moved ;  some  drift- 
timber  was  piled  upon  it  and  set  on  fire,  and  a  pole,  painted  red 


■J 


CAPE  BATIIURST. 


163 


and  white,  planted  at  the  distance  of  ten  feet.  As  all  the  drift- 
timber  at  this  place  had  been  gathered  into  a  heap  by  the  Eski- 
mos, and  the  pole  was  part  of  it,  we  hung  up  some  articles  of 
value  to  them  by  way  of  payment,  in  the  hope  that  it  would 
cause  them  to  respect  the  signal-post.  In  the  mean  time  our 
crews  were  preparing  breakfast,  and  we  had  just  finished  this 
meal,  when  we  saw  some  Eskimos  from  the  cape  running  toward 
us.  They  had  evidently  been  watching  us,  and  came  in  the  ex- 
pectation of  receiving  some  additional  articles ;  nor  were  they 
disappointed.  The  soil  here  was  thawed  to  the  depth  of  fourteen 
inches.  The  deposit  was  made  about  five  miles  from  the  extreme 
point  of  Cape  Bathurst. 

Many  black  whales  and  two  white  ones  were  seen  this  morn- 
ing. The  eider  ducks  had  now  assembled  in  immense  flocks,  and 
with  the  brent  geese  were  migrating  to  the  westward.  Both  these 
water-fowl  follow  the  coast-line  in  their  migrations  on  the  Pacific 
as  well  as  the  Atlantic  sides  of  the  continent.  The  eiders  are 
only  accidental  visitors  in  the  interior,  and  the  brents  are  not  seen 
inland  to  the  eastward  of  Peel's  River ;  but  Mr.  Murray  informs 
rne  that  in  their  northerly  flight  they  follow  the  valley  of  the 
Yukon,  thus  cutting  across  the  projecting  angle  of  Ptussian 
America. 

The  surface  of  the  country  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Bathurst  is 
level  or  gently  undulated,  and  the  sea  clifls  are  in  many  places 
nearly  precipitous,  and  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high. 
The  strata,  where  exposed,  are  sand  and  clay,  and  1  believe  that 
this  promontory,  from  its  northern  point  to  the  bottom  of  Franklin 
Bay,  is  the  termination  of  the  sandy  and  loamy  deposit  and  bitu- 
minous shale  which  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  Macken- 
zie rests  0  1  the  sandstone  and  limestone  beds  so  frequently  noticed 
in  the  preceding  pages,  and  fragments  of  which  may  be  traced 
among  the  alluvial  islands  in  the  estuary  of  the  Mackenzie,  and 
in  Liverpool  Bay.  A  line  drawn  from  Cioivt  sang  ccsa,  or  Scent- 
ed Grass  Hill,  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  to  the  north-northwest,  would 
form  a  tangent  to  the  eastern  coast-line  of  Cape  Bathurst,  and 
most  probably  mark  the  limit  of  the  formation  on  that  side.  If 
so,  the  river  Beghula,  which  enters  Liverpool  Bay,  will  flow 
through  a  country  similar  to  that  forming  the  banks  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie, and  being  consequently  well  wooded,  will  abound  in 
animals. 


164 


SHALE  FORMATION. 


As  we  proceeded  to  the  Boutheast  from  Cape  Bathurst  along 
the  shore,  the  crest  of  the  high  bank  rose  to  about  two  hundred 
and  fifty  feet,  and  beds  of  bituminous  shale,  similar  to  those  on 
the  Mackenzie,  are  exposed  in  many  places.  At  Point  Trail,  in 
latitude  70°  19'  N.,  the  bituminous  shale  was  observed  to  be  on 
nre  in  1826,  and  the  bank  had  crumbled  down  from  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  beds.  Selenite,  alum  in  powder,  and  the  wax-colored 
variety  of  that  salt  named  "  Rock  butter,"  with  sulphur,  were 
among  the  products  of  the  decomposition  of  the  shale  which  I 
then  collected  ;  and  the  clays  which  had  been  exposed  to  the 
heat  were  baked  and  vitrified,  so  that  the  spot  resembled  an  old 
brick-field.  The  sand  covering  the  shale  here  is  coherent  enough 
to  be  a  friable  sandstone  ;  and  many  concretions  of  clay  iron-stone 
exist  in  the  shale  beds,  exactly  similar  to  those  which  are  im- 
bedded in  the  shale  of  Scented  Grass  Hill.  Wilmot  Horton 
River  flows  out  by  a  narrow  gorge  from  a  flat  valley,  and  the 
high  banks,  rising  in  ridges  above  the  valley,  flank  it  some  way 
inland,  as  we  had  noticed  them  doing  on  the  tributary  streams 
that  join  the  Mackenzie. 

Near  Point  Fitton  the  cliff"  is  two  hundred  feet  high,  and  con- 
tains layers  of  rock-butter  two  inches  thick,  with  many  crystals 
of  selenite  adhering  to  the  surface  of  the  slates.  The  cliff'  is 
capped  by  a  marly  gravel,  two  yards  thick,  containing  pebbles  of 
granite,  quartz,  Lydian  stone,  and  compact  limestone.  To  the 
southward  of  Wilmot  Horton  River,  ♦portions  of  the  ruined  bank 
continue  to  emit  smoke. 

Cape  Bathurst  has  been  recently  invested  with  more  interest 
since  it  is  the  point  of  the  main  shore  from  whence  Commander 
PuUen  was  directed  by  the  Admiralty  to  take  his  departure  in 
the  summer  of  1850,  in  his  adventurous  attempt  to  reach  Mel- 
ville Island.  By  the  last  accounts  from  Mackenzie's  River,  we 
learn  that  this  enterprising  oflScer  received  his  instructions  by  ex- 
press, on  the  25th  of  June,  being  then  in  Slave  River,  on  his  way 
to  York  Factory.  He  immediately  turned  back,  having  been 
supplied  with  450  '  lbs.  of  jerked  venison  and  pemican  by  Mr. 
Rae,  which  he  embarked  in  one  of  the  Plover's  boats,  and  in  a 
barge  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  being  the  only  available 
craft.  The  barge  is  well  adapted  for  river  navigation,  but  from 
its  flatuef*  unfitted  for  a  sea-voyage,  though  it  may  be  in  some 
respects  improved  by  the  addition  of  a  false  keel,  which  Com- 


COMMANDER  PULLEN 


>  ^ 


169 


mander  Pullen  would  probably  give  it  before  he  descended  to  the 
sea.  Its  weight  will  render  it  much  less  manageable  among  ice 
than  a  lighter  boat.  No  intelligence  of  this  party  has  reached 
England  since  the  above  date,  but  we  may  expect  to  hear  of  his 
proceedings  in  May  or  June,  1851,  before  this  volume  has  passed 
through  tb  J  press.  '  '      * 

*  This  anticipation  has  hcen  realized,  as  has  been  mentioned  in  p.  133. 
Commander  Pullen  found  the  sea  covered  with  unbroken  ice  all  the  way 
from  the  Mackenzie  to  Cape  Bathurst,  a  small  channel  only  existing  in 
shore,  through  which  he  advanced  to  the  vicinity  of  the  cape.  Failing  in 
finding  a  passage  out  to  sea,  to  the  north  of  Baillie's  Islands,  he  remained 
within  them,  until  the  advance  of  winter  compelled  him  to  return  to  the 
Mackenzie. 


I 


CHAPTER   IX. 

Voyage  continued  along  the  Coast. — Franklin  Bay. — Melville  Hills. — Point  Stiv- 
ens. — Sellwood  Bay. — Cape  Parry. — Cocked-hat  Point. — Cache  of  Pemican. — 
Ice  Packs. — Archway. — Burrow's  Islands. — Damley  Bay. — Clapperton  Island. 
— Cape  Lyon. — Point  Pearce. — Point  Keats. — Point  Deas  Thomson. — Silu- 
rian Strata. — Roscoe  River. — Point  De  Witt  Clinton. — Furrowed  Cliffs. — Mel- 
ville Range. — Point  Tinney. — Buchanan  River. — Drift  Ice. — Croker's  River. — 
Point  Clifton. — Inman's  River. — Point  Wise. — Hoppner  River. — WoUaston 
Land. — Cape  Young. — Stapylton  Bay. — Cape  Hope. — Cape  Bexley. — Ice  Floes. 
— Point  Cockbum. — A  Storm. — Chantry  Island. — Salmon. — Lamlicrt  Island. — 
Leave  a  Boat. — Cape  Krusenstern. — Detained  by  Ice. — Basil  Hall's  Bay. — 
Capo  Hearne. — Peculiar  Severity  of  the  Season. — Conjectures  respecting  the 
Discovery  Ships. — Resources  of  a  Parly  Inclosed  by  Ice  among  the  Arctic 
Islands. — General  Reflections. 

August  11th,  1818. — We  sailed  along  the  coast  all  day  with 
a  light  breeze,  and  in  the  afternoon  eleven  Eskimos  came  off 
from  the  shore  and  sold  us  some  deer's  meat.  A  woman  of  the 
party  ran  for  two  miles  along  the  beach  in  the  hope  of  receiving 
a  present,  and,  when  quite  exhausted  with  her  exertions,  stripped 
ofl'  her  boots  to  barter  with  us.  One  of  the  men  in  the  kaiyaks 
brought  them  off,  but,  as  they  were  too  small  for  any  of  our 
crew,  we  returned  them  with  a  present  of  more  than  their  value. 
These  men  gave  us  no  additional  information,  but  expressed  pleas- 
ure when  told  that  they  might  expect  to  meet  other  parties  of 
while  men.  A  scull  of  eleven  white  whales  were  seen  in  the 
evening. 

We  continued  under  sail  all  night,  and  at  three  in  the  after- 
noon of  the  12th,  landed  in  a  very  shallow  bay,  to  the  southward 
of  Point  Stivens,  to  cook  a  meal  which  served  for  both  breakfast 
and  dinner.  Mr.  Rae  went  in  pursuit  of  some  reindeer  which 
were  seen  from  the  boats,  but,  owing  to  the  extreme  flatness  of 
the  land,  which  allbrded  no  cover,  he  was  unable  to  approach 
them. 

The  high  banks  of  Cape  Bathurst  are  continued  to  the  bottom 
of  Franklin  Bay,  where  they  recede  a  little  from  the  coast,  and 
are  lost  in  an  even-backed  ridge,  apparently  not  exceeding  four 
or  five  hundred  feet  in  height.     These  hills  are  named  the  Mel- 


SELIAVOOI)   BAY. 


IG7 


ville  Range,  and  cross  the  neck  of  the  peninsula  of  Cape  Parry, 
appearing  again  behind  Darnley  Bay.  The  peninsula  is  so  flat 
near  its  isthmus,  and  so  much  intersected  by  Abater,  that  I  am 
still  in  doubt  whether  it  may  not  be  actually  a  collection  of  isl- 
ands. But  if  this  is  the  case,  the  channels  which  separate  the 
islands  are  intricate  and  shallow.  To  the  south  of  Point  Stivens 
the  soil  was  wholly  mud,  apparently  alluvial ;  to  the  northward 
beds  of  limestone  crop  out.  In  the  evening  we  encamped  on 
Point  Stivens,  which  is  a  long,  narrow,  gravel  beach,  composed 
mostly  of  pieces  of  limestone,  some  of  which  contain  corals.  Sea- 
weed is  very  scarce  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Arctic  coast,  but 
we  saw  on  the  beach  here  some  rejected  masses  of  decayed  La- 
minaria,  probably  sacdtanna;  also  a  stunted  white  spruce,  lying 
on  the  beach,  still  retaining  its  bark  and  leaves.  Mr.  Rae  shot 
a  fine  trumpeter  swan,  on  which  we  supped.  The  only  water 
we  could  find  here  lor  cocking  was  swampy,  and  full  of  very 
active  insects  shaped  like  tadpoles,  which  were  just  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  {Ajncs;  Lepidurus,  probably  Lynceus). 

The  crimson  and  lake  tints  of  the  sky,  when  the  sun  set  this 
evening,  were  most  splendid,  and  such  as  I  have  never  seen  sur- 
passed in  any  climate. 

On  August  the  13th,  we  embarked  at  3  a.  m.,  and  at  half-past 
ten  landed  in  Sellwood  Bay  on  some  horizontal  beds  of  limestone, 
which  are  the  first  rocks  i?i  situ  that  become  visible,  in  tracing 
this  peninsula  from  the  south.  No  organic  remains  were  detect- 
ed in  the  stone.  Many  very  large  slabs,  moved  but  a  short  way 
from  their  parent  beds,  were  piled  upon  each  other  within  reach 
of  a  high  surf,  and  among  them  lay  great  boulders  of  greenstone- 
porphyry  and  hornblende  rock.  To  the  north  of  the  bay,  there 
are  high  clifis  of  limestone,  and  also  a  detached  perforated  rock, 
which  employed  Lieutenant  Kendall's  pencil  on  rny  former  voy- 
age. Many  white-winged,  silvery  gulls  were  breeding  on  the 
various  shelves  of  its  cliffs,  and  their  still  unfeathered  young  were 
running  about,  alarmed  by  the  clamor  of  the  parent  birds. 

In  the  evening  we  anchored  in  a  snug  boat-harbor,  within  the 
westernmost  of  the  two  points  which  terminate  Cape  Parry. 
The  part  of  the  Cape  which  will  be  first  visible  on  approaching 
from  sea,  is  a  hill  about  five  hundred  feet  high,  which  far  over- 
tops all  the  neighboring  eminences.  From  it  a  comparatively 
low  peninsular  point  stretched  west-northwest  about  half  a  mile, 


(1 


hit 


\  \ 


I 


168 


CACHE  OF  PEMICAN. 


being  connected  to  the  main  by  a  gravel  bank,  and  terminated 
on  its  sea-face  by  a  limestone  cliff,  which  in  some  points  of  view 
resembles  a  cocked-hat.  An  indented  bay,  about  three  miles 
across,  separates  this  point  from  another  more  to  the  east,  which 
extends  fully  as  far  north.  Booth's  Islands,  five  in  number,  form 
a  range  nine  miles  long,  whose  extremities  bear  from  the  hill 
northwest  and  southwest  respectively.  The  channels  between 
the  islands  vary  in  width  from  one  to  three  miles.  On  the  east 
side  of  the  hill,  clifis  of  limestone,  washed  by  the  waves,  have 
been  scooped  into  caves  and  arches,  which,  without  much  aid 
from  the  imagination,  recalled  many  fine  architectural  forms.  A 
boulder  of  chert,  lying  on  the  shore,  measured  five  feet  in  length, 
by  four  in  breadth,  and  exhibited  some  curious  veining. 

In  approaching  our  anchorage  we  shot  two  seals,  and  one  of 
them,  being  thrown  on  the  strand,  attracted,  late  in  the  evening, 
the  attention  of  a  gray  fox,  which  was  prowling  about  the  beach. 
As  soon  as  the  animal  saw  the  carcass,  it  halted,  and,  after  a 
momentary  survey,  leaped  lightly  behind  a  large  log  of  drift-tim- 
ber, from  whence  it  peeped  out  at  it  from  time  to  time.  While 
I  was  watching  the  fox's  reconnoitring  tactics  with  some  interest, 
and  speculating  upon  the  time  it  would  devote  to  the  survey  be- 
fore it  ventured  to  approach  the  carrion,  a  noise  made  by  the 
sentinel,  who  was  seated  by  the  fire,  scared  the  wary  object  of 
my  study,  and  it  fled  swiftly  up  the  hill. 

August  14^th. — This  morning  we  deposited  a  letter,  with  a 
case  of  pemican,  on  the  verge  of  the  ciifT  of  Cocked-hat  Point, 
covered  it  with  fragments  of  limestone,  and  erected  in  front  of  it 
a  pile  of  stones  marked  with  red  paint.  The  beds  of  this  clifT 
are  horizontal,  and  they  are  not  only  interleaved  with  regular 
layers  of  chert,  but  also  contain  nodules  of  the  same  material. 
On  rounding  the  eastern  pbint  of  Cape  Parry,  we  saw  packs  of 
drift-ice  for  the  first  time  since  we  commenced  our  sea  voyage. 
Eight  or  ten  miles  to  the  southward  of  the  Cape  we  passed  an 
isolated  rock,  perforated  by  an  archway,  standing  in  front  of  some 
bold  limestone  clifTs ;  soon  after  noon  we  were  opposite  to  a  point 
distinguished  by  a  remarkable  rounded  hummock ;  and  in  the 
evening  we  encamped  on  one  of  Burrow's  Islands.  This  island 
is  composed  of  cherty  limestone,  which  in  decaying  acquires  a 
honeycombed  surface  as  hard  as  a  flint  or  file.  Rain  fell  in  the 
night  for  the  first  time  for  many  days. 


CLAPPERTON    ISLAND. 


10» 


J 


A  lair  wind  having  sprung  up  in  the  night,  we  embarked  an 
hour  before  midnight,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  15th  stood  down 
the  bay,  with  Jight  breezes  and  hazy  weather;  landing  at  10  a.m. 
on  Clapperton  Island  to  prepare  breakfast.  The  coast  in  this 
quarter  is  similar  in  character  to  that  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
peninsula  in  the  same  parallel,  being  low  and  not  easily  approach- 
able on  account  of  the  extensive  sandy  banks  which  lie  off  it. 
Clapperton  Island,  itself,  is  gravelly.  From  it,  we  saw  land 
round  the  bottom  of  the  bay,  with  some  intervals,  apparently 
inlets. 

On  re-embarking,  we  steered  directly  for  Cape  Lyon,  distant 
about  ten  miles ;  but  a  low  thick  fog  coming  on,  we  got  involved 
in  a  stream  of  drift-ice,  on  which  the  course  was  altered  a  little, 
80  as  to  fetch  within  the  cape.  We  made  our  way  through  the 
ice  without  damage  to  the  boats,  and  in  the  afternoon  found  our- 
selves about  four  miles  from  the  pitch  of  the  cape,  close  in-shore, 
under  some  very  high  mural  precipices  of  a  bluish-gray,  slaty 
rock,  on  which  a  thick  mass  of  columnar  basalt  is  imposed.  The 
cliffs  are  about  two  hundred  feet  high,  and  stand  out  in  succes- 
sion, forming  the  salient  angles  of  several  shallow  indentations  of 
the  coast-line.  A  talus  of  unmelted  snow-drift  lay  under  most  of 
them,  which  being  undermined  by  the  action  of  the  waves,  would 
be  detached  on  the  first  heavy  fall  of  rain,  and  become  icebergs. 
Toward  the  bottom  of  Darnley  Bay,  the  coast-line  declines  greatly 
in  altitude,  but  the  heights  of  the  Melville  Range  are  dimly  seen 
in  the  distance.  We  anchored  for  the  night  in  the  northwest 
angle  of  the  cape,  between  two  projecting  points  of  basalt.  The 
land  here  rises  between  three  and  four  hundred  feet  above  the  sea. 

On  the  16th  we  continued  our  voyage  to  the  eastward,  and,  on 
landing  to  prepare  breakfast  at  Point  Pearce,  ascertained  that 
high- water  took  place  there  at  eight  o'clock.  The  trap  range.s 
run  in  this  quarter  in  a  southwest  and  r.ortheast  direction,  and 
produce  small  bays ;  their  precipitous  ikces  are  turned  toward 
the  west-southwest.  Judging  from  vae  view  we  had  of  ^.hem 
from  the  boats  in  passing,  the  cliffp  were  mostly  composed  of 
greenstone-slate.  At  Point  Pearce,  the  shore  is  formed  of  fl^sh- 
colored  limestone,  whose  beds  cop  out  in  successive  cliffs  liK" 
stairs,  and  attain  a  height  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  a  short 
way  from  the  beach.  At  a  small  point  lying  between  the  one 
just  named,  and  Point  Keats,  there  are  magnificent  columns  of 

li 


I 


r 


; 


I 


II 


I    I. 


170 


POINT   KEAT8. 


basalt,  with  a  pillar  of  the  same  material  rising  out  of  the  water 
immediately  in  front  of  them.  The  bay  to  the  south  of  these 
columns  is  lined  with  cliirs  of  flesh-colored  limestone  ;  thin  layers 
of  sandstone  crop  out  further  to  the  eastward,  and  covering  them 
there  is  an  overflow  of  dark  leek-green  basalt  or  greenstone. 

A  strong  head-wind  having  sprung  up  and  occasioning  much 
fatigue  to  the  rowers,  while  our  progress  was  small,  we  put  in  at 
Point  Keats,  and  encamped.  Mr.  Rae  and  Albert  went  to  hunt 
reindeer,  and  I  took  a  short  walk  inland.  I  soon  came  to  extens- 
ive beds  of  flesh-colored  sandstone,  forming  the  bounding  walls 
of  a  deep  narrow  ravine,  through  which  flowed  a  small  shallow 
river  varying  in  width  from  ten  to  thirty  yards,  but  whose  chan- 
nel bore  evidence  of  a  considerable  body  of  water  passing  through 
it  in  the  spring  floods.  The  ridges  of  sandstone  seem  to  have  a 
direction  from  west-novthwest  to  east-southeast,  or  nearly  parallel 
to  the  general  coast-line  here,  and  are  much  fissured,  the  principal 
fissures  being  in  the  line  of  the  strike.  The  elifis  for  the  most 
part  face  westerly,  and  the  west  wall  of  the  ravine  is  lower  than 
the  eastern  one.  The  sandstone  is  fine-grained,  hard,  and  dura- 
ble. Some  beds  are  very  white,  others  flesh-colored,  and  inter- 
leaved with  them  are  beds  of  chert  or  quartz  rocks.  The  dome- 
shaped  summits  of  the  Melville  Range  are  visible  in  the  distance. 

The  fragments  of  sandstone  cover  many  miles  of  surface,  and 
the  limestone,  which  splits  off"  in  thin  layers  by  the  action  of  the 
frost,  becomes  by  the  action  of  the  weather  as  rough  as  a  file,  and 
soon  wears  out  a  pair  of  shoes.  There  are  some  beautiful  excava- 
tions in  the  cliffs  that  are  exposed  to  the  waves,  and  a  fine  gothic 
shrine,  with  a  canopy  and  mouldings  supported  on  slender  pillars, 
attracted  our  special  notice.  An  isolated  column,  which  stands 
belbre  it,  had  been  selected  as  a  breeding-place  by  two  ivory  gulls, 
who  were  very  clamorous  when  any  one  approached  their  nest. 
The  young  had  ash-gray  backs,  and  were  nearly  fledged.  A  very 
clear  sunset  enabled  me  to  obtain  an  extensive  view  to  seaward, 
and  I  am  convinced  that  no  land  much  above  the  level  of  the 
water  lies  within  Ibity  miles  to  the  northward  of  this  point. 

A  thick,  wet  ibg,  accompanied  by  a  strong  head-wind,  detained 
us  at  our  encampment  till  after  breakfast  on  the  17th.  During 
our  enforced  stay,  Mr.  Rae  killed  a  roe  reindeer  in  excellent  con- 
dition, and  we  procured  also  some  waveys  {Anser  hypcrboreus). 
Theee  geese  and  the  northern  divers  {Coiijmbus  borcalis)  were  at 


N.VJLIiAl.    UKIIMiE. 


171 


this  time  migrating  to  the  Boulheast,  or  in  the  opposite  direction 
with  respect  to  the  Hue  of  coast  that  we  had  observed  the  eider 
ducks  and  brent  geese  proceeding  a  few  days  previously  near  Cape 

Bathurst. 

About  a  mile  and  a  half  to  the  westward  of  Point  Deas  Thom- 
son, the  projecting  point  of  a  deep  cove  is  perforated,  forming  a 
natural  bridge,  and  not  far  from  it  another  projection  exhibits  a 
less  striking  opening. 


^:m 


''^*jr      'fd.  ,  ;?— ;ri*S:^ 


TORSO  ROCK. 


A  detached  column  of  limestone,  inclosing  masses  and  layers  of 
chert  or  quartz  rock,  is  also  cut  through,  forming  a  pointed  arch. 
The  whole  coast  is  composed  of  limestone,  forming  high  clifls  at 
intervals.  The  quartz  rock  beds  acquire  occasionally  a  pistachio- 
green  color,  as  if  from  the  presence  of  epidote.  A  similar  stone 
occurs  at  Pigeon  River  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior  ;  and 
the  limestones  and  sandstones  of  the  latter  district,  with  their  as- 
sociated trap  rocks,  as  at  Thunder  Mountain,  correspond  in  most 
respects  with  those  between  Cape  Parry  and  the  Coppermine 
River ;  and  consequently,  if  we  can  rely  on  lithological  charac- 
ters, they  may  be  considered  as  the  oldest  members  of  the  silurian 
series,  or  as  the  rocks  on  which  that  series  is  deposited,  to  which 
epoch  the  Lake  Superior  formation  has  been  assigned.  If  we 
had   beeu   able  to  trace  up  the  limestone  spurs  of  ihe  Ptocky 


172 


POINT    I)R    VVriT  CLINTON. 


Mountains  which  traverse  the  Mackenzie,  they  would  most  prob- 
ably have  been  found  runnitr^j  up  to  and  connected  with  the  lime- 
stone of  this  coast. 

At  six  in  the  afternoon  the  wind  veering  round  to  the  south- 
west, we  embarked  again,  and  continued  under  sail  till  three  in 
the  morning  of  the  18th,  when  the  wind  failing  us  we  dropped 
anchor  in  the  mouth  ol"  Roscoe  River.  We  resumed  our  voyage 
at  8  A.M.,  after  preparing  an  early  breakfast. 

A  little  to  the  westward  of  Point  de  Witt  CHnton,  a  range  of 
basalt  and  limestone  cliffs  extends  for  a  mile  along  the  beach, 
under  which  there  lay  a  talus  of  tnmeltcd  drift-snow.  In  182G, 
though  we  passed  along  this  coast  nearly  a  month  earlier  in  the 
season,  we  observed  much  fewer  of  this  kind  of  memorial  of  the 
preceding  winter,  and  that  year,  the  flowering  plants  were  more 
plentiful,  and  the  vegetation  generally  more  luxuriant.  The 
deterioration  of  the  climate  after  rounding  Cape  Parry  became 
daily  more  and  more  evident  to  us,  though  we  had  decreased  our 
latitude  above  a  degree  since  leaving  Cape  Bathurst.  The  pres- 
ence of  a  large  body  of  warmer  water,  carried  into  the  Arctic 
Sea  by  the  Mackenzie,  may  have  some  influence  in  ameliorating 
the  temperature  witlwn  the  limits  of  that  wide  estuary  ;  but  I  am 
inclined  to  think  that  WoUaston  and  Banks's  Lands,  by  detaining 
much  drift-ice  in  the  channels  which  separate  them  from  one  an- 
other and  from  the  main  shore,  have  a  still  more  powerful  efiect 
in  lowering  the  summer  temperature. 

At  Point  de  Witt  Clinton  the  cliffs  are  formed  of  flesh-colored 
beds  of  limestone  interleaved  with  bluish-gray  beds,  and  contain- 
ing fibrous  and  compact  gypsum  ni  veins.  These  cliffs  are  forty 
or  fifty  feet  high,  and  are  covered  to  a  considerable  depth  with 
diluvial  loam,  containing  fragments  of  sandstone,  limestone,  and 
trap  rocks,  some  of  them  rolled,  others  angular.  The  surface  of 
the  loam  is  undulated  ;  and,  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the 
beach,  cliffs  of  basalt  protrude,  at  the  height  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  above  the  water.  A  short  way  to  the  westward  also  of 
the  point,  cliffs  of  basalt  rise  from  the  beach.  This  stone  breaks 
up  here  into  cubical  blocks,  many  of  which  are  piled  uj)  at  the 
foot  of  the  cliff'.  These  fragments  and  the  basaltic  shelves  at  the 
base  of  the  cliff',  are  sculptured  by  fine  acute  furrows,  and  polished 
by  the  action  of  ice  and  gravel,  the  scratches  being  generally 
jierpendicular  to  the  line  of  coast,  but  occasionally  crossing  each 


POINT   TINNEY.-DRIFT-ICE. 


iTf 


other.  The  Melville  lian^e  is  about  five  miles  distant  from  this 
part  of  the  shore,  and  pn  sents  many  mural  precipices  and  ravines 
on  its  acclivity.  The  highest  points  did  not  appear  to  rise  more 
than  seven  or  eight  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  An  undulated 
grassy  country  intervenes  between  the  range  and  tlie  shore. 

In  the  evetiing  we  encamped  on  a  point  situated  in  latitude 
69°  30'  N.,  to  the  westward  of  Point  Tinney.  The  sea-bank 
shelves  down  from  the  general  level  of  the  country  here  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  or  two  hundred  feet,  and,  being  cut  by  ravines, 
shows  conical  eminences  when  seen  from  a  boat.  The  diluvium 
is  at  least  forty  feet  thick. 

August  l^th. — This  morning  we  crossed  the  mouth  of  Bucha- 
nan River,  which  is  a  very  small  stream  in  this  month,  but  the 
channel  which  it  fills  in  time  of  flood  is  one  hundred  yards  wide. 
I  have  mentioned,  in  the  preceding  narrative,  that  when  we  visited 
Fort  Good  Hope,  no  rain  had  fallen  there  this  season,  and  a  few 
short  showers  only  occurred  after  we  came  to  the  coast.  The 
banks  of  this  stream  gave  further  evidence  of  the  dryness  of  the 
summer,  in  the  clayey  soil  being  cracked  every  where  into  round 
flat  cakes,  on  which  the  foot-prints  of  geese,  which  had  walked 
over  them  while  yet  muddy  from  the  melting  snow,  were  sharply 
impressed.  Were  such  a  surface  to  be  covered  by  drift-sand,  the 
foot-prints  might  be  preserved  as  in  the  ancient  sandstones.  In 
the  present  instance  the  winter  frosts  set  in  without  any  heavy 
rains  having  fallen  to  obliterate  the  traces,  which  would  conse- 
quently remain  hard  until  the  following  spring.  ♦ 

Mr.  Rae  brought  in  two  fine  reindeer,  and  several  seals  also 
were  killed  ;  but  none  of  the  men  relishing  the  dark  flesh  of  the 
seals,  while  they  had  abundance  of  excellent  venison,  I  gave  di- 
rections that  no  more  should  be  shot.  A  meridional  altitude  was 
obtained  in  lat.  69°  19f  N. 

To-day  we  passed  through  much  dr  rt-ice  by  very  devious  chan- 
nels, and  not  without  risk  of  the  boats  being  crushed,  but  fortu- 
nately without  damage.  Croker's  River  issues  from  a  triangular, 
level  valley,  three  or  four  miles  wide  at  the  beach,  and  extending 
about  five  miles  backward.  Over  this  the  stream  spreads  when 
flooded,  but  when  low,  filters  out  by  narrow  channels,  barred 
across  by  sand-banks.  The  valley  is  bounded  on  the  east  and 
west  by  elevated  banks  of  sand,  diluvial  loam  and  boulders,  which 
meet  at  the  Melville  Range.     The  valley  at  this  time  presented 


I.. 


sii 


171 


POINT  CMrrON.-HOPPNER  RIVER. 


a  singular  eceiie  of  desolation  ;  for  though  the  summer  was  nov* 
far  advanced,  its  Hut  bottom  was  entirely  covered  with  large  Hoch 
of  ice,  which  had  been  probably  driven  over  the  sand-bar  from  the 
sea  by  northerly  winds. 

A  brood  of  long-tailed  ducks  {Ila/clda  glacialis)  were  seen 
Kwimming  in  one  of  the  streams,  with  the  mother  bird  in  the  vun. 
lier  wariness  did  not  prevent  us  from  laying  her  flock  under  con- 
tribution for  our  evening  rneul. 

August  20th. — This  day  also  our  voyage  was  performed  among 
crowded  floes  of  ice,  and  was  consequently  slow.  When  we  land- 
ed to  prepare  breakfast,  Mr.  Rae  killed  a  fine  buck  reindeer.  In 
this  quarter,  a  skillful  hunter,  like  Mr.  Rae,  could  supply  the 
whole  party  with  venison  without  any  loss  of  time.  A  meridional 
observation  was  obtained  in  lat.  69°  9'  N.  between  Point  Clifton 
and  Inman's  River,  and  about  two  miles  from  the  latter;  the 
variation  of  the  compass,  by  the  sun's  bearing  at  noon,  being  61. j° 
E.,  and  Point  Clifton  bearing  north  26°  west,  distant  a  mile  and 
a  quarter. 

A  little  to  the  eastward  of  Point  Clifton,  there  are  cliffs  of 
limestone,  from  whence  to  Inman's  Kiver  the  beach  is  alluvial 
and  shingly.  The  river  flows  between  high  gravel  banks  and 
alluvial  chffs  ;  and  to  the  eastward  of  it,  the  limestone  rises  in  suc- 
cessive terraces  to  the  height  of  four  hundred  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  eminences  which  this  formation  produces  are  long  and  round- 
backed,  and  it  abounds  in  narrow  deep  ravines  or  fissures. 

At  Point  Wise,  the  clifis  are  composed  of  crumbling  earthy 
limestone,  containing  chert  in  layers  and  nodules.  From  this 
point,  at  sunset,  WoUaston  Land  was  distinctly  seen  at  the  dis- 
tance apparently  of  thirty  miles. 

On  the  morning  of  the  2l8t,  we  passed  two  ranges  of  high  lime- 
stone cliffs,  at  the  second  of  which,  lying  to  the  eastward  of  Hopp- 
ner  River,  we  put  ashore  to  prepare  breakfast.  The  ice  under 
this  cliff  was  loaded  with  many  tons  of  gravel.  Wollaston  Land, 
as  seen  from  hence,  appeared  to  have  its  summits  and  ravines 
covered  with  snow,  but  the  channel  being  filled  with  ice,  the  ice- 
blink rendered  the  true  form  and  condition  of  distant  land  very 
uncertain. 

One  of  our  boats  having  been  injured  by  the  ice  and  rendered 
leaky,  we  put  ashore  early  at  Cape  Young  to  repair  the  damage, 
which  was  efiected  in  the  course  of  the  evening. 


A    KTORM  —flLOVV   PROURbftS. 


I7fl 


i 

I 


August  22d. — Oil  cinbarkiiifr  tliis  niuriiing  in  rathur  thick 
weather  wo  Mtriick  across  Stapylton  Bay,  tur  three  hours,  and  then, 
getting  sight  of  Cupc  Hope,  bearing  east-nortiieust,  hauled  up  for 
it.  The  sky  was  dark  and  lowering,  with  occasional  thick  haze 
and  heavy  showers,  and  a  water-spout,  seen  in-shore,  gave  inti- 
mation of  an  approaching  storm.  Ice  floes  lying  close  oil'  Cape 
Hope  caused  us  no  little  trouble,  the  passages  among  them  being 
very  intricate,  and  the  perpendicular  walls  of  the  masses  being  too 
high  to  allow  of  our  landing,  or  seeing  over  them.  In  the  aftci- 
noon  we  passed  Cape  Bexley,  running  before  a  stiff  breeze,  and  at 
5  P.M.,  a  storm  coming  suddenly  on,  we  were  compelled  to  reduce 
our  canvas  to  the  goose-wing  of  the  main-sail,  under  which  we 
scudded  for  an  hour,  and  then  entering  among  large  masses  of  ice, 
about  two  miles  from  Point  Cockburn,  found  shelter  under  some 
pieces  that  had  grounded.  The  shore  was  too  flat  to  admit  of  our 
bringing  the  boats  near  enough  to  encamp ;  the  ice-oold  sea  water 
chilled  the  men  as  they  waded  to  and  fro ;  there  was  no  drift- 
timber  on  the  beach ;  and  we  passed  a  cold  and  cheerless  night 
in  the  boats,  the  wind  being  too  strong  to  admit  of  our  raising  any 
kind  of  shelter.  I  afterward  learned  that  this  storm  began  at  Fort 
Simpson  at  6  a.  m.  on  the  23d,  or,  making  allowance  for  th<'  dif- 
ference of  longitude,  about  thirteen  hours  and  a  half  later.  It 
commenced  on  the  Mackenzie  by  the  wind  changing  from  north- 
east to  northwest,  and  the  sky  did  not  clear  up  till  nine  in  the 
morning  of  the  24th.  At  the  same  date  an  earthquake  occurred 
in  the  West  India  Islands,  which  did  much  damage. 

During  the  night  much  ice  drifted  past,  and  in  the  morning  of 
the  23d  the  sea  as  far  as  our  view  extended  was  one  dense  close 
pack.  By  10  a.m.  the  wind  had  moderated  considerably,  and  the 
rising  tide  having  floated  some  of  the  stranded  pieces  of  ice,  we 
were  enabled  to  advance  slowly  along  the  shore,  by  moving  them 
aside.  In  this  way  every  small  indentation  of  the  coast-line  re- 
quired to  be  rounded,  and  as  these  were  numerous  the  direct  dis- 
tance made  good  was  small.  We  encamped,  on  the  tide  falling 
again,  at  2  p.m.,  on  a  gravel  point  lying  about  ten  miles  to  the 
westward  of  Chantry  Island.  Snow,  which  fell  in  the  night,  did 
not  wholly  melt  this  day,  and  the  distant  ri.%ing  grounds  were 
white.  The  weather  continued  very  cold ;  drift-wood  proved  to 
be  exceedingly  scanty  ;  and  in  the  night  we  had  high  winds  and 
much  sleet.     The  eoaptliue  is  more  deeply  indented  in  thisqii.r- 


■,: 


•  '« 


III 


\ 


176 


SALMON.     LAMBERT   IfLANP. 


ter  than  the  chart*  indicates,  as  chains  of  low  sandy  islands  which 
lie  across  the  ontrances  or  the  bay  hid  them  from  our  view  on  the 
former  voya-je.  The  country  is  flat  and  strewed  with  fragments 
of  limestone. 

No  lanes  of  open  water  could  be  discerned  on  the  24th  from 
any  of  the  eminences  near  the  coast.  By  handing  the  boats  over 
the  flats,  where  the  water  was  too  shallow  for  heavy  ice,  we  were 
enabled  to  round  six  small  bays.  Tn  the  course  of  this  labor 
many  salmon  were  seen,  a  few  were  killed  by  the  men  with  their 
poles,  and  some  were  found  on  the  ice,  haA-ing  been  left  by  seals, 
which  were  scared  away  by  our  approach.  The  shape  of  this 
salmon  is  much  like  that  of  the  common  sea-trout  of  England, 
but  its  scales  are  rather  smaller.  Its  flesh  is  red,  and  its  flavor 
excellent.  A  medium-sized  fitrh  measured  29  inches  in  length, 
and  16  in  girth.  We  encamped  at  five  in  the  evening  a  little  to 
the  eastward  of  Chantry  Island,  hiving  traveled  about  twenty- 
lour  miles  round  the  bays,  but  gained  only  eight  in  direct  dis- 
tance. At  this  place,  beds  of  compact  white  limestone  crop  out 
on  the  beach,  and  the  surface  of  the  country  is  thickly  strewed 
with  boulders  of  bright-red  sandstone,  some  of  them  very  large. 
Many  boulders  of  basalt  and  other  trap  i  ocks  also  occur. 

August  25th. — A  strong  west-northwest  wind  blowing  during 
ihe  night,  cleared  away  much  of  the  ice  that  pressed  immediately 
on  the  beach,  though  all  remained  white  to  seaward.  We  were 
enabled  thereby  to  run  for  three  hours  before  the  wind,  but  then 
came  to  a  bay,  through  which  there  was  no  passage,  large  floes 
resting  on  the  rocks  of  the  bepch,  and  i:o  lanes  existing  outside. 
A  meridional  observation  gave  tne  latitude  of  this  place  68°  36'  N. 
Lambert  Island  lies  some  miles  distant  in  the  ofling.  The  sur- 
rounding country,  as  iar  as  my  examination  extended,  consists  of 
limestone,  but  many  sandstone  boulders  of  various  colors,  lying  on 
the  surface,  point  out  that  .^tone  as  existing  in  situ  in  some  locality 
not  far  distant. 

August  2Q>tJi. — A  frosty  night  covered  the  sea  and  ponds  with 
young  ice,  and  glued  all  the  floes  immovably  together,  so  that  the 
rise  of  the  tide  was  no  longer  serviceable  to  us.  We  carried  the 
cargo  and  launched  the  boats  across  a  po-nt  of  land  for  half  a  mile 
in  the  morning,  and  spent  the  rest  of  the  day  in  the  various  opera- 
tions of  cutting  through  tongues  of  ice,  dragging  the  boats  over  thu 
*  In  Franklin's  sorond  Ovprlnnd  Journey. 


LEAVE    A   BOAT.— CAPE   KRUf^ENSTERX. 


177 


floes,  where  they  were  sinouth  enou«rh,  movinjr  larfre  stones  that 
lay  in  the  way  and  resortinja:  to  every  expedient  we  coul  ,  devise 
to  pain  a  little  advance.  Two  more  portages  were  made  in  the 
afternoon  over  rugged  paths,  and  we  traveled  in  all  about  five 
miles  in  a  day  of  very  severe  labor.  A  heavy  snow-storm  con- 
verted the  surface  of  the  pools  of  sea  water  into  a  thick  paste,  the 
water  being  already  cooled  down  to  the  freezing  point. 

By  a  repetition  of  the  same  operations,  whirh  occupied  ns  during 
the  previous  day,  we  advanced  on  the  27th  about  three  miles  and 
a  half.  After  Mr.  Rae  had  attentively  examined  the  sea  from  a 
high  cliff  without  perceiving  any  slackness  in  the  ice,  or  motion 
during  the  flood  or  ebb  tide,  I  determined  on  lightening  the  labors 
of  the  men,  by  leaving  one  boat  and  her  cargo  on  a  rocky  point, 
which  bears  north  28°  west  from  Cape  Krusenstern,  distant 
twelve  miles.  Our  encampment  in  the  evening  was  on  a  flat 
terrace  of  slaty  limestone  under  a  high  cliff  of  the  same  rock. 
The  limestone  reposes  on  beds  of  chert  or  quartz  rock  in  thin 
layers,  which  in  some  places  are  detached  in  large  slates.  Here 
we  deposited,  on  a  flat  shelf  of  the  rock,  several  cases  of  pemican, 
an  arm-chest,  and  some  other  thit^gs  that  encumbered  the  boats, 
and  rendered  them  less  fit  for  launching  over  the  ice. 

During  the  night,  a  fresh  wind  from  the  east-southeast  brought 
much  snow,  which  added  to  the  pasty  condition  of  tht  -urface  of 
the  water,  and  produced  a  layer  of  semi-fluid  matter  that  com- 
pletely deadened  a  boat's  way  under  oars. 

Three  hours  were  consumed  on  ''le  morning  of  the  28th  in 
bringing  the  boats  about  a  hundred  yards,  the  cold  weather 
almost  paralyzing  the  men's  powers  ot  exertion. 

When  the  tide  flowed  in  the  afternoon,  a  portage  of  a  thousand 
yards  was  made,  and  the  boats  being  afterward  dragged  across 
some  smooth  floes  of  ice,  we  gained  a  pool  of  open  water,  and 
pulled  to  the  bottom  of  Pasley's  Cove,  where  we  encamped. 
Mount  Barrow  is  a  conspicuous  object  from  the  bottom  of  the 
cove,  as  it  rises  abruptly  from  the  flat  limestone  strata. 

August  29th. — During  the  night  and  this  morning  the  same 
keen  i'rosty  east  winds  continued,  with  snow  showers.  The  tide 
fell  so  much  that  the  boats  were  left  aground  in  the  morning,  and 
we  were  unable  to  proceed  until  7  a.  m.  In  three  hours  we  came 
within  about  a  mile  and  a  half  of  the  pitch  of  Cape  Krusenstern, 
when  further  progress  being  barred  by  ice  heaped  against  the 


178 


FURROWED   LIMESTONE. 


H 


cliHs,  we  put  aslioie  and  drew  up  the  boat8  on  the  beach.  In 
the  flat  litiiestone  beds,  oi"  which  the  country  here  is  formed,  I 
observed  a  curious  variety  of  structure  which  I  saw  no  where 
else,  and  which  I  can  not  satisfactorily  account  for.  It  was  a 
diminutive  ridge  like  the  roof  a  house,  Ibrmcd  in  this  manner  A> 
of  the  upper  slaty  layer  of  the  limestone,  its  height  or  the  breadth 
of  its  sides  being  about  a  foot  only,  yet  its  length  was  half  a  mile 
It  seemed  to  be  connected  with  a  fissure.  Though  the  layers  of 
the  limestone  are  most  extensively  detached  by  the  freezing  of 
the  moisture,  which  insinuates  itself  between  them,  such  a  pro- 
cess could  not  produce  any  thing  to  regular  as  this  small  anti- 
clinal ridge.  If  beds  already  fissured  were,  in  subsiding,  to  be 
pressed  more  closely  together,  the  edges  of  the  fissure  might  per- 
haps assume  such  a  form  Elsewhere,  in  the  same  formation, 
straight  furrows,  as  if  drawn  by  a  plow,  are  common,  and  evidently 
proceed  from  the  small  fragments  which  cover  the  ground,  filling 
a  crack,  nearly  to  the  brim  Judging  from  the  whole  surface 
here  being  covered  with  thin  pieces  of  limestone  to  the  excluision 
of  soil,  I  should  infer  that  the  frost  splits  of!"  the  layers  and  breaks 
them  up  more  etiectively  than  any  agent  to  which  rocks  are  ex- 
posed in  warmer  climates,  and  that  the  scantiness  of  the  soil  is 
owing  to  the  shortness  of  the  season  of  growth  of  the  lichens  and 
other  plants,  which  have  the  power  of  decomposing  the  surface 
of  the  stones  and  so  producing  a  little  mould.  The  frost  breaks 
up  the  stone  before  the  lichens  have  time  to  establish  themselves. 

The  limestone  which  forms  the  cliffs  of  Cape  Krusenstern,  and 
the  other  cliffs  on  the  coast  between  it  and  Cape  Kendall,  con- 
tains many  thin  slaty  beds  of  chert  or  quartz  rock,  either  bluish- 
white,  or  colored  reddish-brown  by  oxide  of  iron. 

We  remained  all  the  30th  in  an  encampment,  watching  the 
ice  outside,  or  making  excursions  across  the  cape  to  examine  the 
sea  in  various  directions.  Some  small  lanes  of  water  were  visi- 
ble, and  the  ice  was  moved  to  and  fro  by  the  flood  and  ebb,  but 
no  channel  was  discovered  by  which  we  could  hope  to  make  any 
progress  toward  the  Coppermine  River.  The  wind  continued  in 
the  east-northeast  quarter,  and  the  weather  was  very  chilling. 
We  employed  the  men  in  erecting  a  column  of  stone  near  the 
tents.  It  was  on  this  cape  that  Mr.  Rae  spent  a  month*  of  the 
following  summer  in  anxiously  watching  for  an  opening  in  the 
ice,  by  which  he  might  cross  to  Douglass  Island  and  Wollaston 


BASIL   HALL'S   BAY.-CAPE   KEAR.NK 


17f» 


Land  TIjc  true  pohilion  of  Donglasi>  Island  is  leu  iiiilos  Ironi 
Cape  Krusenstern. 

At  4  P.M.  oil  the  30th,  a  sudden  movement  of  the  ice  having- 
opened  a  narrow  channel,  we  hastened  to  launch  and  load  the 
boats  ;  and,  pushing  them  through,  succeeded  in  rounding  the 
cape.  We  then  ran  under  sail  with  a  favorable  breeze  till  1 1  p.m., 
when  the  night  being  dark  we  got  involved  among  drift-ice,  and 
not  being  able  to  reach  the  shore  dropped  anchor  off  Point  Lock- 
yer,  and  went  to  sleep  in  the  boats.  , 

We  resumed  the  voyage  at  4  a.m.  on  the  31st,  and,  getting 
inside  of  fields  of  ice  which  covered  the  sea  as  far  as  our  view 
extended,  we  ran  along  the  coast  until  we  came  to  an  island  in 
Basil  Hall's  Bay,  on  which  the  sea  ice  rested,  barring  our  further 
progress  on  its  outside.  On  the  former  voyage,  this  island  was 
thought  to  be  part  of  the  main  shore  ;  but  on  ascending  to  its 
summit,  which  rises  about  three  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  we 
discovered  its  msular  nature,  and  perceived  that  the  ice  within 
it  was  not  only  smoother,  but  lay  less  compactly.  We  therelbre 
took  that  direction,  a,v^  ♦')und  that  the  inlet  runs  about  five 
miles  behind  the  island  into  a  narrow  valley,  bounded  by  hills 
between  three  and  four  hnndred  feet  high. 

In  the  afternoon  we  reached  Cape  Hearne,  and  ascended  its 
high  grounds  to  look  to  seaward,  from  whence  we  beheld  the 
same  impacted  floes  of  ice  to  which  we  had  of  late  been  accus- 
tomed. The  cliffs  of  this  cape  are  composed  of  a  shingly  or  slaty 
limestone,  and  the  beach  presents  much  greenish  slate-clay,  which 
breaks  down  like  wacke,  and  becomes  brown  on  the  surface,  but 
its  relations  to  the  limestone  in  respect  to  position  could  not  be 
made  out.  The  extreme  point  of  the  cape  is  low  and  sandy  ; 
and  the  country  lying  immediately  to  the  southward  of  the  lime- 
stone ridge,  that  constitutes  the  high  grounds  of  the  promontorj', 
is  flat,  grassy,  and  marshy,  forming  a  fine  feeding  ground  for  rein- 
deer, of  which  we  saw  several  herds.  A  considerable  stream 
M'inds  through  the  plain,  and  enters  the  sea  about  two  miles  to 
the  southward  of  the  cape.  Its  mouth,  which  is  barred  by  a 
sand-bank,  is  marked  by  two  cliffs  of  sand,  and  it  pours  oat  water 
enough  to  render  the  sea  clay-colored  for  two  or  three  miles,  and 
fresh  enough  to  be  drinkable.  We  encamped  three  miles  beyond 
it,  on  a  point  formed  of  slate-clay,  of  which  the  beach,  after  we 
had  passed  Cape  Hearne,  seemed  every  where  to  consist     Here 


i  'M 


180 


SHALLOW   WATER. 


1M 


we  i'uuaii  a  decayed  sledge,  thai  was  put  togellKT  with  copiicr  nails 
ma  iked  with  the  broad  arrow,  which  must  have  been  extracted 
IVom  the  boats  I  abandoned  on  the  Coppermine  River  iu  182G. 

Since  rounding  Cape  Parry,  we  had  seen  very  few  traces  of  Es- 
kimos, and  had  not  met  a  single  individual  of  that  nation ;  but 
we  had  now  entered  a  better  frequented  district,  in  which  traces 
of  the  natives  abounded.  There  was  a  hard  frost  in  the  night, 
with  a  sharp  east-southeast  wind  blowing  from  the  ice. 

The  coast  being  flat,  and  the  water  within  the  ice  very  shallow, 
the  officers  and  most  of  the  men  walked  along  the  shore,  on  the 
morning  of  the  1st  of  September,  leaving  two  of  the  crew  in  each 
boat  to  pole  them  along.  The  country  is  level  and  swampy,  and 
is  crossed  by  long  channels  like  ditches,  on  whose  banks  shale  and 
slate-clay  are  occasionally  exposed.  It  would  seem  that  on  this 
eastern  flank  of  the  limestone  formation  there  is  also  a  shale  de- 
posit, but  not  so  extensive  a  one  as  that  seen  on  its  western  side. 

In  the  course  of  our  walk  we  passed  an  Eskimo  stage,  on 
which,  among  deer- skins  and  other  effects,  wo  observed  the  skiu  ol' 
a  white  bear.  We  had  previously  found  a  skull  of  this  animal  on 
the  beach,  so  that  there  is  no  doubt  of  its  frequenting  this  coast. 

After  breakfast  we  made  very  slow  progress,  having  to  cut  a 
way  through  new  ice.  It  did  not  exceed  an  inch  in  thickness, 
but,  being  formed  on  a  foundation  of  snow,  did  not  crack  readily, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  it  was  hard  enough  to  cut  the  planks 
of  the  boats  through,  rendering  them  scarcely  sea- worthy,  though 
we  had  strengthened  them  on  the  water  line  with  sheets  of  tin 
beat  out  from  the  pemican  cases.  In  (' ragging  them  over  the 
floes  they  were  much  shattered.  At  noon,  finding  that  we  could 
not  advance  further,  in  the  present  condition  of  the  ice,  without 
pulling  the  boats  to  pieces  and  running  the  risk  of  losing  all  our 
stores  and  provisions,  we  encamped  about  eight  miles  from  Cape 
Kendall,  which  bore  southwest. 

On  viewing  the  sea  from  the  high  grounds  behind  our  encamp- 
ment, and  ascertaining  that  no  lanes  of  open  water  were  visible 
in  any  direction,  I  dett^rmined,  after  consulting  with  Mr.  Rae, 
to  leave  the  boats  at  this  place,  and  commence  the  overland 
inarch  in  the  course  of  two  days,  if  no  amelioration  of  the  weather 
or  alteration  in  the  st'  le  of  the  sea  occurred  during  the  interval, 
f  the  weather  should  improve,  it  was  our  intention  to  remain 
some  days  longer,  to  watch  its  effects  on  the  ice.     The  higher 


!i 


TlMOWXAriON   OF   SEA    VOYAGK. 


181 


grounds  at  this  time  were  covered  with  snow,  but  tlie  lower  lauds 
were  mostly  bare. 

The  unavoidable  conclusion  of  our  sea  voyage  while  still  at 
some  distance  from  the  Coppermine  River  was  contemplated  by 
me,  and  I  believe  by  every  individual  of  the  party,  with  gre.it 
rt'gret.     I  had  hoped,  that  by  conveying  the  boats  and  stores  iij) 
the  Coppermine  River  beyond  the  range  of  the  Eskimos  we  could 
deposit  them  in  a  place  of  safety  to  be  availuble  for  a  voyage 
to  Wollaston  Land  next  summer.     But  abandoned  as  they  must 
now  be  on  the  coast,  we  could  not  expect  that  they  would  escape 
the  searches  of  the  hunting   parties  who  would  follow  up  our 
loot-marks,  and  who  were  certain  to  break  up  the  boats  to  obtain 
iheir  copper  fastenings.     The   unusual  tardiness  of  the  spring, 
and  our  unexpected  delay  on  Methy  Portage  for  want  of  horses, 
caused  our  arrival  on  the  Arctic  coast  to  be  considerably  later 
than  I  had  in  secret  anticipated,  though  it  differed  little  from  the 
date  I  had  thought  it  prudent  to  mention  when  asked  to  fix  a 
prohable  time.     Even  a  few  days,  so  unimportant  in  a  year's 
voyage  elswhere,  are  of  vital  consequence  in  a  boat  navigation  to 
the  eastward  of  Cape  Parry,  where  six  weeks  of  summer  is  all 
that  can  bo    reckoned  upon.     Short,  however,  as   the  summer 
proved  to  be,  neither  that  nor  our  tardy  commencement  of  the 
sea  voyage  would  have  prevented  me  from  coasting  the  south 
shore  of  Wollaston  Land,  and  examining  it  carefully,  could  I 
have  reached  it,  for  the  distance  to  be  performed  would  have 
been  but  little  increased  by  doing  so.     The  sole  hinderance  to  my 
crossing  Dolphin  and  Union  Straits  was  the  impracticable  con- 
dition of  the  close  packed  drift  ice.     In  wider  seas,  where  fields 
and  large  floes  exist,  these  offer  a  pretty  safe  retreat  for  a  boat 
party  in  times  of  pressure,  and  progress  may  be  made  by  drag- 
ging light  boats  like  ours  over  them  :  but  the  ice  that  obstructed 
our  way  was  composed  of  hummocky  pieces,  of  irregular  shape, 
and  consequently  ready  to    revolve  if  carelessly  loaded  or  trod 
upon.     At  certain  times  of  the  tide,  moreover,  they  were  hustled 
to  and  fro  with  much  force. 

As  only  small  packs  of  ice  and  few  in  number  were  seen  off  the 
Coppermine  by  Sir  John  Franklin  in  1820,  by  myself  in  1826, 
and  by  Deas^  and  Simpson  in  1836  and  1837,  being  four  several 
summers,  the  sight  of  the  sea  entirely  covered  so  late  in  August 
wa^  wholly  unexpecled,  and  I  attributed  so  untoward  an  event 
to  the  northwest  winds   having  driven  the  ice  down  from  the 


I( 


18^ 


THE    DISCOVERY     HHIPS. 


i 


IMI 


north  in  the  first  instance,  and  to  the  easterly  gales,  which  after- 
ward set  in,  pressing  it  into  that  bight  of  Coronation  Gulf;  but 
Mr.  Rae's  experience  in  the  summer  of  1 849  shows  that  in  un- 
favorable seasons,  the  boat  navigation  is  closed  for  the  entire  sum- 
mer, and  we  learned  from  a  party  of  Eskimos  whom  we  met  in 
Back's  Inlet,  as  I  shall  have  occasion  to  mention  hereafter,  that 
the  pressure  of  the  ice  on  the  coast  this  summer  was  relieved 
only  for  a  very  short  time. 

The  state  of  the  straits  produced  the  melancholy  conviction 
that  a  party,  even  though  provided  with  boats,  might  be  detain- 
ed on  Wollaston  Land,  and  unable  to  cross  to  the  main  ;  but 
yet  at  that  time  my  apprehensions  foi  the  safety  of  the  missing 
ships  were  less  excited  than  they  have  been  since.  For  then 
their  absence  had  not  been  extended  much  beyond  the  lime  that 
their  provisions  were  calculated  to  last :  and,  being  ignorant  of 
Sir  James  C.  Ross  having  been  arrested  in  Barrow  Straits,  1 
hoped  that  the  accumulation  of  ice  which  aimoyed  us  might  be 
the  result  of  a  clearance  of  the  northern  channels,  and  that  the 
two  ship  expeditions  might  have  happily  met  at  the  very  time  that 
we  were  no  longer  able  to  keep  the  sea.  It  is  now  known  that 
the  season  was  equally  unfavorable  throughout  the  Arctic  seas 
north  of  America. 

The  idea  of  a  cycle  of  good  and  bad  seasons  has  often  been 
mooted  by  meteorologists,  and  has  frequently  recurred  to  my 
thoughts  when  endeavoring  to  find  a  reason  for  the  ease  with 
which  at  some  periods  of  Arctic  discovery  navigators  were  able 
to  penetrate  early  in  the  summer  into  sounds  which  subsequent 
adventurers  could  not  approach,  and  to  connect  such  facts  with 
the  fate  of  the  Discovery  ships.  But  neither  the  periods  assign- 
ed, nor  the  fects  adduced  to  prove  them  by  difierent  writers, 
have  been  presented  in  such  a  shape  as  to  carry  conviction  with 
them,  until  very  recently.  Mr.  Glaisher,  in  a  paper  published 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1850,  has  shovvU;  from 
eighty  years'  observations  in  London  and  at  Greenwich,  that 
groups  of  warm  y  iars  a!tf;rnate  with  grou])s  of  cold  ones,  in  such 
a  way  as  to  render  it  most  probable  that  the  mean  annual  tem- 
peratures rise  and  full  in  a  series  ol  elliptical  curves,  which  cor- 
respond to  periods  of  about  fourteen  years  ;  though  local  or  casual 
disturbing  forces  cause  the  means  of  particular  years  to  rise  above 
the  curve  or  fall  below  it. 

The  same  laws  doubtless  operate  in  North  America,  producing 


METEOROLOGICAL    SPKCULATloNB. 


183 


a  similar  gradual  increase  and  subsequent  decrease  of  mean  heat, 
in  a  series  of  years,  though  the  summits  of  the  curves  are  not  like- 
ly to  be  coincident  with,  and  are  very  probably  opposed  to  those 
of  Europe ;  since  the  atmospherical  currents  from  the  south, 
which  for  a  period  raise  the  annual  temperature  of  England, 
must  be  counterbalanced  by  currents  from  the  north  on  other 
meridians.  The  annual  heat  has  been  diminishing  in  London 
ever  since  1844,  according  to  Mr.  Glaisher's  diagram,  and  will 
reach  its  minimum  in  1851. 

It  can  be  stated  only  as  a  conjecture,  though  by  no  means  an 
improbable  one,  that  Sir  John  Franklin  entered  Lancaster  Sound 
at  the  close  of  a  group  of  warm  years  when  the  ice  was  in  the 
most  favorable  condition  of  diminution,  and  that  since  then  the 
annual  heat  has  attained  its  minimum,  probably  in  1847  or 
1848,  and  may  now  be  increasing  again.  At  all  events,  it  is 
conceivable  that,  having  pushed  on  boldly  in  one  of  the  last  of  the 
favorable  years  of  the  cycle,  the  ice,  produced  in  the  unfavorable 
ones  which  followed,  has  shut  him  in,  and  been  found  insurmount- 
able ;  but  there  remains  the  hope  that  if  this  be  the  period  of  the 
mean  heat  in  that  quarter,  the  zealous  and  enterprising  officers 
now  on  his  track,  will  not  encounter  obstructions  equal  to  those 
which  prevented  their  skillful  and  no  less  enterprising  and  zeal- 
ous predecessor  in  the  search,  from  carrying  his  ships  beyond 
Cape  Leopold. 

With  respect  to  the  maintenance  of  a  party  detained  on  the 
islands  north  of  Coronation  Gulf,  reindeer  and  musk-oxen  may  be 
procured  by  skillful  hunters ;  but  unless  the  chase  were  duly  or- 
ganized, and  only  the  most  expert  marksmen  and  good  deer  stalk- 
ers suffered  to  go  out,  there  would  be  a  danger  of  the  animals 
migrating  from  feeding  grounds  on  which  they  were  much  dis- 
turbed. With  nets  a  large  quantity  of  salmon  and  other  fish 
might  be  captured  in  Dolphin  and  Union  Straits,  and  doubtless 
also  in  the  various  channels  separating  the  islands  ;  with  percus- 
sion guns  we  had  no  difficulty  in  killing  seals,  and  we  might,  hud 
we  chosen,  have  slain  hundreds,  though,  as  they  dive  at  the  flash, 
the  chance  of  shooting  them  with  a  ship's  musket  having  an  or- 
dinary lock,  would  be  greatly  diminished.  Swans,  snow  geese, 
brent  geese,  eiders,  king  duoks,  cacawees,  and  several  other  water- 
fowl, breed  in  immense  numbers  on  the  islands  :  and  the  old 
ones  when  moulting,  and  the  young  before  they  are  fledged,  fall 


II 


■  •"ri 


1S4 


GENERAL    REFLECTIONS. 


:i' 


'H 


V 


m 


au  easy  prey  to  a  swift  runner,  and  still  more  surely  to  a  party 
hemming  them  in  and  cutting  oif  their  retreat. 

To  people  acquainted  with  the  Eskimo  methods  of  building  ice 
and  snow  houses,  shelter  may  be  raised  on  the  bleakest  coast,  ex- 
cept in  the  autumn  months  ;  but,  unless  blubber  were  used  as  fuel, 
there  would  be  a  difficulty  in  maintaining  fire  for  cooking  by  any 
one  who  has  not  the  genius  for  turning  every  thing  to  account 
which  Mr.  Rae  evinced,  when  he  boldly  adventured  on  winter- 
ing on  a  coast  bearing  the  ominous  appellation  of  Repulse  Bay, 
with  no  other  iuel  than  the  Andromeda  tetragona — an  interest- 
ing and  beautiful  herb  in  the  eye  of  a  botanist,  but  giving  no 
promise  to  an  ordinary  observer  that  it  could  supply  warmth  to  a 
large  party  during  a  long  Arctic  winter.  To  apply  it,  or  any  of 
the  other  polar  plants,  to  such  a  purpose,  a  large  quantity  must 
be  stored  up  near  the  winter  station  before  the  snow  falls. 

I  have  thought  it  right  to  throw  these  few  observations  to- 
gether in  this  place,  that  a  reader  unacquainted  with  the  natural 
resources  of  the  country,  may  judge  of  the  probability  of  the  whole 
or  part  of  the  crews  of  the  Erebus  and  Terror  maintaining  them- 
selves there,  supposing  the  ships  to  have  been  wrecked.  Of 
course,  as  long  as  the  vessels  remained,  they  would  afford  shelter 
and  fuel ;  but  the  other  contingencies  would  come  into  considera- 
tion, if  parties  went  off  in  various  directions  in  quest  of  food.  One 
great  purpose  of  the  expedition  which  I  conducted  along  the  coast, 
was  to  afford  relief  to  such  detached  parties,  or  to  the  entire  crews, 
had  they  directed  their  way  to  the  continent,  and  our  researches 
proved  at  least  that  none  of  the  party,  having  gained  that  coast, 
were  dragging  out  a  miserable  existence  among  the  Eskimos,  with- 
out the  means  of  repairing  to  the  fur  posts.  In  the  following  sum- 
mer of  1849,  Mr.  Rae  ascertained  that  the  Eskimo  inhabitants 
of  Wollaston  Land  had  seen  neither  the  ships  nor  white  men. 
The  knowledge  of  these  facts  had  an  influence  with  the  Admiral- 
ty in  concentrating  the  future  search  in  the  vicinity  of  Melville 
Island  ;  Captain  CoUinson  and  Commander  Pullen  being  directed 
to  approach  its  coasts  from  the  westward,  while  Captain  Austen, 
and  the  squadron  of  hardy  navigators  in  his  wake,  were  to  trace 
the  Discovery  ships  from  the  eastward.  A.  more  ample  and  no- 
ble efibrt  to  rescue  a  lost  party  was  never  made  by  any  nation, 
and  it  has  been  humanely  seconded  from  the  United  States  of 
America.     May  God  bless  their  endeavors  I 


CHAPTER    X. 


Preparing  forthe  March. — Sleep  in  Back's  Inlet. — Eskimo  Village. — Eskimos  Ferry 
the  Party  across  Rae  River. — Basaltic  Cliffs. — Cross  Richardson's  River. — 
March  along  the  bL.iks  of  the  Coi)perniine. — Geese. — First  Clump  of  Trees. — 
Musk-oxen. — Copper  Ores  and  Native  Copper. — Kendall  River. — Make  a  Raft 
— Fog. — Pass  a  Night  on  a  Naked  Rock  without  Fuel. — Fine  Clump  of  Spruce 
Firs. — Dismal  Lakes. — Indians. — Dease  River. — P'ort  Confidence. — Send  off 
Dispatches  and  Letters. 

On  tho  Ist  and  2d  of  September,  we  had  northerly  and  north- 
east V,  'nds,  with  a  low  temperature,  sleet,  snow,  and  occasional 
lops.  We  were  all  employed  in  preparing  the  packages  for  the 
march,  consisting  of  thirteen  days'  provision  of  pemican,  cooking 
utensils,  bedding,  snow-shoes,  astronomical  instruments,  books, 
ammunition,  fowling-pieces,  portable  boat,  nets,  lines,  and  a  parcel 
of  dried  plants.  These  were  distributed  by  lot,  each  load  beinpf 
calculated  to  weigh  about  sixty  or  seventy  pounds.  Mr.  Rae 
voluntarily  resolved  to  transport  a  package  nearly  equal  to  the 
men's  in  weight ;  but,  distrusting  my  own  powers  of  march,  I 
made  no  attempt  at  carrying  such  a  load,  as  I  had  done  on  a 
former  voyage,  and  restricted  myself  to  a  fowling-piece,  ammuni- 
tion, a  few  books,  and  other  things  which  I  thrust  into  my  pock- 
ets. Six  pieces  of  pemican  were  buried  under  a  limestone  dill", 
together  with  a  boat's  magazine  full  of  powder.  The  tents  were 
left  standing  near  the  boats,  and  a  few  cooking  utensils  and  hatch- 
ets deposited  in  them  for  the  use  of  the  Eskimos. 

After  an  early  breakfast  on  the  morning  of  Sunday,  the  3d  of 
September,  we  read  prayers,  and  then  set  out  at  six  o'clock.  At 
first  we  pursued  a  straight  course  for  the  bottom  of  Back's  Inlet, 
distant  about  twelve  geographical  miles  ;  but  finding  that  we 
were  led  over  the  shoulder  of  a  range  of  hills  on  which  the  snow 
was  deep,  we  held  more  to  the  eastward,  through  an  uneven 
swampy  country,  where  we  saw  many  deer  feeding ;  but  innde 
no  attempt  to  pursue  them. 

The  men,  with  a  few  exceptions,  walked  badly,  particularly  the 
two  senior  seamen,  and  after  we  had  gone  a  few  miles,  were  glad 
to  lighter  their  loads  by  leaving  their  carbines  behind.     At  half- 


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186 


<R«)SS   RAE   niVLR. 


past  throe  we  readied  thu  iiilut,  about  aawu  ruiles  from  the  pitch 
of  Cape  Kendall,  and  halted  for  the  nighi  unde^  a  chfi'of  basalt 
two  hundred  i'eet  high.  The  inlet  and  the  sea  in  the  offing  were 
full  of  ice,  and  the  weather  continued  cold  ;  but  some  scraps  of 
drift-wood,  chiefly  willows,  being  found  on  the  beach,  we  man- 
aged to  cook  supper ;  and,  selecting  the  best  sleeping  places  wo 
could  find  among  the  blocks  of  basalt,  passed  a  pretty  comfortable 
night. 

We  started  a  quarter  before  six  on  the  motuing  of  the  4th,  to 
walk  round  the  inlet ;  and  Frazer  having  sprained  his  knee  on 
the  preceding  day,  we  were  constrained  to  lighten  his  load  by 
leaving  a  largo  hatchet,  and  distributing  a  portion  of  his  pemican 
among  the  others.     Our  course  alon^  the  inlet  was  south  74^ 
west  for  four  miles  and  a  half,  when  we  perceived  ten  Eskimo 
tents  on  the  opposite  shore.     Mr.  Rae  and  Albert  went  ahead  of 
the  men,  who  were  straggling  very  slowly  along ;  and  on  coming 
opposite  to  the  tents,  and  shouting,  three  Eskimos  crossed  the  in- 
let in  their  kaiyaks,  and  cordially  consented  to  ferry  the  whole 
party  over.     This  small  tribe  have  no  "  umiaks ;"  and,  as  the 
kaiyaks  carry  only  one  person,  some  contrivance  was  requisite  to 
render  them  available  as  ferry-boats.     Our  friends  had  already 
learned  how  to  effect  this  from  their  intercourse  with  Mr.  Simp- 
son and  his  party  in  1838,  viz.,  by  placing  two  poles  across  a  pair 
of  kaiyaks,  and  lashing  them  firmly  together.    In  this  way  a  sin 
gle  paddler  could  take  over  a  sitter  and  his  bundle.    Four  kaiyaks, 
being  all  they  could  muster,  were  brought  into  requisition,  by 
v/hich,  with  the  addition  of  Lieutenant  Halkott's  portable  boat, 
three  men  with  their  loads  could  be  ferried  over  at  each  trip.    At 
the  place  whore  we  crossed,  the  inlet  had  contracted   to  the 
breadth  of  four  hundred  yards  ;  and  is  there,  in  fact,  a  river, 
since  its  water  is  fresh.     The  whole  party  was  landed  on  the 
southern  shore  by  eleven  o'clock.     On  the  river  I  bestowed  the 
name  of  my  active,  zealous,  and  intelligent  companion  Mr.  Rae, 
as  a  testimony  of  my  hij^'h  sense  of  his  merits  and  exertions,  which 
had  been  called  forth  to  the  uttermost  in  our  late  endeavors  to  push 
on  through  the  ice.     It  was  mainly  through  his  skill  and  perse- 
verance that  we  had  been  enabled  to  travel  as  far  as  we  did  by 
sea,  and  thus  shorten  the  land  journey  ;  which,  with  an  increased 
distance,  and,  conseqently,  proportionably  augmented  loads,  would 
have   been  a  very  arduous  undertaking  indeed  to  some  of  our 


RAE   RIVRR. 


197 


party.  We  considered  ourselves  as  very  fortunate  in  obtaining 
the  assistance  of  a  friendly  party  of  Eskimos  at  this  plucu,  on 
learning  from  them  that  the  river  kept  its  width,  and  wus  n^t 
iordable  for  a  long  way  up  the  country.  Mr.  llae,  in  the  suc- 
ceeding spring,  ascended  it  ibr  twenty  miles,  and  ascertained  that 
it  flowed  directly  from  the  west,  and  was  about  the  size  of  the 
Dease,  or  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  yards  wide.  Its  bed  i:i 
limestone  ;  and  a  range  of  basaltic  clills,  varying  from  fifty  to  two 
hundred  feet  in  height,  skirts  its  northern  bank.  These  cliffs  arc 
a  continuation  of  the  magnificent  precipices,  which,  commencing 
at  Cape  Kendall,  rise  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  miles  on  the 
north  shore  of  Back's  Inlet,  their  faces  being  to  the  southward, 
and  their  line  of  direction  or  strike  nearly  due  east  and  west.  At 
Cape  Kendall  the  basalt  is  obscurely  columnar,  and  rests  on  a 
bed  of  compact  felspar,  containing  minute  grains  of  a  green  min- 
eral. At  a  cascade  in  Pae  River,  ten  miles  above  its  mouth, 
walls  from  eight  to  tv  y  feet  high,  of  bluish-gray  quartz  rocks 
in  thin  layers,  hem  in  the  stream.  Salmon  and  other  fish  ascend 
a  shelving  shoot  of  the  cascade.  At  this  place  Mr.  Rae  discov- 
ered, among  the  limestone  and  quartz  rock,  layers  of  asparagus- 
stone,  or  apatite  (phosphate  of  lime),  thin  beds  of  soap-stone,  and 
some  nephrite,  or  jade — a  group  of  minerals  which  belongs  to 
primitive  formations  ;  and  from  the  similarity  of  the  various  rocks 
associated  in  this  quarter  to  those  occurring  at  Pigeon  River,  and 
other  parts  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  I  am  inclined  to 
consider  that  the  two  deposits  belong  to  the  same  geological  era, 
both  being  more  ancient  than  the  silurian  series.  Neither  Mr. 
Rae  nor  I  discovered  any  organic  remains  in  the  limestone. 

Among  the  Eskimos  here  encamped,  we  recognized  two  men- 
tioned by  Mr.  Simpson,  one  having  a  wen  on  his  ibrehead,  and 
the  other  being  a  very  old  man  who  walked  on  crutches.  The 
kind  treatment  and  presents  they  received  from  Messrs.  Deaso 
and  Simpson  had  impressed  them  with  a  favorable  opinion  of  the 
dispositions  of  white  men,  and  doubtless  was  the  cause  of  their 
readiness  to  come  to  our  assistance,  and  to  put  themselves  and 
their  families  so  completely  in  our  power.  Our  men  bought  seal- 
skin boots  from  them,  which  proved  very  useful ;  and  we  paid 
th'^  man  with  the  wen,  who  was  the  leader,  for  his  services  in 
(errying  us  over,  with  two  hatchets,  which  were  of  great  value 
to  him.     I  had  cautioned  every  one  agamst  ofiering  this  harm- 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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Sciences 

Corporalion 


33  WIST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  MSSO 

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188 


ESKIMO   WOMEN. 


leas,  good-natured  people  any  ofiense ;  and  I  must  give  our  men 
the  credit  of  having  strictly  adhered  to  the  orders  they  received. 
I  believe  I  was  the  only  one  who  entered  any  of  rtheir  huts ;  and 
I  did  so  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  some  needles  and  other  ar- 
ticles to  the  women,  and  obtaining  a  glimpse  of  their  menage. 
In  one  tent  six  or  seven  women  were  seated  in  a  circle  sewing. 
They  were  nearly  naked,  very  dirty,  hung  their  heada  down,  and 
seemed  to  be  much  afraid.  As  the  females  we  met  on  the  coast, 
who  showed  neither  fear  nor  shamefacedness,  were  generally 
clean,  I  believe  that  the  apprehensions  of  these  poor  women  had 
caused  them  to  rub  ashes  or  mud  on  their  faces  and  persons. 
They  received  my  presents,  but  seemed  to  be  relieved  when  T 
took  my  leave.  Before  we  quitted  the  encampment,  several 
younger  men  joined  from  the  northern  shore  of  the  inlet ;  and 
we  learnt  that  we  had  interrupted  their  day's  occupation  in  kill- 
ing reindeer.  The  more  active  among  them  go  at  this  season 
to  the  meadows  which  v/e  had  crossed  on  the  previous  day,  and 
gradually  drive  the  animals  to  the  inlet,  hemming  them  in,  and 
compelling  them,  with  the  aid  of  their  dogs,  to  take  the  water. 
As  soon  as  this  takes  place,  the  rest  of  the  party,  who  are  lying 
in  wait  in  their  kaiyaks,  paddle  toward  the  herd,  and  spear 
as  many  of  them  as  they  can.  A  considerable  quantity  of  deer's 
meat  was  hanging  to  dry  on  stages  ;  and  we  purchased  a  little 
of  it  for  our  evening  meal.  - 

These  people  told  us,  as  I  have  mentioned  already,  that  the 
ice  had  parted  from  the  shore  only  a  very  short  time  this  season, 
which,  they  added,  was  almost  unprecedented  within  their  rec- 
ollection. Their  migrations  extend  only  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
Coppermine  River  on  one  side,  and  a.  short  way  along  the  coast 
on  the  other.  They  communicate  occasionally  with  the  Eskimos 
of  Wollaston  Land,  but  none  of  them  had  been  so  far  to  the  west- 
ward as  the  sources  of  Rae's  River.  The  want  of  umiaks  was 
a  sufficient  indication  of  the  shortness  of  their  migrations  sea- 
ward. 

Our  friend  with  the  wen  accompanied  us  three  or  four  miles 
on  our  journey,  to  show  us  a  ford  across  Richardson's  River ; 
but  the  number  of  questions  he  put  to  Albert  respecting  the 
boats,  showed  that  his  thoughts  were  directed  to  the  treasures  he 
expected  to  find  in  them  ;  and  at  length  he  turned  back,  after 
pointincr  out  the  direction  in  which  we  ought  to  go.     Albert  had 


RANGES   OF  CLIFFS.— RICHARDSON'S  RIVER. 


189 


been  told  not  to  mention  the  place  where  the  boats  were  left ;  but 
the  Eskimos  could  without  the  slightest  difficulty  trace  up  the 
foot-marks  of  so  large  a  party  as  ours  ;  and  I  believe  that  by 
the  evening,  or  early  next  day,  most  of  the  party  were  assembled 
in  our  deserted  tents. 

We  arrived  on  the  banks  of  Richardson's  River  about  three 
o'clock,  but  failed  in  finding  a  ford ;  and,  the  walking  being  bad, 
some  of  the  men  lagged  far  behind,  which  induced  us  to  encamp 
early.  Richardson's  River,  as  well  as  Rae's,  is  flanked  by  lofty 
precipices  of  basalt,  which,  coming  successively  into  view,  produce 
striking  vistas  in  a  bleak  and  otherwise  uninteresting  country. 
From  the  summit  of  one  of  these  eminences  near  our  encamp- 
ment I  obtained  a  wide  view  of  the  land,  and  saw  a  line  of  cliffs 
running  along  the  Rae  from  Cape  Kendall  ;  another  rank  marks 
out  the  course  of  the  Richardson,  from  Point  Mackenzie*  up  to 
the  junction  of  its  two  branches,  where  the  cliffs  also  fork  off  at 
an  acute  angle,  a  series  of  them  skirting  the  valley  of  each  branch. 
A  range  of  clifis,  but  of  a  less  imposing  character,  forms  the 
western  boundary  of  the  valley  of  the  Coppermine,  separating  it 
from  that  of  the  Richardson.  All  these  rows  of  precipices  face 
toward  the  south-southeast,  or  isast-southeast,  and  radiate  between 
west  and  south-southwest  from  a  point  in  Coronation  Gulf,  at 
which  they  would  meet  if  prolonged.  The  western  boundary  of 
the  granite  formation  appears  in  the  islands  of  that  gulf,  associ- 
ated with  many  trap  rocks ;  in  the  form  of  lofty  hills  at  Cape 
Barrow  ;  again  at  the  bend  of  the  Coppermine,  on  the  south  side 
of  Kendall's  River  ;  on  the  northeast  and  eastern  arms  of  Great 
Bear  Lake  ;  on  Point  Lake  ;  in  country  round  Fort  Enterprise  ; 
and  from  thence  to  Fort  Providence  and  across  Great  Slave  Lake 
to  the  mouth  of  Slave  River,  and  so  onward  to  Athabasca. 

Richardson's  River  was  discovered  in  1 822  by  some  hunters  of 
Sir  John  Franklin's  party,  and,  on  their  report,  it  received  its 
present  name  from  that  officer ;  but  its  outlet  was  erroneously 
supposed  to  be  only  four  or  five  miles  to  the  west  of  the  Copper- 
mine. In  1826,  I  ascertained  that  its  supposed  moi|th  was  only 
a  shallow  bay  ;  and,  in  1838-9,  Mr.  Simpson  examined  the  river, 
and  proved  that  it  falls  into  Back's  Inlet ;  on  which  occasion  he 
confirmed  the  appellation  which  Sir  John  Franklin  had  given  it. 

*  At  this  point  the  basalt  is  superimposed  on  a  dark  bluish-gray  crys- 
1. 1  nine  limoslone. 


190 


COPPERMINE   RIVER. 


I 


Its  junction  with  the  inlet  was  ascertained  by  Mr.  Simpson  to  be 
in  lat.  67°  63'  57"  N.,  long.  115°  56'  W. 

Commencing  the  day's  journey  at  six  in  the  morning  of  the 
5th,  we  crossed,  about  an  hour  afterward,  a  small  tributary  of 
the  Richardson  ;  and  at  nine,  having  then  walked  about  four 
miles  and  a  half  from  our  sleeping  place  without  discovering  a 
ford,  we  determined  on  crossing  in  Lieutenant  Halkett's  boat, 
though,  as  it  could  carry  no  more  than  two  men  at  a  time,  the 
operation  was  likely  to  be  tedious.  Some  tall  willows  (seven  or 
eight  feet  high),  growing  on  the  muddy  banks  of  the  river,  afforded 
us  the  means  of  making  a  fire  and  preparing  breakfast.  In  the 
mean  time,  all  the  net  lines,  spare  lines,  and  carrying  slings  were 
united  to  form  a  hawser,  wherewith  we  might  draw  the  boat 
backward  and  forward.  Mr.  Rae  and  Albert  crossed  first ;  and, 
owing  to  the  man  to  whom  the  paddles  had  been  assigned  as  part 
of  his  load  having  left  them  behind,  they  had  no  other  instruments 
for  propelling  the  boat  than  two  tin  dinner-plates.  They  succeed- 
ed, however,  in  crossing,  though  their  hands  were  much  chilled 
by  the  ice-cold  water ;  and  subsequently  the  whole  party  wero 
drawn  across.  The  width  of  the  stream,  by  measuring  half  the 
Une,  was  ascertained  to  be  one  hundred  and  forty  yards. 

At  one  o'clock  all  had  crossed  ;  and,  the  bundles  being  again 
duly  arranged,  we  resumed  the  march,  and  in  a  short  time  gained 
the  summit  of  the  ridge  dividing  the  valley  of  the  Richardson 
from  that  of  the  Coppermine.  The  latter  was  clothed  with  snow, 
the  climate  being  seemingly  more  severe,  though  the  distance  be- 
tween the  streams  is  so  small.  The  plain  which  lay  at  our  feet, 
between  the  ridge  and  the  Coppermine,  is  so  much  intersected  by 
small  lakes,  that  we  chose  the  driest  line  of  march,  rather  than 
the  most  direct,  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  fording  the  lakes,  or 
losing  ground  by  rounding  them.  At  three  o'clock  we  reached 
the  banks  of  the  river,  three  or  four  miles  above  Bloody  Fall ; 
and,  having  found  a  sufficiency  of  wood,  made  a  good  fire,  which 
of  late  had  been  a  very  rare  luxury.  Many  deer,  Hutchin's  and 
snow  geese  were  seen ;  and  Mr.  Rae  having  killed  nine  or  ten  of 
the  latter,  we  enjoyed  an  excellent  supper. 

The  country  within  the  influence  of  the  sea-breezes  which  come 
from  the  icy  surface  of  Coronation  Gulf,  has  the  barren  aspect 
and  poor  climate  of  the  tundras  of  the  Siberian  arctic  region. 
The  moister  tracts,  where  the  soil  is  clayey,  retain  so  much  ice- 


Ife 


VEGETATION.      ^,EE.-E. 


Jdl 


cold  water  in  the  short  summer,  that  a  sparing  vegetation  exists 
only  in  the  hassocks,  which  bear,  among  the  Chepewyan  tribes, 
the  name  of  "  women's  heads,"  and  render  the  footing  of  pedestrians 
insecure  and  dangerous.     "  You  may  kick  them,"  say  the  ungal- 
lant  Indians,  "but  they  cause  you  to  stumble  and  never  go  out  of 
the  way."      In  the  drier,  sandy,  and  gravelly  spots,  which  are 
more  common  among  the  primitive  rocks,  the  ground  is  covered 
with  the  lichens  on  which  the  musk  oxen  and  reindeer  feed.    Of 
these  the  carniculariee  and  cetrariee  are  the  most  important;  and 
they  are  most  prized  by  the  animals  when  the  melting  snow  in 
spring  renders  them  soft  and  tender.     As  the  season  advances, 
the  grasses  and  bents  which  flourish  in  sheltered  valleys  furnish 
the  chief  food  of  the  herbivorous  animals ;  and,  when  the  snows 
fall,  the  reindeer  retreat  southward  to  the  woody  districts,  into 
which  they  penetrate  deeper  in  severe  weather,  and  in  the  milder 
intervals  return  to  the  barren  grounds  to  scrape  the  hay  from  be- 
neath the  snow.     The  suddenness  of  the  winter  in  these  high  lat- 
itudes serves  the  important  purpose  of  arresting  the  juices  of  the 
grasses  and  freezing  them,  so  that  until  late  in  spring  they  retain 
their  seeds  and  nutritive  qualities  without  withering.     It  has  the 
same  effect  on  the  berry-bearing  plants.     The  crow-berry  {Em- 
petrum  nigrum),  bleaberry  ( Vaccinium  uliginosum),  and  cran- 
berry ( Vaccinium  vitis  idea),  which  grow  in  profusion  among 
the  lichens  of  the  arctic  wastes,  not  only  furnish  fruits  for  the 
bears  and  geese  in  antumn,  but  retain  them  in  perfection  until 
the  ground  begins  to  dry  up  under  the  influence  of  the  hot  sum- 
mer suns,  and  the  new  flowers  are  expanding.     In  the  month  of 
September  the  snow-geese  (Anser  hyperboreus),  and  Hutchin's 
geese  {Anser  Hutchinsii),  feed  much  on  the  crow-berries,  whicli 
render  them  fat  and  well-flavored.     The  flrst-named  geese  breed 
in  Wollaston  Land,  to  which  they  cross  in  the  beginning  of  June. 
We  had  noticed,  ^    lile  on  the  coast  of  Dolphin  and  Union  Straits, 
the  earliest  bands  traveling  southward  again  in  the  middle  of 
August,  so  that  their  stay  in  their  native  place  falls  short  of  threo 
months.     The  Hutchin's  geese  and  brent  geese  breed  on  the  coasts 
of  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  the  laughing  geese  {Anas  albifrons)  resort 
to  the  country  north  of  the  Yukon,  beyond  the  Arctic  circle.    The 
Canada  geese,  or  "  bustards"  of  the  Canadians  {les  outardea), 
breed  throughout  the  woody  districts,  but  do  not  reach  the  vicini- 
ty of  the  Arctic  Sea,  except  on  the  banks  of  some  of  the  large 


I 


I  Kt.l 


ill 


'i 

I 


I 


!    I 


192 


NARROW   LAKES.-CLUMP  OF  TREES. 


•if- 


I'i'l 


i. 


rivers.  The  most  northern  localities  in  which  we  observed  them 
were  the  channels  between  the  alluvial  islands  wnich  form  the 
delta  of  the  Mackenzie.  '•  -«. 

On  the  6th  we  had  clear  weather  with  a  hard  frost,  and  gladly 
welcomed  the  face  of  the  sun,  which  had  been  a  stranger  to  us 
for  more  than  a  fortnight.  The  swamps  being  frozen  over  so  as 
to  support  a  man's  weight,  the  party  generally  walked  more  brisk- 
ly than  usual ;  but  three  of  the  seamen  and  two  of  the  sappers 
and  miners  were  so  lame,  that  we  were  obliged  to  make  long  and 
i'requent  halts  to  allow  them  to  close  in,  and  were  unable  to  ac- 
complish two  geographical  miles  in  the  hour.  To  spare  their 
strength,  we  encamped  at  the  early  hour  of  2  p.m.,  having  marched 
about  ten  miles  and  a  half.  Deer,  geese,  and  ptarmigan,  were 
seen  in  abundance  during  the  day.  In  the  evening  the  weather 
became  cold,  with  rain,  snow,  and  hail. 

On  the  7th  our  morning's  march  was  performed  in  a  snow 
storm,  with  a  chilly  northerly  wind.  About  lour  miles  from  last 
night's  sleeping-place,  we  came  to  a  chain  of  narrow  lakes,  lying 
parallel  to  the  river,  and  emptying  themselves  into  it  by  a  small 
stream  which  issues  from  their  northern  extremity.  They  are 
three  miles  in  length,  and  lie  about  a  mile  from  the  river.  We 
afterward  forded  two  rapid  torrents  full  of  large  greenstone  boul- 
ders. One  of  them  flows  through  a  narrow  chasm  in  friable  dark- 
red  sandstone,  and  the  other  is  bounded  by  cliffs  of  red  quartz 
rock,  or  perhaps  of  trap,  but  I  could  not  approach  them  near 
enough  for  examination.  The  discomfort  of  the  march  was  great- 
ly augmented  by  the  freezing  of  our  clothes,  wet  in  crossing  the 
streams,  and  we  gladly  encamped,  at  two  o'clock,  on  coming  to 
a  clump  of  stunted  white  spruce  trees,  where  we  arranged  a  com- 
fortable bivouac,  by  placing  small  branches  between  the  frozen 
ground  and  our  blankets.  In  the  existence  of  many  scattered 
stumps  of  decayed  spruce  fir  trees,  and  the  total  absence  of  young 
plants,  one  might  be  led  to  infer,  that  of  late  years  the  climate 
had  deteriorated,  and  that  the  country  was  no  longer  capable  of 
supporting  trees  so  near  the  sea-coast  as  it  had  formerly  done. 
Many  plants  of  different  species  of  Pyrohi  grow  on  the  sea-shore ; 
and  as  these  are  most  abundant  in  forest  lands,  it  is  possible  that 
they  may  be  the  memorials  of  ancient  woods.  The  largest  tree 
in  the  clump  in  which  we  bivouacked  had  a  circumference  of 
thirty-seven  inches  at  the  height  of  four  feet  from  the  ground. 


MUSK  OXEN. 


iS)3 


Its  annual  layers  were  very  numerous  and  fine,  and  indicated 
centuries  of  growth,  but  I  was  unable  to  reckon  them.  This 
place  lies  in  lat.  67  ="  22'  N. 

The  evening  proving  fine,  Mr.  Rae  and  Albert  went  out  to 
hunt,  and  both  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  musk-ox,  for  the 
first  time  in  their  lives.  The  uming-mak  is  known  by  name  and 
reputation  to  all  the  Eskimo  tribes ;  but  as  it  does  not  exist  in 
Greenland,  or  Labrador,  nor  in  the  chain  of  islands  extending 
north  from  tha*  peninsula  along  the  west  side  of  Davis  Straits, 
Albert,  who  was  a  native  of  East  Main,  now  for  the  first  time 
approached  its  haunts.  Mr.  Rae,  with  the  feelings  of  an  ardent 
sportsman,  had  longed  to  encounter  so  redoubtable  an  animal ; 
and  the  following  is  an  account  of  the  meeting  : 

On  perceiving  a  herd  of  cows,  under  the  presidency  of  an  old 
bull,  grazing  quietly  at  the  distance  of  a  lew  miles  from  our 
bivouac,  he  and  Albert  crept  toward  them  from  to  leeward  ;  but 
the  plain  containing  neither  rock  nor  tree  behind  which  they  could 
shelter  themselves,  they  were  perceived  by  the  bull  before  they 
could  get  within  gun-shot.  The  shaggy  patriarch  advanced  before 
the  cows,  which  threw  themselves  into  a  circular  group,  and, 
lowering  his  shot-proof  forehead  so  as  to  cover  his  body,  came  slowly 
forward,  stamping  and  pawing  the  ground  with  his  fore-feet,  bel- 
lowing, and  showing  an  evident  disposition  for  fight,  while  he 
tainted  the  atmosphere  with  the  strong  musky  odor  of  his  body. 
Neither  of  the  sportsmen  were  inclined  to  irritate  their  bold  and 
formidable  opponent  by  firing,  as  long  as  he  offered  no  vital  part 
to  their  aim  ;  but,  having  screwed  the  bayonets  to  their  fowling, 
pieces,  they  advanced  warily,  relying  on  each  other  for  support. 
The  cows,  in  the  mean  time,  beat  a  retreat,  and  the  bull  soon 
afterward  turned  ;  on  which  Mr.  Rae  fired,  and  hit  him  in  the 
hind  quarters.  He  instantly  faced  about,  roared,  struck  the 
ground  forcibly  with  his  fore-feet,  and  seemed  to  be  hesitating 
whether  to  charge  or  not.  Our  sportsmen  drew  themselves  up 
for  the  expected  shock,  and  were  by  no  means  sorry  when  he 
again  wheeled  round,  and  was,  in  a  few  seconds,  seen  climbing  a 
steep  and  snow-clad  mountain  side,  in  the  rear  of  his  musky  kine. 

These  animals  inhabit  the  hilly,  barren  grounds,  between  the 
Welcome  and  the  Copper  Mountains,  from  the  sixty-third  or  six- 
ty-lburth  parallels  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  northward  to  Parry's 
Islands,  or  as  far  as  European  research  has  yet  extended.     They 

T 


hi 


tn 

I 


-i     L>i 


194 


MUSK-OXEN. 


travel  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  pasture,  but  do  not  pene- 
trate deep  into  the  wooded  districts,  and  are  able  to  procure  food 
in  winter  on  the  steep  sides  of  hills  which  are  laid  bare  by  ihe 
winds,  and  up  which  they  climb  with  an  agility  which  their 
massive  aspect  would  lead  one  ignorant  of  their  habits  to  suppose 
them  to  be  totally  incapable  of  In  size  they  are  nearly  equal 
to  the  smallest  Highland  or  Orkney  kylocs  ;  but  they  are  more 
compactly  made,  and  the  shaggy  hair  of  their  flanks  almost  touches 
the  ground.  In  structure  they  difier  from  the  domestic  ox,  in  the 
shortness  and  strength  of  the  bones  of  the  neck,  and  length  of  the 
dorsal  processes  which  support  the  ponderous  head.  The  swell- 
ing bases  of  the  horns  spread  over  the  foreheads  of  both  sexes,  but 
are  most  largely  developed  in  the  old  males.  The  musk-ox  has 
also  the  peculiarity  in  the  bovine  tribe  of  the  want  of  a  tail ;  the 
caudal  vertebra),  only  six  in  number,  being  very  flat,  and  nearly 
as  short,  in  reference  to  the  pelvis,  as  in  the  human  species ;  the 
extreme  one  ending  evenly  with  the  tuberosities  of  the  ischium. 
A  tail  is  not  needed  by  this  animal,  as  in  its  elevated  summer 
haunts  musquitoes  and  other  winged  pests  are  comparatively  few, 
while  its  close,  woolly,  and  shaggy  hair  furnishes  its  body  with 
sufl[icient  protection  from  their  assaults.  The  fore-pasterns  are 
provided  on  their  outsidcs  with  a  slender  accessory  bone,  of  about 
half  their  length.  The  fossil  Irish  elk  and  musk-deer  have  also 
rudimentary  toes,  but  of  a  difibrent  form.  Though  I  have  not 
been  able  to  ascertain  that  the  range  of  the  species  was  ever 
greater  than  it  is  known  to  be  at  present,  I  have  read  somewhere 
of  a  skull  having  been  found  in  Greenland.  One  in  tolerable 
preservation,  but  defective  in  the  nose,  was  procured  by  Captain 
Beeehey,  from  that  very  curious  deposit  of  bones  in  the  frozen 
clifis  of  Eschscholtz  Bay  of  Beering's  Straits.  That  skull  is  now 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  and  a  perfect  skeleton  of  the 
recent  animal  exists  in  the  museum  at  Haslar  Hospital. 

Sept.  8th. — A  meridional  observation  was  obtained  to-day  in 
lat.  67°  17'  N.  We  crossed  a  projection  of  the  Copper  Mount- 
ains, to  cut  off*  a  considerable  bend  of  the  river ;  and,  at  four  in 
the  evening,  reached  its  banks  again,  and  encamped.  While 
among  the  hills  we  had  to  walk  in  snow  shoes,  with  much  fatigue ; 
but  in  the  afternoon  a  thaw  took  place  in  the  low  grounds,  under 
the  influence  of  a  warm  sun  ;  and  we  were  annoyed  by  sand-flies 
in  the  evening.     I  noticed  that  the  upper  branches  of  the  scrubby 


*%'' 


M 


i 


COPPER  ORES  AND  NATIVE  COPPBR. 


190 


ot  pcne- 
uro  food 
by  ihe 
!h  their 
suppose 
ly  equal 
re  more 
touches 
:,  in  the 
h  of  the 
e  awell- 
sxes,  but 
c-ox  has 
ail ;  the 

I  nearly 
ies ;  the 
ischium, 
summer 
rely  few, 
dy  with 
erns  are 
of  about 
lave  also 
lave  not 
vas  ever 
[iiewhere 
tolerable 
Captain 

le  frozen 

II  is  now 
n  of  the 

to-day  in 
:  Mount- 
,t  four  in 
While 
I  fatigue ; 
is,  under 
sand-flies 
J  scrubby 


spruce  firs,  among  which  we  encamped,  were  confined  to  their 
southeast  and  southern  aspects.  The  lower  branches,  as  usual 
in  such  exposed  situations,  lay  close  to  the  ground,  and  spread 
widely,  considering  the  small  height  of  the  tree. 

The  effect  of  the  last  two  or  three  days'  march  proved  to  me 
that  I  had  over-calculated  my  strength,  in  loading  and  clothing 
myself  too  heavily.  I  therefore  transferred  my  gun  and  part  of 
my  clothing  to  Dore,  an  active  young  seaman,  who  was  always 
at  the  head  of  the  line,  and  whose  load,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
others,  had  been  reduced  by  the  consumption  of  pemican.  Some 
of  the  worst  walkers  had  already  been  eased  of  every  thing  but 
their  blankets,  spare  clothing,  and  a  few  pounds  of  pemican,  but 
they  still  lagged  in  the  rear. 

In  this  neighborhood,  in  1826,  we  found  a  vein  containing 
malachite  and  other  ores  of  copper,  with  some  of  the  native  metal 
scattered  in  detached  pieces.  The  Indians  procure  the  metal  on 
both  sides  of  the  Coppermine,  in  a  district  which  requires  several 
days  to  traverse.  A  rolled  piece  of  chromate  of  iron  was  picked 
up  on  the  banks  of  the  river  by  Mr.  Eae.  This  mineral,  so 
valuable  on  account  of  the  beautiful  pigments  which  are  manu- 
factured from  it,  is  found,  according  to  Jameson,  in  primitive  por* 
phyry,  and  in  beds  between  clay-porphyry  and  wacke,  and  more 
abundantly  in  America  than  on  the  Old  Contment. 

The  9th  proved  to  be  another  fine  day.  Commencing  our 
march  a  little  before  six,  we  halted  at  noon  for  an  hour  and  a 
half,  and  encamped  at  five.  A  meridional  observation  gave  the 
lat.  67°  14'  32"  N.  In  the  afternoon  we  passed  the  boat  left  by 
Dease  and  Simpson  in  1839,  which  required  too  much  repair  to 
render  it  water-tight,  or  we  should  have  availed  ourselves  of  it 
for  the  remainder  of  the  river  course  we  had  to  folic  v ', 

Starting  at  the  usual  hour  on  the  10th,  we  struck  tii3  Kendall 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  its  junction  with  the  Coppermine, 
after  a  march,  of  five  hours  and  a  half  Mr.  Rae  went  down  to 
its  mouth  to  look  for  a  note  which  we  expected  to  find,  as  I  had 
directed  James  Hope,  with  two  or  three  Indians,  to  meet  mo 
there  ;  or,  if  he  arrived  earlier  than  us,  to  leave  a  memorandum 
and  descend  the  river  as  far  as  Bloody  Fall.  This  arrangement, 
which  was  made  in  anticipation  of  our  bringing  the  boats  up  the 
river,  was  my  chief  reason  for  making  the  circuit  of  the  Copper- 
mine ;  for  our  most  direct  course,  after  leaving  Back's  Inlet,  would 


196 


MAKE  A  RAFT-DENSE  FOO. 


liave  been  by  tracing  up  Richardson's  River,  and  crossing  the 
mountains  more  nearly  in  the  parallel  of  Fort  Confidence.  As 
we  had  discovered  no  foot-marks  of  the  party  on  our  march,  we 
concluded  that  they  had  not  arrived  ;  and  Mr.  Rae  confirmed  this 
opinion  by  his  report  of  the  absence  of  any  signal  mark  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Kendall.  From  specimens  of  the  rocks  obtained 
by  this  gentleman,  I  ascertained  that  the  walls  of  the  gorge  by 
which  the  stream  enters  the  Coppermine  are  composed  of  red 
quartz  rock  disposed  in  thin  layers.  The  mouth  of  the  Kendall 
is  laid  down  by  Mr.  Simpson  in  lat.  67°  1'  N.,  long,  1 1 6°  21'  W. ; 
and  a  meridional  observation  gave  67°  06'  43"  N.,  as  the  latitude 
of  the  place  where  we  fell  upon  the  stream. 

We  walked  for  nearly  three  miles  along  its  banks  to  look  for  a 
crossing-place ;  but,  finding  that  it  was  nowhere  fordable,  we  re- 
solved to  construct  a  raft,  as  there  was  a  sufficiency  of  dry  timber 
for  the  purpose.  We  therefore  encamped,  and  Mr.  Rae  super- 
intended the  operation  of  raft-making.  The  weather  being  mild 
we  were  again  troubled  with  sand-flies. 

Sept.  Wth. — During  a  fine  night  we  enjoyed  the  light  of  a 
full  moon  ;  but  toward  the  morning  the  wind  veered  to  the  north 
west,  and  a  moist,  chilling  fog  enveloped  us.  Our  raft  could 
support  three  at  a  time,  and  enabled  us  all  to  cross  by  seven 
o'clock.  A  fresh  arrangement  of  the  loads  was  made  here  ;  and, 
to  lighten  them  as  much  as  possible,  I  deposited  my  packet  of 
dried  plants  and  some  books  in  a  tree,  intending  to  send  for  them 
in  the  winter.  After  breaking  up  the  raft  to  recover  the  lines 
by  which  we  had  fastened  it,  we  piled  the  logs  up  on  the  bank 
to  attract  the  attention  of  Hope's  party,  should  we  happen  to 
miss  them. 

Our  course  was  shaped  directly  across  the  country  for  Dease's 
River ;  and  as  we  ascended  the  high  grounds  the  fog  became 
more  dense,  so  that  by  noon  we  could  not  see  beyond  two  or  three 
yards.  We  steered  by  the  compass,  Mr.  Rae  leading,  and  the 
rest  following  in  Indian  file.  I  kept  rather  in  the  rear  to  pick 
up  stragglers ;  but,  though  we  walked  at  a  much  brisker  pace 
than  usual,  there  was  little  loitering.  The  danger  of  losing  the 
party  made  the  worst  walkers  press  forward.  On  the  hills  the 
snow  covered  the  ground  thickly  ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  imagine 
any  thing  having  a  more  dreary  aspect  than  the  lakes  which 
frequently  barred  our  way.     We  did  not  see  them  until  we  came 


A  NIUHT  WITHOUT  FUEL. 


107 


r 


suddenly  to  the  brink  of  the  rocks  which  bounded  them,  and  the 
contrast  of  the  dark  surface  of  their  waters  with  the  unbroken 
snow  of  their  borders,  combined  with  the  loss  of  all  definite  out- 
line in  the  fog,  caused  them  to  resemble  hideous  pits  sinking  to 
an  unknown  depth.  The  country  over  which  wo  traveled  is 
composed  chiefly  of  granite  ;  and  after  walking  till  half-past  five 
without  perceiving  a  single  tree,  or  the  slightest  shelter,  we  came 
to  a  convex  rock,  from  which  the  snow  had  been  swept  by  the 
wind.  On  this  wo  resolved  to  spread  our  blankets,  as  it  was  just 
big  enough  to  accommodate  the  party.  There  being  no  fuel  of 
any  kind  on  the  spot,  we  went  supperless  to  bed.  Some  of  the 
party  had  no  rest,  and  we  heard  them  groaning  bitterly ;  but 
others,  among  whom  were  Mr.  Rae  and  I,  slept  well.  We 
learned  afterward  that  a  clump  of  wood  grew  within  a  mile  and 
a  half  of  our  bivouac  ;  but  even  had  we  been  apprised  of  its  ex- 
istence, we  could  scarcely  have  found  it  in  the  fog.  Several 
showers  of  snow  occurred  in  the  day,  and  some  fell  in  the  night. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  fog,  we  should  have  met  James  Hope 
and  two  Indians  this  day,  for  they  were  not  many  miles  distant 
in  the  morning ;  but,  notwithstanding  their  acquaintance  with 
the  country,  they  went  astray  in  the  thick  weather,  and  did  not 
reach  the  place  where  we  crossed  the  Kendall  till  the  second  day 
afterward.  Perceiving  then  by  the  remains  of  the  raft  that  we 
had  crossed,  they  traced  our  foot-marks,  and,  following  with  their 
utmost  speed,  reached  our  bivouac  on  the  rock  two  days  after  we 
left  it. 

Commencing  the  day's  march  at  half-past  four  in  the  morning 
of  the  12th,  we  came  to  a  tributary  of  the  Kendall  at  eight.  In 
fording  this,  the  water  came  up  to  our  waists,  and  we  were  all 
more  or  less  benumbed ;  but  a  few  trees  on  the  bank  furnished 
us  with  the  means  of  making  good  fires  ;  and  by  the  time  that 
we  had  finished  breakfast  we  were  comfortably  dry.  A  meridi- 
onal observation  gave  us  lat.  67°  09'  N. 

At  two  we  came  to  another  branch  of  the  Kendall,  which  runs 
through  a  ravine  of  red  and  spotted  sandstone,  under  whose  shel- 
ter there  grew  a  remarkably  fine  grove  of  white  spruces.  The 
best-grown  tree  measured  sixty-three  inches  in  circumference,  and 
did  not  taper  perceptibly  for  twenty  feet  from  its  root.  Its  total 
height  was  from  forty  to  fifty  feet.  Other  trees  of  equal  girth 
tapered  more,  and  one  decayed  trunk,  which  lay  on  the  ground, 


108 


IllHMAL   I.AKr.H.  -  INIMANH. 


looked  to  bo  considerably  tliiokor.  Wo  encamped  in  tbi»  snup 
])hice,  and  Mr.  line  and  Albert,  employing  the  evening  in  the 
chase,  killed  a  reindeer  and  sorne  snow  fjceso. 

Mr.  Jlae  endeavored  in  tho  winter  to  measure  the  height  of 
the  creek  on  which  we  encamped  this  nij^ht,  and  of  other  remark- 
able places  on  the  rente  between  (rreat  Hear  Lake  and  the  Cop- 
permine Uiv((r,  by  tho  aneroid  barometer  ;  but  that  instrument 
during  the  journeys  underwent  such  a  change,  that  no  reliance 
could  be  placed  on  its  indications,  when  they  were  compared  with 
those  of  the  barometer  at  Fort  Confidence.  TIkj  same  incon- 
venience, however,  did  not  materially  aflect  observations  mado 
on  it  at  short  intervals  of  time  ;  and  in  this  way  the  brow  of  the 
hill  to  tho  south  of  the  creek  was  ascertained  to  be  six  hundred 
and  seventy  leet  above  the  stream. 

Onward  from  tho  level  of  this  brow  tho  country  is  a  gently 
undulated  plain,  which  is  bounded  on  the  south  at  tho  distance 
of  a  few  miles  by  an  even  range  of  hills  two  or  three  hundred  feet 
high,  and  far  to  tho  north  by  tho  Coppermine  Hills,  which  Lieu- 
tenant Kendall  and  I  crossed  in  1820,  as  mentioned  in  tho  narra- 
tive of  Sir  John  Franklin's  second  overland  journey.  A  range 
of  lakes,  named  by  Mr.  Simpson  tho  Dismal  Lakes,  lies  between 
these  hills  and  our  lino  of  route.  They  are  skirted  by  broken 
belts  of  wood,  but  tho  rest  of  the  country  is  quite  naked,  tho  few 
dwarf  trees  that  exist  on  tho  plain  being  concealed  in  the  depres- 
sions of  tho  water-courses  of  the  small  rivulets. 

Tho  comlbrtable  supper  of  venison,  a  sound  night's  rest  in  an 
encampment  where  nothing  was  wanting,  and  the  lighter  loads, 
had  such  an  elicct  on  tho  spirits  of  the  party,  that  wo  mounted 
the  hill  above  the  ravine  on  the  morning  of  the  13th  with  un- 
usual alacrity,  and  kept  together  in  close  single  file.  Traveling 
in  this  way,  our  line,  as  it  undulated  over  the  gentle  swellings 
of  the  plain,  was  seen  from  afar,  and  we  were  discovered  very 
soon  after  emerging  from  the  ravine  by  a  party  of  Indians,  en- 
camped on  the  side  of  a  hill  about  six  miles  distant.  Happily 
for  these  people  they  knew  we  were  now  on  the  march,  and  ex- 
pected to  see  us  at  this  time ;  for  had  it  not  been  so  they  would 
have  fled  instantly  with  their  wonted  timidity,  and  most  probably 
have  left  every  thing  they  possessed  behind  them.  As  it  was, 
we  were  not  many  minutes  in  sight  before  they  signaled  their 
position  by  raising  a  column  of  smoke.     This  was  replied  to  by 


INDIANS. 


100 


U8  as  «oon  as  wo  could  Htriko  a  light  and  gather  u  iuw  haiuH'iilit 
ul'  moss ;  and  our  answer  was  itninudiutely  acknowludged  hy 
them  with  a  I'rcHh  column.  They  were  encamped  nearly  at  right 
angles  to  our  line  ol"  route  ;  but  1  thought  it  better  to  join  them 
lor  the  purpose  oi'  obtaining  intelligence,  and  we  accordingly 
Htruck  oil'  in  that  direction. 

Wo  reached  their  tents  a  little  belbre  noon,  time  enough  for 
us  to  make  a  meridional  observation,  by  which  we  ascertained 
that  the  latitude  was  07^  U'  liO"  N.,  and  the  sun's  bearing  at 
noon  S.  00^  E.  These  Indians  inibrrncd  us  that  James  Hope 
and  his  companions  had  been  with  them  five  days  previously, 
and  that  ho  hud  then  been  two  days  absent  from  the  fort. 

The  site  of  their  encampment  was  selected  for  the  command- 
ing  view  it  possessed  of  the  neighboring  country,  so  that  they 
could  mark  the  movements  of  the  herds  of  reindeer  and  musk- 
oxen  that  at  this  season  were  numerous.  Their  chase  was  suc- 
cessful, and  their  condition  and  that  of  their  dogs  showed  that 
they  were  reveling  in  abundance.  No  doubt  this  party  might 
now  have  laid  up  a  sufficiency  of  venison  to  feed  them,  with  due 
economy,  all  the  winter  ;  but  such  is  not  the  habit  of  the  nation. 
When  the  pressure  of  want  ceases  to  be  felt  their  exertions  flag, 
and  they  consider  it  useless  to  store  up  provision  which,  accord- 
ing to  their  custom,  is  at  the  mercy  of  every  idle  and  hungry 
person  of  the  tribe. 

They  gladly  sold  us  some  meat  for  ammunition,  and  would 
readily  have  parted  with  their  whole  stock  on  hand,  but  I  had 
no  desire  to  load  my  party  again.  We  agreed,  however,  with 
one  of  the  young  men  to  accompany  us  to  the  fort,  that  he  might 
lead  us  by  the  best  paths,  and  waited  for  an  hour  u.ull  he  had 
prepared  a  heavy  load  of  half-dried  meat,  to  carry  with  hira  as 
an  article  of  trade.  In  the  afternoon  our  way  lay  over  hills  of 
spotted  gray  sandstone,  sandy  shale  beds,  and  toward  the  evening 
over  knolls  of  gravel.  The  day's  journey  was  seventeen  geograph- 
ical miles. 

Our  march  on  the  14th  was  made  in  a  southwest  by  ivest 
direction,  and  was  short,  for  our  guide  complained  of  being  fa- 
tigued by  his  load.  We  relieved  him  of  a  part,  by  distributing 
about  forty  pounds  of  it  among  the  men  for  their  supper. 

The  country  we  crossed  in  the  course  of  the  day  is  composed 
of  sandstone,  with  gravel  banks,  and  undulates,  but  is  not  mount- 


I  ■ 


^i 


200 


FORT  CONFIDENCE. 


ainous.  Thin  groves  of  trees  occur  here  and  there,  especially  on 
the  borders  of  rivulets,  and  many  dwarfish  and  ancient  dead 
stumps  remain  on  the  sides  of  the  eminences.  The  soil  is  crack- 
ed, hummocky,  and  swampy,  and  affords  uneasy  footing  to  pedes- 
trians. I  found  much  comfort  by  walking  immediately  behind 
the  Indian,  that  I  might  avail  myself  of  his  quick  eye,  and  tread 
exactly  in  his  footsteps. 

We  set  out  early  on  the  15th,  that  we  might  reach  the  fort 
betimes.  We  lost,  however,  a  considerable  time,  while  the  guide 
went  in  pursuit  of  several  bands  of  deer  that  crossed  the  path. 
His  skill  in  hunting  was  indifferent,  and  he  had  no  success.  The 
morning  was  snowy.  Before  noon  we  forded  a  branch  of  the 
Dease,  and  at  two  o'clock  came  to  the  banks  of  that  river  at  the 
first  rapid.  Here  we  found  a  barge  moored  for  our  use,  and,  em- 
barking the  whole  party  in  it,  reached  the  house  at  4  p.m.  We 
were  happy  to  find  Mr.  Bell  and  his  people  well,  ard  the  build- 
ings much  further  advanced  than,  we  had  expected.  All  the 
houses  erected  by  Dease  and  Simpson  had  been  burnt  down,  ex- 
cept part  of  the  men's  dwelling.  Mr.  Bell  reached  the  site  on 
the  17th  of  August,  and  immediately  set  to  work.  Since  that 
time  he  had  built  an  ample  storehouse,  two  houses  for  tiie  men, 
and  a  dwelling-house  for  the  officers,  consisting  of  a  hall,  three 
sleeping  apartments,  and  store-closet.  This  building  was  roofed  in 
when  we  arrived,  but  the  flooring  and  ceiling  of  the  rooms  were 
not  yet  laid,  though  planks  had  been  sawn  for  that  purpose  ;  the 
kitchen  was  still  to  be  built,  and  tables,  chairs,  and  other  articles 
of  furniture,  to  be  made.  In  the  log  houses,  which  are  common- 
ly erected  in  this  country,  the  chimneys  are  massive  affairs  of 
tempered  clay  and  boulder  stones,  and  require  to  be  leisurely  con- 
structed. The  Canadians,  who  are  all  practiced  in  the  use  of 
the  ax,  soon  set  up  the  wood-work  ;  and  Brace,  the  guide,  who 
superintended  the  operations,  and  indeed  did  two  men's  work 
himself,  advanced  them  rapidly. 

Mr.  Bell  and  Mr.  Rae  quartered  themselves  with  Bruce  in 
the  store  room,  and  I  took  possession  of  my  sleeping  room,  which 
was  put  temporarily  in  order.  I  could  there  enjoy  the  luxury  of 
a  fire  while  I  was  preparing  dispatches  for  the  Admiralty  and 
writing  my  domestic  letters,  though  the  walls  not  being  as  yet 
clayed,  the  snow  drifted  in  between  every  log.  The  16th  of  Sep- 
tember was  employed  in  writing,  and  on  the  17th,  being  Sunday, 


WINTER  RESOURCES. 


201 


we  assembled  in  the  hall,  where  I  read  divine  service  and  re- 
turned thanks  to  the  Almighty  for  our  safety.  The  fishermen 
who  were  stationed  about  five  miles  from  the  house  came  in  on 
this  day,  so  that  the  whole  party  were  met  together.  The  Ca- 
nadians, though  Roman  Catholics,  were  present  on  the  occasion  ; 
and  most  of  them  regularly  attended  our  Sunday  services  in  the 
winter.  In  addition  to  the  party  from  the  coast,.  Mr.  Bell  had 
with  him  here  fourteen  men,  with  three  women  and  four  children  ; 
so  that  we  had  in  all  forty-two  souls  to  provide  for,  exclusive  of 
Indians  coming  casually  on  our  store. 

On  Monday  the  18th  of  September,  the  packet  of  letters  was 
placed  in  charge  of  Franqois  Chartier  and  Louis  La  Ronde,  who 
were  directed  to  carry  it  on  without  delay  to  Isle  k  la  Crosse,  where 
the  wife  of  the  latter  resided.  Henry  Smith,  Joseph  Plante,  and 
Henry  Wilson,  Canadians,  accompanied  them  for  the  purpose  of 
wintering  at  the  fishery  on  Big  Island,  Great  Slave  Lake  ;  and 
with  them  I  sent  the  following  men  of  the  English  party,  whose 
services  could  be  well  dispensed  with  at  our  winter  quarters  : 
Stairs,  Sully,  and  Clarke,  seamen;  Frazer,  Dall,  Dodd,  Suiter, 
Hobbs,  Ralph,  Geddes,  Webb,  Weddell,  and  Bugbee,  sappers  and 
miners.  Being  thus  relieved  from  the  maintenance  of  eighteen 
people,  the  resources  of  the  post  were  considered  equal  to  feeding 
the  remainder,  and  I  looked  forward  to  the  winter  without  anx- 
iety. 

Mr.  Bell  had  placed  two  fishermen,  by  my  desire,  at  the  west 
end  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  near  its  outlet,  to  be  ready  to  feed  my 
party,  had  I  found  it  necessary  to  return  up  the  Mackenzie.  I 
judged  it  prudent  to  continue  these  men  there,  not  only  as  their 
fishing  hut  would  be  a  convenient  station  for  parties  traveling  to 
and  fro,  between  Fort  Confidence  and  the  posts  on  the  Macken- 
zie, but  also  that  they  might  give  aid,  should  our  fisheries  near 
the  fort  fail. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

ON    THE    ESKIMOS    OR    INUIT. 

The  four  Aboriginal  Nations  seen  by  the  Expedition. — Eskimos. — Origin  of  the 
Name. — National  Name  Inu-it. — Great  extent  of  their  Country. — Personal  Ap- 
pearance.— Occupations. — Provident  of  the  Future. — Villages. — Seal  Hunt. — 
Snow-houses. — Wanderings  not  extensive. — Respect  for  Territorial  Rights. — 
Dexterous  Thieves.  —  Courage.  —  Traffic.  —  Compared  to  the  Phoenicians. — 
Skrellings. — Western  Trilies  pierce  the  Lips  and  Nose. — Female  Toilet. — Mim- 
ics.— Mode  of  defying  their  Enemies. — Dress. — Boats. — Kaiyaks. — Umiaks. — 
Dogs. — Religion. — Shamanism. — Susceptibility  of  Cultivation — Origin. — Lan- 
guage.— Western  Tribes  of  the  Eskimo  Stock. — Tchugatchih. — Kuskutchewak. 
— A  Kashim  or  Council  House. — Feasts. — Quarrels. — Wars. — Customs. — Mam- 
moth's Tusks. — National  Names. — NamoUos  or  Sedentary  Tchuchke — Rein- 
deer Tchukche. — Their  Herds. — Commerce. — Shamanism. — Of  the  Mongolian 
Stock. 

To  keep  the  interruptions  of  the  narrative  within  reasonable 
limits,  I  have  hitherto  avoided  saying  much  of  the  native  tribes 
that  occupy  the  countries  through  which  the  Exnedition  traveled, 
and  shall  here  supply  that  deficiency  by  giving  some  details  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  four  nations  whose  boundaries  we 
crossed  in  succession. 

Reversing  the  order  of  our  journey,  the  first  of  the  native  na- 
tions that  presents  itself  in  descending  from  the  north,  is  that  of 
the  Eskimos,  as  Europeans  term  them.  This  appellation  is  prob- 
ably of  Canadian  origin,  and  the  word,  which  in  French  orthog- 
raphy is  written  Esquimaux,  was,  probably,  originally  Ceux  qui 
miaux  (miaulent),  and  was  expressive  of  the  shouts  of  Tey-mo, 
proceeding  from  the  fleets  of  kaiyaks,  that  surround  a  trading- 
vessel  in  the  Straits  of  Hudson,  or  coasts  of  Labrador.  The  sail- 
ors of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  ships,  and  the  Orkney  men 
in  the  employment  of  the  Company,  still  call  them  Suckemds  or 
Sei/mds.  Some  writers,  however,  have  thought  the  word  to  be  a 
corruption  of  the  Abenaki  term  JEskimantik,  signifying  "  eaters 
of  raw  flesh,"  which  is  certainly  a  habit  peculiar  to  the  Eskimos. 
But  be  the  origin  of  the  name  what  it  may,  it  certainly  does  not 
belong  to  the  language  of  the  nation,  who  invariably  call  them- 
selves Inu-it  (pronounced  Ee-noo-eet),  or  "  the  people,"  from  i-nuk 
"  a  man,"  though  families  or  tribes  have,  in  addition,  local  desig- 
nations. 


CHEAT  EXTENT  OF  THE  COUNTRY  OF  THE  ESKIMO-?. 


20;* 


The  Eskimos  ofler  an  interesting  study  to  the  ethnoU^gist,  on 
account  of  the  very  great  linear  extent  of  their  country — of  their 
being  the  only  uncivilized  people  who  inhabit  both  the  old  and 
new  continents — and  of  their  seclusion  to  the  north  of  all  other 
American  nations,  with  whom  they  have  a  very  limited  inter- 
course ;  so  that  their  language  and  customs  are  preserved  more 
than  any  other  from  innovations. 

They  are  truly  a  littoral  people,  neither  wandering  inland,  nor 
crossing  wide  seas  ;  yet  the  extent  of  coast-line  which  they  exclu- 
sively possess  is  surprising.  Commencing  at  the  Straits  of  Bell- 
isle,  they  occupy  the  entire  coast  of  the  Peninsula  of  Labrador, 
down  to  East  Main  in  Hudson's  Bay ;  also,  both  sides  of  Green- 
land, as  far  north  as  they  have  been  examined  ;  and  they  also  in- 
habit the  islands  which  lie  between  that  land  and  the  continent, 
and  bound  Baffin's  Bay  and  Davis's  Straits  on  the  west.  On  the 
main  shore  of  America,  they  extend  from  Churchill,  through  the 
Welcome,  to  Fury  and  Hecla  Straits ;  thence  along  the  north 
shore  to  Beering's  Straits,  which  they  pass,  and  follow  the  west- 
ern coast,  by  Cook's  Sound  and  Tchugatz  Bay,  nearly  to  Mount 
St.  Elias ;  members  of  the  nation  have  also  possessed  themselves 
of  the  Andreanowsky  Islands,  Unalashka,  and  Kadiak.  They 
even  cross  the  Straits  of  Beering,  a  part  of  the  nation  dwelling 
on  the  Asiatic  coast,  between  the  Anadyr  and  Tchukotsky  Noss, 
where  they  are  known  to  the  Russians  by  the  names  of  Namollos 
or  Sedentarij  Tchukche.  Outside  of  Beering's  Straits,  on  the 
North  Pacific,  their  language  and  customs  have  undergone  con- 
siderable changes,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  notice ;  but  else- 
where there  is  no  substantial  variation  in  either ;  the  modes  of  life 
being  uniform  throughout,  and  the  difierences  of  speech  among 
the  several  tribes  not  exceeding  in  amount  the  provincialisms  of 
English  counties. 

The  Greenlanders  have  been  known  to  Europeans  longer  than 
any  of  the  other  North  American  nations,  and  full  accounts  of 
their  manners  and  customs  have  been  given  to  the  world  long 
ago.  All  the  recent  voyages  in  search  of  a  northwest  passage, 
also,  contain  characteristic  portraits  and  descriptions  of  the  Eski- 
mos that  reside  on  the  west  side  of  Davis's  Straits  and  Melville 
peninsula.  I  shall  not,  therefore,  attempt  a  systematic  account 
of  the  nation,  but  shall  confine  myself  chiefly  to  what  fell  under 
my  personal  notice  in  the  central  parts  of  the  northern  coast-line, 


I 


904 


I'ERSONAL   APPEARANCE. 


where  the  Eskimos,  I'rom  their  position,  have  little  or  no  inter- 
course with  other  nations,  and  have  borrowed  nothing  whatever, 
either  from  the  Europeans  or  'Tinne,  the  conterminous  Indian 
people. 

The  faces  of  the  Central  Eskimos  are,  in  general,  broadly  egg- 
shaped,  with  considerable  prominence  of  the  rounded  cheeks ;  but 
few  or  no  angular  projections  even  in  the  old  people.  The  great- 
est breadth  of  the  face  is  just  below  the  eyes  ;  the  forehead  is  gen- 
erally narrow  and  tapers  upward  ;  and  the  chin  conical,  but  not 
acute  ;  most  commonly  the  nose  is  broad  and  depressed,  but  it  is 
not  always  sa  formed.  Both  forehead  and  chin  in  general  recede, 
so  as  to  give  a  more  curved  profile  than  is  usually  to  be  observed 
in  any  variety  of  the  Caucasian  race,  or  among  the  male  Chepe- 
wyans  or  Crees,  though  some  of  the  female  'Tinne  have  counte- 
nances approaching  to  the  egg-shape.  As  contrasted  with  the 
other  native- American  races,  their  eyes  are  remarkable,  being  nar- 
row and  more  or  less  oblique.  Their  complexions  approach  more 
nearly  to  white  than  those  of  the  neighboring  nations,  and  do  not 
merit  the  designation  of  "  red,"  though  from  exposure  to  weather 
they  become  dark  after  manhood.  As  the  men  grow  old,  they 
have  more  hair  on  the  face  than  Red  Indians,  who  take  some 
pains  to  eradicate  it,  but  I  observed  none  with  thick  bushy  beards 
or  whiskers  like  those  of  an  European  who  suffers  them  to  grow. 
An  inspection  of  the  portraits  in  "  Franklin's  Second  Overland 
Journey,"  and  in  "  Back's  Great  Fish  River,"  will  show  that  in 
elderly  individuals  both  the  upper  lip  and  chin  have  a  tolerable 
show  of  hair,  though  none  have  the  flowing  beard  which  was 
productive  of  so  much  benefit  to  Richard  Chancellor  and  his 
countrymen. 

Dr.  Pickering  says  of  the  Mongolian,  with  which,  in  common 
with  other  ethnologists,  he  classes  the  Eskimos  and  the  major 
part  of  the  other  American  nations,  that  both  sexes  have  a  fem- 
inine aspect ;  that  the  stature  of  the  men  and  women  is  nearly 
the  same  ;  and  that  the  face  of  the  male  is  pre-eminently  beard- 
less. These  peculiarities  are  but  faintly  developed  among  the 
Central  Eskimos,  and  the  females  are  uniformly  conspicuously 
shorter  than  the  males.  Most  of  the  men  are  rather  under  the 
medium  English  size  ;  the  defect  in  height  being,  perhaps,  attrib- 
utable to  a  disproportioned  shortness  of  the  lower  extremities, 
though  this  opinion  was  not  tested  by  measurements.     They  are 


APl'EARANCE.-OCCUrATlONS. 


205 


broad-shouldered,  and  have  muscular  arms ;  so  that,  when  sitting 
in  their  kaiyaks,  they  seem  to  be  bigger  men  than  they  do  when 
standing  erect.  Some  individuals,  however,  would  be  considered 
to  be  both  tall  and  stout  even  among  Europeans,  and  they  cer- 
tainly are  not  the  stunted  race  which  popular  opinion  supposes 
them  to  be.  The  comparative  shortness  of  the  females  is  com- 
mon to  them  and  the  neighboring  'Tinne  (Hare  Indians  and  Dog- 
ribs),  whose  women  are  of  small  stature. 

In  both  sexes  of  Eskimos  the  hands  and  feet  are  small  and 
well-formed,  being  less  than  those  of  Europeans  of  similar  height. 
The  boots  which  we  purchased  on  the  coast  were  seldom  large 
enough  in  the  feet  for  our  people,  none  of  whom  were  tall  men. 

The  Central  Eskimos,  when  young,  have  countenances  ex- 
pressive of  cheerfulness,  good  nature,  and  confidence ;  and  the 
females,  being  by  no  means  inclined  to  repress  their  mirth,  are 
wont  to  display  a  set  of  white  teeth  that  an  European  belle  might 
covet.  The  elderly  people  have  features  more  furrowed  than 
those  we  see  in  civilized  life,  as  we  might  expect  when  the  pas- 
sions are  not  habitually  repressed ;  and  in  some  of  the  old  men 
the  lines  of  the  countenance  denote  distrust  and  hatred.  These 
ill-favored  individuals  were,  happily,  not  numerous,  and  several 
of  the  patriarchs  we  communicated  with  had  a  truly  benevolent 
aspect .  The  weather-beaten  faces  of  some  of  the  old  women ,  gleam- 
ing with  covetousness,  excited  by  seeing  in  our  possession  wealth 
beyond  the  previous  creations  of  their  imagination,  lead  ore  to  be- 
lieve that  the  poet  who  sang,  "Old  age  is  dark  and  unlovely," 
had  drawn  his  picture  from  a  people  equally  hard  and  unsoftened 
by  the  cultivation  of  intellect ;  and  I  feel  no  surprise  that  Fro- 
bisher's  people  should  have  suspected  the  unfortunate  elderly 
woman  who  fell  into  their  hands  of  being  a  witch,  while  they  let 
the  young  one  go  free. 

Year  after  year  sees  these  people  occupied  in  a  uniform  circle 
of  pursuits.  When  the  rivers  open  in  spring  they  resort  to  rapids 
and  falls,  to  spear  the  various  kinds  of  fish  that  ascend  the  streams 
at  that  period  to  spawn.  At  the  same  date,  or  a  little  earlier  in 
more  southern  localities,  they  hunt  the  reindeer,  which  drop  their 
young  on  the  coasts  and  islands  while  the  snow  is  only  partially 
melted.  Vast  multitudes  of  swans,  geese,  and  ducks,  resorting  to 
the  same  quarters  to  breed,  aid  in  supplying  the  Eskimos  with 
food  during  their  short  but  busy  summer  of  two  months.     In  the 


206 


VILLAGES. 


I  I 


beginning  of  September  the  reindeer  assemble  in  large  bands  and 
commence  their  march  southward ;  and  then  the  Eskimos  reap 
a  rich  harvest  by  waylaying  them  at  estiiblished  passes  on  the 
rivers  or  narrow  places  of  a  lake.  On  parts  of  the  coast  frequented 
by  whales,  the  month  of  August  is  devoted  to  the  exciting  pursuit 
of  these  animals,  a  successful  chase  insuring  a  comfortable  winter 
to  a  whole  comnmnity.  Throughout  the  summer  the  families 
associated  by  twos  and  threes  live  in  tents  of  skins,  and  generally 
enjoy  abundance  of  food,  while  they  carefully  lay  up  what  they 
can  not  consume  for  after  use.  In  this  respect  they  are  more 
provident  than  the  Hare  Indians,  or  Dog-ribs,  who  seldom  trouble 
themselves  wit.,  storing  up  provisions.  This  difference  of  the 
habits  of  the  two  nations,  which  greatly  influences  their  general 
characters,  has  perhaps  originated  in  the  different  circumstances 
in  which  they  are  placed.  The  Eskimos,  wintering  on  the  coast, 
are  in  darkness  at  mid-winter  :  the  reindeer  and  musk-oxen  have 
then  retreated  into  the  'Tinne  lands,  and  fish  can  not  at  that 
season  be  procured  in  their  waters ;  life,  therefore,  can  only  be 
maintained  in  an  Eskimo  winter  by  stores  provided  in  summer. 

In  the  country  of  the  'Tinne,  on  the  contrary,  the  winter  fish- 
ery is  productive,  and  animals  are  by  no  means  scarce  at  that 
season,  but  they  require  to  be  followed  in  their  movements  by 
the  hunter  and  his  family,  often  to  a  great  distance.  In  such  a 
case,  any  surplus  of  food  that  has  been  procured  must  be  placed 
en  cache,  as  the  term  is,  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  depredations 
of  wolverenes,  or  the  still  more  irresistible  attacks  of  their  hungry 
fellow-countrymen,  who  are  wont  to  track  up  a  successful  hunter 
in  order  to  profit  by  his  labors.  The  'Tinnd,  therefore,  have 
practically  decided  that  it  is  better  for  them  to  live  profusely 
while  they  have  venison,  and  then  to  go  in  search  of  more. 
Were  they  to  be  content  with  the  product  of  their  fisheries,  they 
might  build  villages,  and  live  easily  and  well,  so  productive  are 
the  boundless  waters  of  the  north  ;  but  they  like  variety  of  diet, 
and  prefer  the  chase,  with  the  hazard  of  occasional  starvation 
which  follows  in  its  train. 

The  villages  of  the  Eskimos  are,  therefore,  a  feature  in  their 
domestic  economy  in  which  they  differ  wholly  from  their  neigh- 
bors. The  houses  are  framed  strongly  of  drift  timber,  are  covered 
thickly  with  earth,  and  are  used  only  in  winter.  They  have  no 
windows,  and  are  entered  by  a  low  side  door,  or,  when  they  stand 


SNOW-UOUSEd. 


207 


in  situations  where  the  drift-snow  lies  deep,  by  a  trap-door  in  the 
roof.  The  floor  is  laid  with  timber,  and  they  have  no  fire-places  ; 
but  a  stone  placed  in  the  centre  serves  for  a  support  to  the  lamp, 
by  which  the  little  cooking  that  is  required  is  performed.  For 
the  site  of  a  village,  a  bold  point  of  the  coast  is  generally  chosen 
where  the  water  is  deep  enough  to  float  a  whale ;  and  to  the 
eastward  of  Cape  Parry,  where  we  saw  no  whales,  we  met  with 
no  villages,  although  solitary  winter-houses  occur  here  and  there 
on  that  coast.  The  association  of  a  number  of  families  is  neces- 
sary for  the  successful  pursuit  of  the  whale.  When  the  villagers 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Mackenzie,  or  of  Cape  Bathurst,  are  fortu- 
nate enough  to  kill  one  or  more  of  these  marine  beasts,  they  revel 
in  greasy  abundance  during  the  dark  months,  and  the  ponds  and 
the  soil  around  are  saturated  with  the  oil  that  escapes. 

In  March  the  seals  have  their  young,  and  soon  afterward  they 
become  the  principal  objects  of  chase  to  the  Eskimos,  who  greatly 
esteem  their  dark  and  unsightly  flesh,  reckoning  it  as  choice  food. 
The  seal,  being  a  warm-blooded  animal,  respiring  air,  requires  a 
breathing-hole  in  the  ice,  which  it  has  the  power  of  keeping  open 
in  the  severest  frosts,  by  constant  gnawing.      It  is  a  watchful 
creature,  with  acute  senses  of  sight  and  hearing ;  but  it  is  no 
match  for  the  Eskimo  hunter,  who  has  carefully  studied  all  its 
habits  from  his  infancy.     As  the  days  lengthen,  the  villages  are 
emptied  of  their  inhabitants,  who  move  seaward  on  the  ice  to  the 
seal  hunt.     Then  comes  into  use  a  marvelous  system  of  architec- 
ture, unknown  among  the  rest  of  the  American  nations.     The 
fine,  pure  snow  has  by  that  time  acquired,  under  the  action  of 
strong  winds  and  hard  frosts,  suflScient  coherence  to  form  an  ad- 
mirable light  building  material,  with  which  the  Eskimo  master- 
mason  erects  most  comfortable  dome-shaped  houses.     A  circle  is 
first  traced  on  the  smooth  surface  of  the  snow,  and  the  slabs  for 
raising  the  walls  are  cut  from  within,  so  as  to  clear  a  space  down 
to  the  ice,  which  is  to  form  the  floor  of  the  dwelling,  and  whose 
evenness  was  previously  ascertained  by  probing.     The  slabs  re- 
quisite to  complete  the  dome,  after  the  interior  of  the  circle  is 
exhausted,  are  cut  from  some  neighboring  spot.     Each  slab  is 
neatly  fitted  to  its  place  by  running  a  flenching-knife  along  the 
joint,  when  it  instantly  freezes  to  the  wall,  the  cold  atmosphere 
forming  a  most  excellent  cement.     Crevices  are  plugged  up,  and 
scams  accurately  closed  by  throwing  a  few  shovelfuls  of  loose 


i] 

I 


1 


208 


SEAL-HUNTING. 


snow  over  the  fabric.  Two  men  generally  work  together  in  rais- 
ing a  house,  and  the  one  who  is  stationed  within  cuts  a  low  door, 
and  creeps  out  when  his  task  is  over.  The  walls  being  only  three 
or  four  inches  thick,  are  sufficiently  translucent  to  admit  a  very 
agreeable  light,  which  serves  for  ordinary  domestic  purposes  ;  but 
if  more  be  required  a  window  is  cut,  and  the  aperture  fitted  with 
a  piece  of  transparent  ice.  The  proper  thickness  of  the  walls  is 
of  some  importance.  A  few  inches  excludes  the  wind,  yet  keeps 
down  the  temperature  so  as  to  prevent  dripping  from  the  interior. 
The  furniture,  such  as  seats,  tables,  and  sleeping-places,  is  also 
formed  of  snow,  and  a  covering  of  folded  reindeer  skin,  or  seal 
skin,  renders  them  comfortable  to  the  inmates.  By  means  of 
ante-chambers  and  porches  in  form  of  long,  low  galleries,  with 
their  openings  turned  to  leeward,  warmth  is  insured  in  the  in- 
terior ;  and  social  intercourse  is  promoted  by  building  the  houses 
contiguously,  and  cutting  doors  of  communication  between  them, 
or  by  erecting  covered  passages.  Storehouses,  kitchens,  and  other 
accessory  buildings,  may  be  constructed  in  the  same  manner,  and 
a  degree  of  convenience  gained  which  would  be  attempted  in  vain 
with  a  less  plastic  material.  These  houses  are  durable,  the  wind 
has  little  effect  on  them,  and  they  resist  the  thaw  until  the  sun 
acquires  very  considerable  power. 

The  success  of  the  seal-hunt  depends  much  on  the  state  of  the 
ice,  and  should  it  fail,  great  misery  results ;  the  spring  being,  in 
fact,  the  time  of  the  year  in  which  the  Central  Eskimos  incur 
the  greatest  risk  of  famine.  When  the  thaw  lays  the  ground  in 
the  valleys  bare,  reindeer  and  wild-fowl  return  to  the  sea-coast, 
and  plenty  follows  in  their  train. 

It  will  be  evident,  from  the  account  of  the  yearly  round  of  the 
lives  of  these  people,  that  their  movements  are  restricted  to 
narrow  limits,  as  compared  with  the  'Tinne,  who  pursue  the 
chase  over  tracts  of  country  hundreds  of  miles  in  diameter,  as 
necessity,  fear,  or  caprice,  drives  them.  A  strict  right  to  hunting 
grounds  does  not  seem  to  be  maintained  by  the  several  members 
of  the  widely  spread  'Tinne  nation,  so  as  to  hinder  several  tribes 
from  resorting  to  the  same  districts  in  pursuit  of  deer,  and  meet- 
ing each  other  in  amity,  unless  an  actual  feud  exists.  Thus  our 
presence  at  Fort  Confidence  was  sufficient  to  determine  various 
bands  of  Hare  Indians,  Dog-ribs,  and  Martin-lake  Indians  to  re- 
sort to  the  northeastern  arm  of  Great  Bear  Lake ;  and  but  for  a 


RESPECT  FOR   'I'ERRITORIAL   RIGHTS. 


2oy 


deadly  feud  with  the  Dog-ribs,  which  twenty  years  ago  greatly 
reduc^u  the  numbers  of  our  old  friends,  the  Copper  Indians,  we 
should  have  had  their  company  also.  The  Eskimos,  on  the 
contrary,  have  a  strong  respect  for  their  territorial  rights,  and 
maintain  them  with  firmness.  We  learned  at  Cape  Bathurst, 
that  each  head  of  a  small  community  had  a  right  to  the  point  of 
land  on  which  his  winter  house  or  cluster  of  houses  stood,  and  to 
the  hunting  grounds  in  its  vicinity.  We  had  also  evidence,  at 
various  places  on  the  coast,  of  the  unwillingness  of  these  people 
to  appropriate  the  goods  of  their  absent  neighbors,  even  when  we, 
not  knowing  the  proper  owner,  tempted  them  by  the  ofler  of  a 
price  much  beyond  the  value  of  the  article  in  their  eyes.  The 
answer  on  such  occasions  was,  "  That  belongs  to  a  man  who 
is  not  here."  We  also  saw  on  the  coast  stages  on  which  provi- 
sions, furs,  lamps,  and  other  articles  were  placed,  while  the  owners 
had  gone  inland  ;  and  hoards  of  blubber,  secured  from  animals 
by  stone  walls,  but  without  any  attempt  at  concealment.  "  Tig- 
likpok"  (he  is  a  thief)  is  a  term  of  reproach  among  themselves ; 
but  they  steal  without  scruple  from  strangers,  and  with  a  dexter- 
ity which  training  and  long  practice  alone  can  give.  Nor  did 
they  appear  ashamed  when  detected,  or  blush  at  our  reproofs.  I 
believe  that  on  this  point  their  code  is  Spartan,  and  that  to  steal 
boldly  and  adroitly  from  a  stranger  is  an  act  of  heroism. 

In  personal  courage,  the  Eskimos  are  superior  to  the  Chepe- 
wyans,  Crees,  or  any  other  Indian  nation  with  whom  I  am 
acquainted.  The  Hare  Indians  and  Dog-ribs  dread  them,  and 
even  when  much  superior  in  numbers,  would  fly  on  their  ap- 
proach. Nor  do  the  fire-arms  which  the  bolder  Kutchin  have 
lately  acquired  enable  that  people  to  lord  it  over  the  Eskimos, 
or  encroach  on  their  grounds. 

The  populous  and  turbulent  bands  which  inhabit  the  estuary 
of  the  Mackenzie  carry  on  a  traflfiic  with  the  Western  Eskimos 
from  the  neighborhood  of  Point  Barrow  and  Beering's  Straits, 
whom  they  meet  midway  on  the  coast ;  and  though  often  at 
feud  with  the  Kutchin  have  occasionally  commercial  relations 
also  with  them.  But  they  who  dwell  to  the  eastward  of  Cape 
Bathurst  communicate  with  none  of  their  own  nation  except  the 
families  in  their  immediate  vicinity,  and  speak  of  the  distant 
Eskimos  as  of  a  bad  people.  The  reputation  of  the  Kablunaht 
or  Kablunet  (white  men)  is  superior  among  them  to  that  of  the 


4v 

v1 


210 


TRAFPIC. 


remote  tribes  of  their  own  nation.     With  the  Allani-a-tiok,  as 
they  term  the  inland  Indians,  they  have  no  intercourse  whatever. 

The  Central  Eskimos  have  had  no  traffic  with  Europeans,  ex- 
cept with  those  employed  on  the  recent  voyages  of  discovery, 
until  the  last  year  (1849),  when  a  family  from  the  coast  to  the 
west  of  the  Mackenzie,  having  gone  inland  with  a  party  of 
Kutchin,  were  visited  at  their  tents  by  a  trader  sent  out  from 
La  Pierre's  house,  which  is  an  outpost  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany established  on  the  Western  Rat  River. 

Articles  of  Russian  manufacture,  procured  by  barter  coast- 
wise, were  traced  by  us  in  an  easterly  direction  no  further  than 
Point  Atkinson.  Previous  to  the  recent  establishment  of  the 
Russian  Fur  Company's  post  in  the  vicinity  of  Beering's  Straits, 
the  objects  exchanged  at  Barter  Island,  on  the  144th  meridian, 
were  brought  on  the  Asiatic  side  from  the  fair  of  Ostrownoie  near 
the  Kolyma,  by  the  Tchukche,  who  passed  them  in  the  first  in- 
stance to  the  Eskimos  of  Beering's  Straits,  by  whom  they  were 
bartered  at  the  island  in  question,  for  furs  brought  thither  by  the 
Eskimos  of  the  estuary  of  the  Mackenzie.  In  like  manner  vari- 
ous wares  of  English  make  found  their  way,  through  the  Kutchin 
and  Mackenzie  River  Eskimos,  coastwise  to  the  Russian  estab- 
lishments on  the  Pacific. 

From  the  predilection  for  commercial  pursuits  shown  by  the 
Eskimos,  Von  Biier  compares  them  to  the  Phcenicians,  and,  re- 
ferring back  to  very  early  times,  finds  traces  of  their  voyages 
along  the  eastern  coasts  of  America,  as  far  south  as  the  present 
state  of  Massachusetts.  There  the  Scandinavian  discoverers  of 
Vinland  (Rhode  Island)  had  many  skirmishes  with  the  Skrell- 
ings  {Skrdllingern),  whose  identity  with  the  Eskimos  Von  Baer 
considers  as  established  by  the  recorded  descriptions  of  their  per- 
sonal appearance  and  dress,  and  the  appellation  given  to  them 
being  the  same  as  that  applied  to  the  Greenlanders. 

From  Beering's  Straits,  eastward  as  far  as  the  Mackenzie,  the 
males  pierce  the  lower  lip  near  each  angle  of  the  mouth,  and  fill 
the  apertures  with  labrets  resembling  buttons,  formed  often  of  blue 
or  green  quartz  and  sometimes  of  ivory.  Many  of  them  also 
transfix  the  septum  of  the  nose  with  a  dentalium  shell  or  ivory 
needle.  These  ornaments  have  perhaps  been  adopted  from  the 
Kutchin  and  Pacific  coast  tribes  south  of  Mount  St.  Elias,  since 
they  have  not  extended  to  the  Eskimos  of  Cape  Bathurst  or  more 


FEMALE  TOILET. 


211 


eastern  members  of  the  nation.  Most  of  the  women  are  tattooed 
on  the  chin,  but  they  have  not  adopted  the  unsightly  gash  and 
extension  of  the  under  lip  on  which  the  Kolushan  ladies  pride 
themselves. 

Unlike  the  Hare  Indian  and  Dog-rib  women,  who  neglect  their 
personal  appearance,  the  Eskimo  females  turn  up  and  plait  their 
hair  tastefully,  ornament  their  dresses,  and  evidently  consider  their 
toilet  as  an  important  concern  :  hence  we  may  judge  that  more 
deference  is  paid  to  them  by  the  men.  Egede  informs  us,  that 
unmarried  Greenland  women  are  modest,  both  in  words  and 
deeds,  but  that  greater  laxity  exists  among  the  wives,  with  the 
connivance  of  their  husbands,  who  are  not  jealous.  I  fear  that 
so  much,  scanty  as  the  praise  is,  can  not  be  justly  said  in  favor 
of  the  fair  sex  on  the  northern  coast.  The  gestures  and  signs 
made  by  young  and  old  when  they  came  off  in  the  umiaks  were 
most  indelicate,  and  more  than  once  a  wife  was  proffered  by  her 
husband  without  circumlocution  in  the  presence  of  his  companions 
and  of  the  woman  herself  I  understood,  indeed,  from  Augustus, 
our  interpreter  in  1826,  that  such  an  offer  was  considered  by  the 
nation  as  an  act  of  generous  hospitality  ;  and  similar  customs  are 
said  to  exist  among  the  inhabitants  of  Tartary. 

Almost  all  savage  people  are  excellent  mimics,  and  the  Eski- 
mos are  not  defective  in  this  accomplishment.  They  imitated 
our  speech  and  gestures  with  success  and  much  drollery  ;  and  the 
men  excel  the  other  native  Americans  in  the  art  of  grimacing. 
When  they  wish  to  defy  strangers  who  intrude  into  their  country, 
they  use  the  most  extraordinary  gestures  and  contortions  of  the 
body  and  limbs,  making  at  the  same  time  hideous  faces.  This 
was  evidently  practiced  systematically  to  terrify  invaders  ;  for  such 
as  resorted  to  it  on  their  first  interview  with  us,  the  moment  that 
they  were  made  to  understand  our  friendly  intentions,  instantane- 
ously relaxed  their  features  into  a  broad,  good-natured  grin,  and 
came  alongside  our  boats  without  further  hesitation. 

The  dress  of  the  two  sexes  is  much  alike,  the  outer  shirt  or 
jacket  having  a  pointed  skirt  before  and  behind,  those  of  the  fe- 
males being  merely  a  little  longer.  The  Kutchins  also  wear  these 
pointed  skirts,  but  they  have  not  been  adopted  by  the  Hare  In- 
dians or  any  of  the  Chepewyan  tribes,  who  in  common  with  the 
more  southern  Indians  cut  their  shirts  or  frocks  evenly  round  at 
the  top  of  the  thigh.     I  suspect  that  the  long  skirts  of  the  Kutchia 


•J  I -2 


HOATB.-RELIUION. 


or  EskimoH  have  given  origin  to  the  fabulous  account  of  men  with 
tails,  thought  by  the  Kolushes  of  the  Pacific  coasj;  to  inhabit  the 
interior  in  the  direction  of  Mackenzie's  River. 

The  Eskimo  boots  are  also  peculiar  to  the  nation,  being  made 
of  seal-skin  so  closely  sewed  as  to  be  water-tight,  and  coming  up 
to  the  hips  like  those  used  by  fishermen  in  our  own  land.  The 
Chepewyans  and  Crees  manufacture  no  leather  that  resists  water ; 
the  deer-skin  dressed  by  them  like  shammy  absorbs  water  like  a 
sponge,  and  hardens  and  spoils  in  drying.  Neither  have  these 
Indians  boots,  but  merely  shoes  or  mocassins,  with  soft  tops  that 
wrap  round  the  ankle,  and  are  unconnected  with  the  leggins  or 
trowsers. 

The  Eskimos  show  much  skill  in  the  preparation  of  whale, 
seal,  and  deer-skins,  using  the  first  for  thongs  and  lines  employed 
in  the  capture  of  sea-beasts,  also  as  harness  for  dog-sledges,  soles 
for  boots,  and  other  purposes  where  strength  and  durability  are 
required. 

Their  skin  kai-yaks  and  u-mi-aks  are  also  peculiar  to  the  na- 
tion, and  can  be  formed  only  by  a  people  who  dress  hides  so  as  to 
be  water-proof  The  kaiyaks  are  impelled  by  a  double-bladed 
paddle,  used  with  or  without  a  central  rest,  and  the  umiaks  with 
oars  ;  neither  of  which  are  employed  by  the  inland  Indians,  ex- 
cept where  they  have  been  adopted  from  Europeans.  The  use 
of  a  light  waterproof  outer  dress,  formed  of  the  intestines  of  the 
whale,  and  secured  to  a  ledge  round  the  aperture  of  the  kaiyak 
so  as  perfectly  to  exclude  the  water  in  a  stormy  sea,  is  also  an 
Eskimo  invention  ;  and  the  address  which  is  acquired  in  the  man- 
agement of  the  light,  swift,  but  unstable  kaiyak,  contributes  to 
the  education  of  a  race  of  fearless  seamen. 

The  dogs  of  the  Eskimos  along  their  whole  line  of  coast  are 
superior  in  strength  to  those  of  the  neighboring  nations,  and  are 
used  in  sledges  and  also  in  the  ch^se  of  reindeer  and  musk-oxen. 
With  respect  to  the  religion  of  the  Eskimos  I  could  obtain  per- 
sonally no  satisfactory  answer  to  my  inquiries ;  but  it  is  certain 
that  belief  in  witchcraft  and  the  agency  of  evil  spirits  prevails 
throughout  the  nation,  except  in  Greenland  and  Labrador,  where 
demon  worship  has  been  combated  by  Christianity.  Connected 
with  this  belief  is  the  Shamanism,  or  influence  which  certain  in- 
dividuals claim  to  possess  over  the  evil  spirits.  Sorcery  has  been 
reduced  to  a  system  on  the  shores  of  Beering's  Sea ;  and  that  it 


8U8ci:ptidility  of  cultivation. 


213 


18  not  unknown  evon  on  the  Labrador  coast,  the  followiiiii  words, 
collected  from  an  Okkak  dictionary,  will  show.  Angckok,  •'  a 
shaman;"  E/ihvtak,  "one  killed  by  sorcery;"  I-ijrro/c,  "the 
devil's  servant  or  messenger ;"  Nang-hfer-minik,  "  an  appearance 
produced  by  a  sorcerer;"  'l'o)?/gak,  "a  devil  or  evil  spirit;" 
Torngiwok,  "he  performs  the  office  of  a  sorcerer." 

As  to  intelligence  and  susceptibility  ot  civilization,  I  consider 
the  Eskimos  as  ranking  a])ove  the  fi^'i^hboring  Indian  nations, 
though  my  personal  experience  on  this  head,  being  confined  to  the 
interpreters  employed  on  the  several  expeditions  to  which  T  have 
been  attached,  is  perhaps  too  limited  to  found  much  upon.  Thc«o 
individuals,  however,  showed  a  docility,  industry,  steadiness  of 
purpose,  a  ready  adoption  of  European  customs,  and  an  amiability 
which  I  did  not  observe  among  the  Northern  Indians  or  Crees 
in  the  course  of  several  years'  study  of  their  characters. 

The  success  of  the  Moravian  Missionaries,  in  introducing  Chris- 
tianity and  the  arts  of  reading  and  writing  among  the  population 
of  the  Labrador  coast,  is  a  strong  inducement  to  attempt  an  ex- 
tension of  the  same  system  of  instruction  to  the  well-fed  multitudes 
that  frequent  the  estuary  of  the  Mackenzie. 

The  origin  of  the  Eskimos  has  been  much  discussed,  as  being 
the  pivot  on  which  the  inquiry  into  the  original  peopling  of 
America  has  been  made  to  turn.  The  question  has  been  fairly 
and  ably  stated  by  Dr.  Latham,  in  his  recent  work  "  On  the 
Varieties  of  Man,"  to  which  I  must  refer  the  reader  ;  and  I  shall 
merely  remark  that  the  Eskimos  difler  more  in  physical  aspect 
from  their  nearest  neighbors,  than  the  red  races  do  from  one  an- 
other. Their  lineaments  have  a  decided  resemblance  to  the 
Tartar  or  Chinese  countenance.  On  the  other  hand,  their  lan- 
guage is  admitted  by  philologists  to  be  similar  to  the  other  North 
American  tongues  in  its  grammatical  structure ;  so  that,  as  Dr. 
Latham  has  forcibly  stated,  the  dissociation  of  the  Eskimos  from 
the  neighboring  nations,  on  account  of  their  physical  dissimilarity, 
is  met  by  an  argument  for  their  mutual  affinity,  deduced  from 
j)hilological  coincidences. 

The  comprehensiveness  of  the  Eskimo  language  and  its  arti- 
ficial structure  are  curious,  when  we  take  into  our  consideration 
the  isolated  position  of  the  people,  and  the  few  objects  that  come 
under  their  observation.  In  1825,  I  devoted  the  whole  winter 
to  the  formation  of  an  Eskimo  vocabulary  and  grammar,  with  the 


1 


>1 


314 


LANGUAGE. 


aid  of  our  very  intcUip^cnt  interpreter  Augustus,  who  was  a  native 
of  the  shores  of  Sir  Thomas  Roe's  Welcome,  and  having  resided 
at  Churchill,  had  acquired  the  power  of  expressing  his  meaning 
in  very  tolerable  English.  The  book  containing  the  results  of 
his  labors  and  mine  was  unfortunately  stolen  from  mo  in  the  fol- 
lowing summer  by  the  Eskimos  of  the  estuary  of  the  Mackenzie  ; 
but  through  the  kindness  of  the  Reverend  Peter  Latrobe,  the 
philanthropic  secretary  of  the  Moravian  Mission,  I  was  provided 
for  use  oh  the  present  expedition  with  an  excellent  grammar,  and 
a  pretly  full  dictionary,  formed  by  some  of  the  industrious  mis- 
sionaries of  the  Labrador  coast.  By  carefully  perusing  these 
volumes,  together  with  Captain  Washington's  extensive  vocabu- 
lary, published  under  sanction  of  the  Admiralty  in  1850,  I  feel 
justified  in  maintaiifing  the  assertion  I  have  already  made,  that 
the  Eskimo  language  does  not  materially  vary  throughout  a  line 
of  coast  longer  than  that  which  any  other  aboriginal  people  pos- 
sesses. Many  seeming  discrepancies  I  have  been  able  to  trace 
to  the  genius  of  the  language,  by  which  the  same  object  receives 
a  distinct  appellation  for  every  diflbrent  aspect  and  condition 
which  it  assumes  ;  and  the  formers  of  the  vocabularies  have 
seldom  given  the  precise  translation  such  a  language  requires. 
Thus  a-nio  signifies  "  the  snow  ;"  ap-ut,  "  snow,"  a  general  name 
for  snow  on  the  ground,  whence  ap-uti-Uit,  "  as  white  as  snow ;" 
kan-ck,  "  snow  falling  ;"  aki-lokak,  "  new  fallen  white  snow  ;" 
nmna-yali-wok,  "  a  great  fall  of  damp  snow ;"  siko,  "  ice ;" 
tu-wak,  "  solid  ice  ;"  nilak,  "  light  ice  ;"  ka-dio-ak,  "  drift-ice  ;" 
sir-meky  "  thin  ice."  We  have  already  remarked,  that  the  Es- 
kimos of  Labrador  and  Beering's  Straits  retain  the  name  of  the 
musk-ox,  though  the  Central  Eskimos  alone  come  into  contact 
with  the  animal,  (page  193.)* 

The  inhabitants  of  the  northwestt.*^,  coasts  from  Tchugatsky 
Bay  (or  as  it  is  named  in  the  English  cn^rts,  Prince  William's 
Sound),  northward,  including  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  and  the 

*  The  following  arc  some  of  the  local  designations  of  tribes  of  the  cen- 
tral Eskniios.  The  A-hak-nan-heht  reside  near  Repulse  Bay ;  the  Ut-kii- 
sik-kaling'me'Ut,  or  "Stone-kettle  Eskimos."  live  further  to  the  westward  ; 
the  Kang-or-mc-ut,  or  "  White  Goose  Eskimos,"  dwell  to  the  eastward  of 
Cape  Alexander ;  those  who  frequent  the  mouth  of  the  Coppermine  River 
call  themselves  Na-ge-uk-tor-mc-ut,  or  Deer-Horn  Eskimos;"  and  the 
munerous  tribe  that  resorts  to  the  eastern  outlet  of  the  Mackenzie  call 
themselves  Kitte-ga're-ut   or  "  inhabitants  of  land  near  the  mountains." 


WESTERN  TRIBES. 


215 


islands  in  Beering's  Sea  and  Straits,  are  considered  by  Baron 
Wrangcll,  Biier,  and  others  acquainted  with  them,  to  be  of  the 
Eskimo  stock.*  Captain  Beechey  believes  that  the  Western 
Eskimos  who  meet  the  Mackenzie  River  tribes  at  Barter  Island 
have  their  western  boundary  at  Cape  Barrow ;  there  they  have 
commercial  intercourse  with  the  tribes  described  by  WranjreU 
and  Biicr,  who,  in  their  turn,  barter  with  the  Asiatic  Tchukche 
and  with  the  Russians  settled  on  the  American  coast,  and  their 
neighbors  the  Kolushans.  The  tribes  crowded  together  on  the 
shores  of  Beering's  Sea  within  a  comparatively  small  extent  of 
coast-line  exhibit  a  greater  •variety,  both  in  personal  appearance 
and  dialect,"  than  that  which  exists  between  the  Western  Eski- 
mos and  their  distant  countrymen  in  Labrador ;  and  ethnologists 
have  found  some  difficulty  in  classifying  them  properly.  The 
appellations  they  have  assumed,  or  which  have  been  bestowed 
upon  them  correctly  and  incorrectly,  have  increased  the  confusion. 
They  are,  however,  like  the  other  Eskimos,  a  littoral  people,  who, 
in  their  skin  kaiyaks,  pursue  all  kinds  of  sea-beasts — seals,  sea- 
lions,  walruses,  polar-bears,  sea-otters,  and  whales — clothing  them- 
selves in  their  spoils  and  in  bird-skins,  and  making  much  less  use 
of  the  leather  of  the  reindeer  skin  than  their  southern  and  eastern 
neighbors  of  a  diflerent  stock.  The  Tchugatchih  of  King  Will- 
iam's Sound  are  the  most  southern  of  several  tribes,  and  state 
that,  in  consequence  of  some  domestic  quarrels,  they  emigrated 
in  recent  times  from  the  Island  of  Kadyak,t  and  they  claim,  as 
their  hereditary  possessions,  the  coast  lying  between  Bristol  Bay 
and  Beering's  Straits.  They  believe  that  their  nation  originally 
sprung  from  a  dog,  in  which  respect  they  agree  with  the  Chepe- 
wyan  tribes,  and  differ  from  the  Kolushes. 

The  Tchugatchih  are  of  middle  stature,  slender,  but  strong ; 
with  skins  often  brown,  but  in  some  individuals  whiter  than 
those  of  Europeans,  and  with  black  hair.  The  men  are  hand- 
somer than  the  women.  They  pierce  the  under  lip  and  septum 
of  the  nose,  filling  the  apertures  with  corals,  shells,  bones,  and 

*  "  The  inhabitants  of  tho  Aleutian  Islantls  [i.  e.  Beering's  and  Copper 
Islands),  of  the  Rat  Islands,  Andreanowsky  Islands,  and  Prebiilowiini 
Islands,  of  Unalaska  and  Kadiak,  are  all  Eskimo  ;  a  fact  which  numerous 
vocabularies  give  us  full  means  of  ascertaining.  In  respect  of  the  diller- 
ence  of  speech  between  particular  islands,  there  is  external  evidence  that 
it  is  considerable." — Dr.  Latham^  Varieties  of  Man,  ^c. 

t  Kikhtak  of  the  English  mapa. 


t 


21G 


KUSKUTCIIEWAK. 


m 


ii    ; 


stones.  Their  manners  were  originally  similar  to  those  of  the 
Kuskutcheivak  and  other  communities  living  more  to  the  north  ; 
but  in  later  times  they  have  carried  off  the  women  of  the  more 
southern  tribes,  and  from  their  intermarriages  with  the  captives, 
combined  with  their  long  intercourse  with  the  Russians,  their 
opinions,  customs,  and  features  have  undergone  a  change,  so  that 
they  have  now  a  greater  resemblance  to  the  inland  Indians  than 
to  the  northern  Eskimos. 

Baer's  work,  which  is  my  chief  authority  with  regard  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Russian  i\merica,  contains  some  interesting  details 
of  the  habits  of  the  Kuskutchewak  alluded  to  above,  from  which 
I  shall  make  a  few  extracts  for  the  purpose  of  comparison  with 
\he  better-known  manners  and  customs  of  the  eastern  Eskimos. 
The  Kuskutchewak  inhabit  the  banks  of  a  river  which  falls  into 
the  sea  on  the  60th  parallel,  between  the  island  of  Nuniwak  and 
Cape  Newenham.  They  are  neither  a  nomadic  nor  hunter  folk, 
but  dwell  in  winter  in  stationary  villages  built  on  the  river,  and 
in  summer  disperse  themselves  inland  to  collect  provisions.  They 
have  a  strong  attachment  to  their  ancestral  abodes.  Their  win- 
ter dwellings  are  partly  sunk  in  the  earth,  as  on  the  Eskimo 
coasts,  but  nowhere  else  to  the  eastward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
On  the  west  coast  this  mode  of  building  extends  as  far  south  as 
Unalaschka ;  and  in  Cook's  Third  Voyage  there  is  a  representation 
of  a  winter  house  at  that  place  far  superior  in  size,  accommoda- 
tion, and  furnituf'e,  to  any  that  we  saw  on  the  northern  shores. 

In  each  villag'  of  the  Kuskutchewak  there  is  a  public  build- 
ing, named  the  Kasliim,  in  which  councils  are  held  and  festivals 
kept,  and  which  must  be  large  enough  to  contain  all  the  grown 
men  of  the  village.  It  has  raised  platforms  round  the  walls,  and 
a  place  in  the  centre  for  the  fire,  with  an  aperture  in  the  roof  for 
the  admission  of  light.* 

I  have  mentioned  such  a  building  as  existing  at  Point  Atkinson 
(page  155),  but  that  was  of  inferior  size,  being  indeed  suited  to  a 
smaller  community.  In  the  language  of  the  Labrador  Eskimos 
Kashiminivik,  or  Kashimm-ivikhak,  signifies  a  place  where  men 
assemble  in  council ;"  and  Kaachim-i-ut,  "  an  assemblage  of  men 
for  council ;"  from  which  we  derive  additional  evidence  of  the 
national  identity  of  the  two  people. 

*  In  Franklin's  Second  Overland  Journals  there  is  a  plan  of  the  Point 
Atkinson  kashim,  which  answers  to  the  above  description. 


I 


1 


FEASTS.-aUARRELS. 


217 


The  kashim  is  the  sleeping  apartment  for  all  the  adult  able- 
bodied  males  of  the  village,  who  retire  to  it  at  sunset ;  while  the 
old  men,  women,  children,  and  the  shaman  sleep  in  the  ordinary 
dwellings.  Early  in  the  morning  the  shaman  goes  to  the  kashim 
with  his  drum,  and  performs  some  religious  ceremony,  varied  as 
his  fancy  prompts,  for  the  shamanism  of  the  tribes  of  the  Eskimo 
stock  is  said  not  to  be  guided  in  its  ceremonials  by  any  fixed  prac- 
tice.* The  only  women  who  are  allowed  to  enter  the  kashim  to 
eat  with  the  men  are  those  who  have  been  initiated  in  a  certain 
formal  manner. 

Feasts  are  held  in  the  kashim,  and  particularly  a  great  festival 
or  harvest-home  which  recurs  annually  at  the  close  of  the  autumn 
hunting  season.  Then  the  produce  of  the  chase  of  each  hunter 
is  proclaimed  before  the  assembly  in  detail,  down  to  the  small 
birds  or  mice  killed  by  the  children,  and  the  generosity  of  the 
contributors  to  the  feast  is  lauded.  Many  are  thereby  excited  to 
give  profusely,  and  to  pinch  themselves  and  their  families  for  the 
whole  of  the  ensuing  winter.  Minor  feasts  are  held  on  various 
occasions,  and  the  hospitality  of  the  Kuskutchewak  and  neigh- 
boring tribes  is  said  to  be  very  great,  not  only  at  festival  occa- 
sions, but  at  all  other  times. 

On  the  murder  of  a  relation,  retaliation  is  decided  upon  at  a 
council  held  in  the  kashim,  and  is  generally  blood  for  blood.  In 
their  wars  they  do  not  slay  old  people  or  children,  and  instead  of 
killing  women,  they  lead  them  into  slavery.  On  the  north  coast, 
in  1826,  we  observed  that  the  old  men  and  women  were  more 
forward  in  provoking  a  fray,  in  anticipation  of  plunder,  than  the 
young  men,  and  perhaps  they  reckoned  upon  personal  immunity 
in  the  contest.  Disputes  between  parties  of  long  standing  are 
settled  by  dual  combat  in  a  ring  of  the  people.  Augustus,  our 
interpreter,  told  me  that  the  Eskimo  of  the  Welcome  decided 
their  quarrels  by  alternate  blows  of  the  fist,  each  in  turn  present- 
ing his  head  to  his  opponent ;   and  Cunningham  says,  that  the 

*  Augustus  informed  us  that  in  his  tribe,  which  occupies  the  coast  of 
Hudson's  Bay  between  Churchill  and  Knap's  Bay,  there  were  sixteen  men 
and  three  women  who  were  acquainted  with  the  mysteries  of  shamanism. 
The  women  exhibited  their  skill  on  their  own  sex  only.  When  the  shaman 
was  sent  for  to  cure  a  sick  person,  he  shut  himself  into  a  tent  with  his 
patient,  and,  without  tasting  food,  sung  over  him  for  days  together.  The 
shamans  also  swallowed  knives,  fired  bullets  into  their  bodies,  and  practiced 
various  other  deceptions  to  show  their  powers. 

K 


'\ 


218 


CUSTOMS. 


natives  of  New  South  Wales  have  a  similar  practice,  but  use  the 
"waddie  instead  of  the  unarmed  hand,  their  thick  skulls  being  able 
to  resist  blows  with  that  formidable  weapon.  Both  people  con- 
sider it  cowardly  to  evade  a  stroke.  In  these  primitive  methods 
of  settling  their  points  of  honor  we  may  perceive  the  germ  of  the 
mediaeval  combats  in  lists,  and  of  the  more  absurd  modern  duels, 
which  the  light  of  Christianity  has  not  yet  abolished. 

When  a  Kuskutchewak  hunter  returns  from  the  chase,  he  steps 
from  his  kaiyak  or  dog-sledge,  and  goes  straight  to  the  kashim, 
while  his  wife  dries  and  secures  the  kaiyak,  or  unharnesses  the 
dogs,  and  lays  up  the  produce  of  his  hunt.  She  cooks  for  him, 
and  makes  and  mends  his  clothing.  The  husbands  visit  their 
wives,  like  the  Spartans,  by  stealing  out  of  the  kashim  at  night, 
when  the  others  have  gone  to  rest.  Every  hunter  preserves  some 
remembrance  of  each  reindeer  that  he  kills.  He  either  scratches 
a  mark  on  his  bow,  or  draws  out  a  tooth  of  the  beast,  and  adds  it 
to  a  girdle  which  he  wears  as  an  ornament. 

The  mode  of  treating  infants  is  one  of  the  national  customs  of 
a  people  that  changes  most  slowly.  It  does  not  appear  that  any 
branch  of  the  E.skimo  nation  flatten  the  heads  or  repress  the 
growth  of  the  feet  of  their  children,  like  the  Tchinuks  and  Kut- 
chin.  The  Central  Eskimo  women  carry  their  nurslings  in  the 
hoods  of  their  shirts,  and  the  figures  in  Cook's  Third  Voyage  show 
that  custom  to  be  practiced  as  low  down  as  Unalaschka. 

The  Kuskutchewak  are  passionately  fond  of  the  vapor  bath, 
and  often  use  it  three  or  four  times  a  day,  occasionally  in  the 
kashim,  more  frequently  in  small  inclosures,  which  can  be  formed 
in  every  hut,  and  in  which  the  steam  is  raised  by  throwing  water 
on  hot  stones.  If  a  father  happens  to  be  on  bad  terms  with  his 
grown-up  son,  he  invites  his  most  intimate  friend  into  the  bath, 
discloses  his  grievance  to  him,  desires  him  to  inform  his  son  why 
his  father  is  displeased,  and  what  he  ought  to  do  to  appease  him. 
A  secret  which  no  one  will  tell  elsewhere  is  revealed  in  the  bath. 
This  is  also,  I  believe,  a  Turkish  custom. 

The  Kuskutchewak  indicate  the  times  of  day  or  night  with  great 
accuracy,  and  they  can  even  distinguish  some  stars  and  planets.* 

*  Viz.,  Ihmlonok  (Reindeer),  the  Great  Bear ;  Mi-seuschit  (the  Rising), 
Orion;  Ka-wegat  (the Fox-earth),  the  Pleiades;  As'guk,  Aldebaran;  Vleuch' 
tugal-ya  (Fox  and  Hare  Killer),  Venus;  jig-yach-laik  (Abundance  of  Wild 
Beasts),  Sirius. 


1 


'HI 


14 


MAMMOTH'S  TUSKS. 


219 


Before  concluding  my  extracts  from  Baor  relating  to  this  tribe, 
I  may  remark  that  mammoth-teeth  are  numerous  in  crevices  of 
the  sandy  banks  of  the  river  Kuskokwim.  The  natives  have  a 
tradition  that  the  great  animals  to  which  the  tusks  belonged  came 
in  old  times  from  the  East,  but  that  they  were  destroyed  by  a 
shaman  of  the  river  Kwichpak.  Some  of  them,  however,  say 
that  the  herd  was  merely  driven  into  the  earth,  and  that  it  comes 
up  in  one  night  of  the  year.  Elsewhere  I  have  alluded  to  the 
singularity  of  no  tusks  nor  fossil  bones  having  been  hitherto  dis- 
covered in  Rupert's  Land,  though  they  abound  on  the  coast  of 
Beering's  Sea. 

The  various  small  tribes  or  communities  nearly  related  to  the 
Kuskutchewak,  enumerated  by  Baron  Wrangell,  are  inserted  in  a 
rote  at  the  foot  of  the  page.*  Their  name  for  people  or  men  is 
Tatchut,  which  corresponds  in  signification  with  the  Eskimo 
InU'it ;  and  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian  Archipelago, 
the  word  is  modified  into  Ta-gut  and  Yagut.  The  similarity  of 
this  term  to  the  national  appellation  of  the  Lena  Yakuts  of  Turk- 
ish stock  is  worthy  of  notice,  though  it  may  probably  be  no  more 
than  a  mere  accidental  coincidence. t  The  syllable  ta  in  the 
language  of  the  Kutchin,  who  are  the  inland  neighbors  of  the 
Kuskutchewak,  signifies  water,  and  Ta-kutchi  denotes  "the  water 
or  ocean  people."  To  (or  Ta  in  composition)  means  "  water"  in 
the  'Tinne  or  Chepewyan  tongue  also. 

The  Sedentary  Tchukche,  who  inhabit  the  shores  of  the  Gulf 
of  Anadyr,  and  assume,  according  to  Sauer,  the  national  appel- 
lation of  Namollo,  are  a  tribe  of  Eskimos.  They  seem  once  to 
have  possessed  the  coast  of  Asia  as  far  westward  t  as  the  1 60th 

*  Agolegmeiiten,  Kiyataigmeuten  or  Kiyaten,  Mayimeuten,  Agulmeuten, 
Paschtoligmeuten,  Tatchigmeuten,  Malimeuten,  Anlygmeuten,  Tschnag- 
meuten,  Kiiwichpack-meuten,  are  the  designations  of  the  comnnunities 
most  closely  allied  to  the  Ku'skutchewak  by  neighborhood  and  identity  of 
manners.  The  Tchugatschen  and  Kadyaken,  the  Inkaleuchlenaten  and 
the  Inkaliten  reside  at  greater  distances  to  the  southward,  and  have  some 
diversities  of  customs. 

t  The  Turkish  words  Yacubi  and  Yakutski  signify  the  "  Sons  of  Jacob," 
and,  on  applying  to  several  well-informed  Turks,  they  could  recollect  no 
other  words  so  similar  in  sound  to  Yakut.  A  Christian  community  named 
Ynkubi  or  Yakupi  reside  at  the  present  time  in  Jerusalem. 

t  Commencing  at  the  east  coasts,  of  Labrador  and  Greenland,  the  Na- 
molloa  become  the  western  members  of  the  family,  as  Dr.  Latham  has 
noticed ;  and  even  in  respect  to  Europe  they  are  less  eastern  than  their 
American  brethren.     Is  Namollo  from  nuna-mullo,  "distant  land?" 


I'.! 


I  lis 


I 

i  ! 

if 


f 


i 


220 


REINDEER  TCHUKCHE. 


parallel,  traces  of  Eskimo  dwellings  having  been  found  up  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Kolyma.  The  more  powerful  Reindeer  Tchukche 
oppress  and  restrain  them  within  narrow  limits,  and  are  therefore 
considered  as  the  invaders  of  the  NamoUo  territory. 

With  the  mention  of  the  Asiatic  detachment  of  the  nation,  and 
without  entering  into  the  question  of  whether  it  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered as  the  remains  of  the  ancient  trunk,  or  merely  a  decaying 
branch,  we  close  our  remarks  on  the  Eskimos. 

REINDEER    TCHUKCHE. 

Before  proceeding  to  give  an  account  of  the  Kutchin,  the  second 
of  the  native  nations  whose  lands  were  traversed  by  the  Expedition, 
I  shall  introduce  a  brief  notice  of  the  Asiatic  Reindeer  Tchukche,* 
who  designate  themselves  by  the  appellation  of  Tchekto^  "  peopfe." 
Mr.  Matiuschkin  describes  them  as  being  a  remarkably  strong  and 
powerful  race,  resembling  the  Americans  in  their  physiognomy. 
They  once  owned  the  whole  country  from  Beering's  Straits  to 
some  distance  westward  of  the  Kolyma,  having  dispossessed,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  a  once  numerous  people,  named  Onwki,  who 
are  now  extinct,  and  also  the  Namollos  of  the  coast.t  The  ad- 
vance of  the  Cossacks  and  Russians  has  driven  them  back  beyond 
the  Kolyma  into  the  northeastern  corner  of  Asia ;  %  but  they  resist 
the  invaders  with  firmness,  and  maintain  a  greater  degree  of  inde- 
pendence than  any  other  native  Siberian  tribe. 

Neither  the  Eskimos  nor  any  other  North  American  nation 
have  domesticated  any  animal  except  the  dog ;  but  the  Asiatic 
Tchekto  are  a  truly  nomadic  people,  and  have  tamed  the  reindeer, 
of  which  they  have  numerous  herds.  The  rearing  of  the  deer, 
which  constitutes  their  wealth,  requires  the  command  of  a  woody 
country  and  also  of  barren  grounds  or  tundras.  Commodore 
Moore,  during  the  winter  that  the  "  Plover"  passed  in  Emma's 
Harbor,  not  far  from  Cape  Tchoukotsky,  purchased  reindeer  from 

*  The  notices  of  this  people  are  taken  from  Matiuschkin's  description 
of  them  in  "  Wrangell's  Expedition  to  the  Polar  Soa."  In  the  orthography 
of  the  name  I  have  followed  the  English  translation  of  Wrangell's  book. 
The  French  translator  writes  Tihovktchas,  and  Baer  Tchuktschcn.  In 
Cook's  Third  Voyage  it  is  written  Tschutski,  and  by  Dr.  Latham  Tnhuktshi. 

t  Omoki  has  an  Eskimo  sound :, thus  oma,  "he,"  okkda  or  omok^'i, 
"  they."  And  as  the  Central  Eskimos  soften  k  and  g  into  I  and  m,  a 
little  etymological  coaxing  might  produce  a  word  like  Namollo. 

X  For  the  use  of  the  relative  terms  east  and  west  see  note,  p.  219. 


COMMERCE. 


221 


the  inhabitants  of  a  village  near  his  anchorage,  to  the  great  bene- 
fit of  his  crew,  and  at  the  low  rate  of  twelve  carcasses  for  a  ship's 
musket.  The  Tchukches  are  skillful  traders.  Those  who  fre- 
quent the  fair  of  Ostrownoie  bring  thither  furs  and  walrus-teeth, 
and  receive  in  return  tobacco,  iron  articles,  hardware,  and  beads. 
They  are  accompanied  by  their  women  and  children,  and  bring 
with  them  their  arms,  skin  tents,  and  household  goods,  all  con- 
veyed on  sledges  drawn  by  reindeer.  The  journey  occupies  six 
months,  for  they  have  to  make  circuitous  routes  in  search  of  pas- 
ture ;  and  they  also  visit  by  the  way  Anadyrsk  and  Kamenoie, 
where  inferior  markets  are  held.  After  remaining  eight  or  ten 
days  at  Ostrownoie,  they  commence  their  return  ;  so  that  their 
life  is  actually  passed  on  the  road,  allowing  barely  time  for  the 
necessary  preparations  and  for  their  visits  to  Beering's  Straits. 
These  are  made  in  summer  in  baidars,  or  skin-boats,  and  in  win- 
ter over  the  ice  on  sledges,  with  which  they  carry  Hussian  wares, 
to  the  Gwosden  Islands  in  the  Straits.  There  they  are  met  by 
people  from  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  with  furs  and  walrus-teeth, 
collected  from  the  dwellers  in  Kotzebue  Sound,  and  from  the  in- 
habitants of  the  coast  still  further  north.  The  Tchukche  trade 
with  St.  Lawrence  Island  also,  and  with  Ukiwok,  a  rock  of  not 
more  than  three  miles  in  circumference,  but  rising  seven  hundred 
and  fifty-six  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  destitute  of  vegetation,  and 
yet  a  body  of  two  hundred  people,  from  the  American  coast,  have 
formed  a  settlement  on  it,  at  the  height  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  above  the  water,  for  the  purposes  of  trade.  They  inhabit 
caves  of  the  rocks,  and  procure  clothing,  tobacco,  and  other  nec- 
essaries by  the  sale  of  w.  Irus-teeth.  Sledge  Island,  equally  small, 
is  also  inhabited  by  skillful  traders,  who  are  employed  by  the 
Tchukche  as  factors,  to  exchange  the  articles  intrusted  to  them 
for  furs  collected  on  the  banks  of  the  Kwichpak,  Kuskokwim, 
and  neighboring  rivers  of  America.  By  this  channel,  previous 
to  the  formation  of  the  Russian  Fur  Company,  wares  brought 
from  Asia  were  distributed  over  seventeen  hundred  miles  of  Amer- 
ican coast. 

The  Reindeer  Tchukche  practice  shamanism  ;  and  though 
they  occasionally  beat  their  shamans  to  compel  them  to  bring 
about  some  event  which  they  desire,  this  treatment  may  be  con- 
sidered as  evincing  a  belief  in  the  powers  of  the  sorcerer,  and  in 
times  of  general  fear  and  calamity  the  shamans  have  put  forth 


i 


m 


] 


222 


their 


SHAMANISM. 


pretensions  with  great  effect.  In  1814,  an  epidemic  having^ 
carried  off'  many  of  the  Tchukehe  assembled  at  the  fair  of  Ostrow- 
noie,  the  shamans  held  a  consultation,  and  decided  that  Kotchen, 
the  most  respected  of  their  chiefs,  must  be  sacrificed  to  appease 
the  wrath  of  the  spirits.  Neither  presents  nor  severe  treatment 
could  prevail  on  the  shamans  to  alter  their  decision,  and  Kotchen, 
like  another  Curtius,  devoted  himself  to  the  infernal  gods.  The 
love  of  his  people,  however,  was  such,  that  none  could  be  prevail- 
ed upon  to  execute  the  sentence,  until  his  own  son,  incited  by  the 
exhortations  of  his  father,  and  terrified  by  his  threatened  curse, 
plutiged  a  knife  into  his  heart,  and  gave  the  body  to  the  sha- 
mans.* 

The  tents  of  the  Tchukohe,  called  nnmet,  have  a  fire  in  the 
centre  with  an  opening  for  the  smoke  to  escape,  and  inclose  seve- 
ral apartments  named  pologs,  or  square  closets  of  skins,  stretched 
over  laths,  and  so  low  that  the  inmates  must  remain  in  a  crouch- 
ing position.  The  polog  is  heated  by  a  lamp,  and  its  temper- 
ature is  so  high,  and  the  air  so  close,  as  to  be  scarcely  endurable 
by  a  person  unaccustomed  to  breathe  so  impure  an  atmosphere. 

Dr.  Latham  considers  the  Tchukehe  as  the  northern  branch 
of  the  Kariaks,  the  southern  branch  being  named  Koraki,  which 
is  said  to  be  an  indigenous  appellation  f  ;  and  he  reckons  the  Ko- 
riaks  as  a  division  of  the  Peninsular  Mangolidse.  It  is  probable 
that  on  further  investigation  the  Reindeer  Tchukehe  will  be 
found  to  be  the  connecting  link  between  the  Asiatic  and  Ameri- 
can MongolidsB.  In  their  attachment  to  commercial  pursuits, 
fondness  for  beads,  and  in  their  bold  independent  character,  they 
have  a  resemblance  to  the  Kutchin,  described  in  the  following 
chapter.  The  similarity  of  the  appellation  Tchukehe,  derived 
from  Tchekto,  "  people,"  to  Tchutski  or  Ta-kutski,  "  water-peo- 
ple," tribes  of  the  Kutchin,  is,  however,  in  Dr.  Latham's  opinion, 
merely  an  indirect  glossarial  aflfinity.  The  great  variety  of  dia- 
lects which  prevail  in  the  Aleutian  Archipelago  and  neighborhood 
of  Beering's  Straits  is  most  probably  the  result  of  the  active  com- 
merce there  carried  on,  having  brought  several  nations  into  con- 
tact with  each  other. 

*  Wrangell's  Polar  Sea,  translated  by  Mrs.  Sabine,  p.  119. 
t  Kara,  "  a  reindeer." 


k 


CHAPTER  XII. 


ON  THE  KUTCHIN  OR  LOUCHEUX. 


Designations. — Personal  Appearance. — Tattoo. — Employ  Pigments. — Dress. — Or- 
naments.— Beads. — Used  as  a  Medium  of  Exchange. — Shells. — Winter  Dress. — 
Arms. — Wives. — Treatment  of  Infants. — Compress  their  Feet. — Lively  Dispo- 
sitions.— Religious  Belief. — Shamani.sm. — Anecdotes. — Treachery.—  Contests 
with  the  Eskimos. — Occupations. — Traffic. — Beads  and  Shells. — Tents. — 
Vapor  Baths. — Deer  Pounds. — Oratory. — Talkativenass. — Dances. — Manbot 
or  Blood-money. — Ceremonies  on  meeting  other  People. — Population  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Yukon. — Same  People  with  certain  Coast  Tribes. — Kolusches. — 
Kenaiyers. — Ugalcnts. — Atnaer. — Koltshanen. — Persons  and  Dress. — Deer- 
Pounds. — Passion  for  Glass  Beads. — Kolushes  descended  from  a  Raven.— 
Courtship. — Wives. — Revenge. — Murder. — Burn  the  Dead. — Mourning. — Do 
not  name  the  Deceased. — Custom  connected  therewith. — Winter  Habitations. 
— Journeys  of  the  Kenaiyers  inland. — Porcupine  Quills. — Slavery. 

From  Churchill  River  in  Hudson's  Bay  round  northward  to 
th3  estuary  of  the  Mackenzie,  the  only  nation  that  the  Eskimos 
come  in  contact  with  is  that  of  the  'Tinne  or  Chepewyans,  and 
even  with  them  they  have  no  friendly  intercourse,  nor  do  they 
meet  except  at  the  trading  post  of  Churchill,  and  within  its  in- 
fluence. To  the  west  of  the  Mackenzie,  however,  another  people 
interposs  between  them  and  the  Tinne,  and  spread  westward 
until  they  come  into  the  neighborhood  of  the  coast  tribes  of  Bee- 
ring's  Sea,  which  have  been  already  noticed.  On  Peel's  River 
they  name  themselves  Kutchin,  the  final  n  being  nasal  and  faint- 
ly pronounced.  It  is  dropped  altogether  further  to  the  westward, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Yukon.  They  are  the  Loucheux  of  Sir  Alex- 
ander Mackenzie,  and  the  Di-go-thi-tdinne  of  the  neighboring 
Hare  Indians. 

Of  this  people  I  have  but  little  personal  acquaintance,  having 
had  only  brief  interviews  with  the  families  that  frequent  the 
banks  of  the  Mackenzie  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  or  so  above 
its  delta.  My  information  respecting  them  is  derived  from  ray 
friend  Mr.  Bell,  who  has  traded  with  them  for  many  years,  and 
is  the  first  European  who  penetrated  into  their  country  from  the 
eastward  ;  and  from  Mr.  Murray,  who  is  now,  and  has  been  for 


ill 


lii 


2'Jl 


PERSONAL  APPEARANCE. 


some  seasons,  resident  among  them.  It  is  to  this  gentleman's 
very  able  letters,  which  I  have  had  the  advantage  of  perusing, 
through  the  kindness  of  chief  factor  Murdoch  M'Pherson,  that 
I  am  indebted  for  descriptions  of  the  tribes  dwelling  on  the  Yu- 
kon. 

The  few  members  of  the  nation  that  I  saw  on  the  Mackenzie 
had  much  resemblance  in  features  to  their  neighbors  the  Hare 
Indians,  but  carried  themselves  in  a  more  manly  manner.  Being, 
however,  merely  outliers  of  the  Kutchin,  they  were  a  less  favor- 
able example  of  that  people  than  the  dwellers  on  the  Yukon  that 
came  nnder  Mr.  Murray's  observation.  He  states  that  the  males 
are  of  the  average  height  of  Europeans,  and  well-formed,  with 
regular  features,  high  foreheads,  and  lighter  complexions  than 
those  of  the  other  Red  Indians.*  The  women  resemble  the  men, 
and  Mr.  Murray  speaks  of  the  wife  of  one  of  the  chiefs  as  being 
so  handsome  that,  setting  aside  her  Indian  garb  and  tattooed 
face,  she  would  have  been  considered  a  fine  woman  in  any  coun- 
try. All  the  females  have  their  chins  tattooed,  and  when  they 
paint  their  faces  they  use  a  black  pigment.  The  men  employ 
both  red  and  black  paints  on  all  occasions  of  ceremony,  every  one 
applying  them  according  to  his  fancy  ;  and  that  they  may  always 
have  them  ready,  each  has  a  small  bag  containing  red  clay  and 
black  lead  suspended  to  his  neck.  Most  commonly  the  eyes  are 
encircled  with  black ;  a  stripe  of  the  same  hue  is  drawn  down 
the  middle  of  the  nose  ;  and  a  blotch  is  made  on  the  ucper  part 
of  each  cheek.  The  forehead  is  crossed  by  many  najrrow  red 
stripes,  and  the  chin  is  streaked  alternately  with  red  and  black. 
The  Chepewyans  and  Crees  paint  their  faces  in  a  similar  man- 
ner. 

The  outer  shirt  of  the  Kutchin  is  formed  of  the  skins  of  fawn 
reindeer,  dressed  with  the  hair  on,  after  the  manner  of  the  Hare 
Indians,  Dog-ribs,  and  other  Chepewyan  tribes,  but  in  its  form  it 

*  Mr.  Isbister,  speaking  of  the  Kutchin  who  frequent  Peel's  River  Fort, 
says,  "  They  are  an  athletic  and  fine-looking  race,  considerably  above  the 
average  stature,  most  of  them  being  upward  of  six  feet  in  height,  and  re- 
markably well  proportioned.  They  have  black  hair,  fine  sparkling  eyes, 
moderately  high  cheek  bones,  regular  and  well  set  teeth,  and  a  fair  com- 
plexion. Their  countenances  are  handsome  and  pleasing,  and  capable  of 
great  expression.  They  perforate  the  septum  of  the  nose,  in  which  they 
insert  two  shells  joined  together,  and  tipped  with  a  colored  bead  at  each 
end."— iJf/).  of  Brit.  Ass.  for  1847,  p.  122. 


i^ 


DRES9.-ORNAMENTS. 


835 


Jd 


I 


* 


roHernbles  the  shirts  of  the  Eskimos,  being  furniehcd  witU  peal  \ 
skirts,  though  of  smaller  size.  The  men  wear  these  peaks  beli  re 
and  behind;  the  women  have  larger  back  skirts  but  none  in  front. 
A  broad  band  of  beads  is  worn  across  the  shoulders  and  breast  of 
the  shirt,  and  the  hinder  part  of  the  dress  is  fringed  with  fancy 
beads  and  small  leathern  tassels,  Avound  round  with  dyed  porcu- 
pine quills,  and  strung  with  the  silvery  fruit  of  the  oleaster.* 
The  inferior  garment  of  both  sexes  is  a  pair  of  deer-skin  panta- 
loons, the  shoes  being  of  the  same  piece,  or  sewed  to  them.  A 
stripe  of  beads,  two  inches  broad,  strung  in  alternate  red  and 
white  squares,  runs  from  the  ankle  to  the  hip  along  the  seam  of 
the  trowsers,  and  bands  of  beads  encircle  the  ankles.  The  poorer 
sort  wear  only  a  fringe  of  beads,  and  sometimes  only  porcupine 
quills.  The  wealthy  load  themselves  with  beads,  strung  in  every 
kind  of  pattern,  on  the  breast  and  shoulders  ;  and  sometimes  im- 
mense rolls  of  this  valuable  article  are  used  as  necklaces.  Head- 
bands are  formed  of  small,  various-colored  beads,  mixed  with  den- 
talium  shells,  and  the  same  kind  of  shells  are  worn  in  the  nose 
and  ears.  The  hair  is  tied  behind  in  a  cue,  bound  round  at  the 
root  with  a  fillet  of  shells  and  beads,  and  loose  at  the  end.  This 
cue  is  daubed  by  the  tribes  on  the  Yukon  with  grease  and  the 
down  of  geese  and  ducks,  until,  by  repetitions  of  the  process  con- 
tinued from  infancy,  it  swells  to  an  enormous  thickness ;  some- 
times so  that  it  nearly  equals  the  neck  in  diameter,  and  the 
weight  of  the  accumulated  load  of  hair,  dirt,  and  ornaments, 
causes  the  wearer  to  stoop  forward  habitually.  The  tail  feathers 
of  the  eagle  and  fishing-hawk  are  stuck  into  the  hair  on  the  back 
of  the  head,  and  are  removed  only  when  the  owner  retires  to 
sleep,  or  when  he  wishes  to  wave  them  to  and  fro  in  a  dance. 
Mr,  Murray,  when  he  went  among  these  people,  found  that  they 
attached  nearly  as  much  honor  to  the  possession  of  their  cues  as 
the  Chinese  do  to  their  pig-tails,  but  he  in  a  short  time  acquired 
sufficient  influence  to  persuade  a  young  but  powerful  chief  to  rid 
himself  of  the  cumbrous  and  uncleanly  appendage ;  his  example 
was  followed  by  the  rest  of  his  band,  and  will,  it  is  to  be  hoped, 
spread  through  the  nation.  The  mittens,  which  the  men  always 
carry  with  them,  are  also  adorned  with  shells,  and  some  of  these 
expensive  appendages  are  even  attached  to  their  guns.     The 


1 


*  Eleeagnus  argentea. 


! 


230 


ARMS.— WIVES. 


women  wear  fewer  ghellg  and  beads,  both  of  which  have  a  high 
value  in  the  nation,  especially  the  shells.* 

In  winter,  shirts  of  hare-skin  are  worn,  and  the  deer-skin  pan- 
taloons have  the  fur  next  the  skin.  On  their  journeys,  travelers 
carry  with  them  their  dress  clothes,  which  they  put  on  every 
evening  after  encamping,  and  when  they  come  to  the  trading 
posts.  None  of  the  neighboring  nations  pay  so  much  attention 
to  personal  cleanliness  and  appearance. 

The  arms  of  the  men  are  a  bow  and  arrow,  a  knife,  a  dagger, 
and  a  spear,  with  a  quiver  hanging  on  the  left  side,  and  suspended 
by  an  embellished  belt,  which  passes  over  the  right  shoulder. 
Fancy  handles  and  fluted  blades  are  more  valued  than  the  good 
temper  of  a  knife ;  and  this  people  complain  of  the  trouble  of 
shapcning  a  hard  steel  weapon.  Not  so  the  Central  Eskimos, 
who  try  one  knife  against  another,  and  will  purchase  a  well-tem- 
pered blade  at  a  high  price.  Guns  have  been  lately  introduced 
among  the  Kutchin,  and  are  in  great  demand.  All  the  men 
carry  powder  and  ball,  whether  they  own  a  gun  or  not,  and  for 
it  obtain  a  share  of  the  game  killed  by  the  possessors  of  firearms. 
The  same  custom  exists  among  the  Dog-ribs. 

The  husbands  are  very  jealous  of  their  wives,  but  in  general 
treat  them  kindly,  contrasting  in  these  respects  with  their  neigh- 
bors. The  Chepewyans  treat  their  wives  indifi'erently,  and  are 
jealous  :  the  Eskimos  treat  them  well,  and  are  not  jealous.  The 
principal  men  of  the  Kutchin  possess  two  or  three  wives  each, 
and  Mr.  Murray  knew  one  old  leader  who  had  five.  Poor  men, 
whose  abilities  as  hunters  are  small,  and  who  have  been  unable 
to  accumulate  beads,  remain  bachelors ;  t  but  a  good  wrestler, 
even  though  poor,  can  always  obtain  a  wife.  In  winter  the 
women  do  all  the  drudgery,  such  as  collecting  the  fire-wood,  as- 
sisting the  dogs  in  hauling  the  sledge,  bringing  in  snow  to  melt 
for  water,  and  in  fact  perform  all  the  domestic  duties  except 
cooking,  which  is  the  man's  office  ;  and  the  wives  do  not  eat  till 
the  husband  is  satisfied.     In  summer  the  women  labor  little,  ex- 

*  The  shells,  being  several  species  of  Dentalium  and  Arenicola,  are  col- 
lected in  the  Archipelago  lying  between  the  Oregon  and  Cape  Fairweather, 
and  pass  by  trade  from  tribe  to  tribe.  The  large-ribbed  Dentalium  is 
most  prized. 

t  Scilicet  uxorem  cum  dote,  fidemque,  et  amicos, 

£t  genus,  et  formam,  regina  pecunia  donat, 
Ac  bene  nummatiun  decorat  Suadela  Yenusque. 


i 


RLLIUIOUS   BELIEF. 


997 


is 


< 


i 


I 


cept  in  drying  meat  or  fish  for  its  preservation.  The  men  alone 
paddle,  while  the  women  sit  as  passengers  ;  and  husbands  will 
even  carry  their  wives  to  the  shore  in  their  arms,  that  they  may 
not  wet  their  leet.  The  Eskimo  women  row  their  own  umiaks, 
and  the  Chepewyan  women  assist  the  men  in  paddling  their 
canoes.  On  the  whole,  the  social  condition  of  the  Kutchin  wo- 
men is  far  superior  to  that  of  the  Chepewyan  women,  but  scarce- 
ly equal  to  that  of  the  Eskimo  dames. 

The  Kuichin  women  do  not  carry  their  infants  in  their  hoods 
or  boots  after  the  Eskimo  fashion,  nor  do  they  stuff  them  into  a 
bag  with  moss,  as  the  Chepewyan  and  Crees  do,  but  they  place 
them  in  a  seat  of  birch  bark,  with  back  and  sides  like  those  of 
an  arm-chair,  and  a  pommel  in  f'ont,  resembling  the  peak  of  a 
Spanish  saddle.  This  hangs  at  the  woman's  back,  suspended  by 
a  strap  which  passes  over  her  shoulders,  and  the  infant  is  seated 
in  it,  with  its  back  to  hers,  and  its  legs,  well  cased  in  warm  boots, 
hanging  down  on  each  side  of  the  pommel.  The  child's  feet  are 
bandaged  to  prevent  their  growing,  small  feet  being  thought 
handsome  ;  and  the  consequence  is,  that  short,  unshapely  feet 
are  characteristic  of  the  people.  A  practice  so  closely  resembling 
the  Chinese  one,  though  not  confined,  as  with  them,  to  females, 
may  interest  ethnologists. 

The  Kutchin  live  more  comfortably  than  the  Hare  Indians 
or  Dog-ribs.  They  are  a  lively,  cheerful  people.  Dancing  and 
singing,  in  which  they  excel  other  Indians,  are  their  favorite 
amusements,  and  they  practice  leaping,  wrestling,  and  other  ath- 
letic exercises.  All  these  are  called  into  play  when  different 
bands  meet  on  friendly  terms.  They  are  inveterate  talkers. 
Every  new-comer,  as  he  arrives  at  a  trading  post,  halts  at  the 
door  of  the  house  and  makes  a  speech,  in  which  he  tells  where 
he  has  been,  what  he  has  done,  how  hard  he  has  labored  to  ob- 
tain furs,  and  urges  the  propriety  of  his  being  well  paid  for  his 
exertions,  relating  also  the  news  he  obtained  from  other  tribes, 
and  any  thing  that  has  checkered  his  life  or  crossed  his  thoughts 
since  his  former  visit.  Established  etiquette  forbids  any  one  to 
interrupt  him  until  he  has  concluded. 

Of  their  religious  notions  no  full  account  has  yet  been  obtained, 
but  they  speak  of  good  and  evil  spirits,  and  belief  in  shamanism 
is  common  to  them,  the  Eskimos,  and  the  Chepewyans.  The 
evil  spirit  whose  malevolence  they  dread  is  propitiated  through 


ii/ 


228 


MANBOTE  OR  BLOODMONEY. 


■W 


their  shamans,  who  profess  to  have  the  sole  power  of  communi- 
cating with  the  unseen  world,  and  foreseeing  deaths  and  foretell- 
ing events.  Such  powers  clothe  the  shamans  with  authority  and 
awfulness.  Should  any  one  have  a  quarrel  with  the  memhers  of 
another  tribe,  his  death  is  attributed  to  sorcery,  or,  as  the  inter- 
preters render  it,  to  "  evil  medicine."  A  strong  party  is  forthwii-h 
mustered,  to  seek  the  band  which  the  shamans  have  designated, 
and  to  demand  blood-money  for  their  relative,  or  to  avenge  his 
death  should  compensation  be  denied.  The  amount  claimed  varies 
with  the  rank  of  the  deceased,  and  the  estimation  in  which  he 
was  held,  from  twenty  "  skins"  of  beads  to  thrice  that  quantity. 
Mr.  Mnrray  mentions  a  bloody  instance  of  this  superstition  which 
occurred  in  1847.  A  woman  of  the  Kutcha-kutchi  tribe  dying 
suddenly,  her  death  was  at  first  attributed  to  the  presence  of 
white  people  on  their  lands,  but  the  matter  being  debated,  this 
opinion  was  overruled,  and  the  blame  was  attached  to  a  band 
named  Teytse-kutchi,  residing  further  down  the  river,  some  of 
whom  had  a  dispute  with  the  husband  of  the  deceased.  Upward 
of  thirty  warriors  started  on  the  blood-quest,  and  five  of  the  unsus- 
pecting Teytse-kutchi  happening  to  approach  a  sleeping-place  of 
the  war-party  were  waylaid.  Four  of  them  were  dispatched 
silently  on  their  landing,  and  the  fifth,  who  was  a  little  behind 
the  others,  not  seeing  his  companions  when  he  came  up,  suspect- 
ed that  evil  had  befallen  them,  and,  landing  on  a  sand-bank,  in- 
terrogated the  war-party  across  the  stream.  While  his  attention 
was  engaged  by  the  conversation  that  ensued,  two  of  his  foes  car- 
ried a  canoe  through  the  willows  to  the  other  side  of  a  point 
higher  up  the  stream,  and,  having  embarked,  drifted  leisurely 
down  the  river,  as  if  they  belonged  to  another  party.  On  ap- 
proaching the  sand-bank,  they  called  to  the  Teytse-kutchi  man, 
that  they  were  going  further  down,  and  would  be  glad  of  his 
company.  He  waited  till  they  came  up,  and  as  he  was  stepping 
into  his  canoe,  one  of  the  Kutcha-kutchi  tripped  him  up,  and  the 
other  stabbed  him  to  the  heart  as  he  lay.  Having  accomplished 
these  murderous  feats,  the  war-party  resumed  their  voyage,  but 
meeting  afterward  only  with  numerous  bodies  of  the  Teytse-kutchi, 
they  concealed  their  evil  intentions,  and  returned  to  their  own 
lands. 

Mr.  Thomas  Simpson,  in  his  "  Narrative  of  Discoveries  in  the 
Polar  Sea,"  relates  an  instance  of  the  Peel  River  Kutchin  de- 


TREACHERY. 


229 


manding  blood-money  from  the  Eskimos,  and  receiving  it  for  sev- 
eral years,  for  one  of  their  countrymen,  who  they  asserted  had 
died  of  wounds  received  in  a  contest  between  the  two  nations. 
The  Eskimos  having  at  length  discovered  that  the  man  for  whose 
death  they  had  been  paying  was  still  living,  reviled  the  Kutchin 
for  their  falsehood  and  extortion,  and  then  took  their  revenge  by 
killing  three  of  the  party  who  had  come  to  demand  the  compen- 
sation for  the  following  year. 

Mr.  Murray  reports  that  the  Kutchin  are  a  treacherous  people, 
that  they  never  attack  their  enemies  in  open  fight,  and  only  when 
they  consider  themselves  to  be  unquestionably  superior,  either  by 
numbers  or  in  position.  They  boast  of  their  successes,  but  seldom 
tell  of  their  reverses,  which  are  nevertheless  frequent,  as  their 
wars  are  chiefly  with  bands  of  their  own  nation,  who  are  as  wary 
and  treacherous  as  themselves.  By  these  feuds  one  half  of  the 
population  of  the  banks  of  the  Yukon  has  been  cut  off  within  the 
last  twentjfc  years.  Little  value  is  set  by  this  turbulent  people 
on  human  life,  and  the  constant  dread  of  ambuscade  deters  them 
from  traveling  except  in  large  parties.  They  have  not  as  yet 
imbrued  their  hands  in  European  blood.  Messrs.  Dease,  Bell, 
and  others  of  the  Company's  officers,  who  have  resided  at  Fort 
Good  Hope  on  Peel  River,  have  used  their  influence,  and  dis- 
tributed large  presents  among  the  tribes,  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing peace,  but  with  only  temporary  success.  The  pretensions 
and  arts  of  the  shamans  are  fertile  sources  of  mischief 

The  Peel  River  Kutchin,  in  speaking  to  Mr.  Bell  of  their  con- 
tests with  the  Eskimos,  always  charged  the  latter  with  treachery, 
but  it  is  more  likely  that  they  were  themselves  the  aggressors. 
One  of  their  encounters  with  that  people  deserves  to  be  mention- 
ed here,  because  of  its  resemblance  in  some  particulars  to  the 
meeting  of  Joab  and  Abner  recorded  in  the  Second  Book  of  Samuel. 
A  party  of  each  of  the  two  nations  having  met,  the  young  men 
rose  up  to  dance,  as  if  the  meeting  had  been  entirely  amicable ; 
but  the  Eskimos  having,  as  they  are  accustomed  to  do,  concealed 
their  long  flenching  knives  in  the  sleeves  of  their  deer-skin  shirts, 
drew  them,  in  one  of  the  evolutions  of  the  dance,  and  thrust  them 
into  their  opponents.  A  general  conflict  ensued,  in  which  the  Ku- 
tchin were  the  victors,  owing  to  their  guns — that  is,  according  to 
their  report  of  the  affair ;  but  had  the  Eskimos  been  the  tellers  of 
the  story,  the  circumstances  might  have  been  related  differently. 


1) 
I] 


#, 
^''j 


Id- 


'■'ft  I 

I 


U 


230 


BEADS  AND  SHELLS. 


h 


Another  incident,  which  occurred  on  the  banks  of  the  Yukon  in 
1845,  gives  a  further  insight  into  the  suspicious  and  timorous 
lives  of  these  people.  One  night  four  strangers,  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  river,  arrived  at  the  tent  of  an  old  man  who  was  sick, 
and  who  had  with  him  only  two  sons,  one  of  them  a  mere  boy. 
The  new-comers  entered  in  a  friendly  manner,  and,  when,  the 
hour  of  repose,  came  lay  down  ;  but  the  sons  perceiving  that  their 
guests  did  not  sleep,  and  suspecting  from  their  conduct  that  they 
meditated  evil,  feigned  a  desire  of  visiting  their  moose-deer  snares. 
They  intimated  their  purpose  aloud  to  their  father,  and  went  out, 
taking  with  them  their  bows  and  arrows.  Instead,  however,  of 
continuing  their  way  into  the  wood,  they  stole  back  quietly  to  the 
tent,  and  listening  on  the  outside,  discovered  as  they  fancied,  from 
the  conversation  of  the  strangers,  that  their  father's  life  was  in 
danger.  Knowing  the  exact  position  of  the  inmates,  they  there- 
upon shot  their  arrows  through  the  skin  covering  and  killed  two 
of  the  strange  Indians ;  the  other  two,  in  endeavoring  to  make 
their  escape  by  the  door,  shared  the  fate  of  their  companions. 
This  is  spoken  of  in  the  tribe  as  an  exceedingly  brave  action. 
The  golden  age  of  innocence  and  security  is  not  to  be  sought  for 
among  a  savage  people  ignorant  of  the  precepts  of  divine  truth. 

The  Yukon  Kutchin  pass  the  summer  in  drying  white-fish 
(Coregonus)  for  winter  use.  For  the  purpose  of  taking  these 
hsh,  they  construct  weirs  by  planting  stakes  across  the  smaller 
rivers  and  narrow  parts  of  lakes,  leaving  openings  in  which  they 
place  wicker  baskets  to  intercept  the  fish.  This  practice  is  com- 
mon in  Oregon  and  New  Caledonia,*  but  does  not  exist  to  the 
eastward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  On  the  other  hand,  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Yukon  are  unacquainted  with  nets,  so  largely 
employed  by  the  Chepewyans  and  Crees.  The  Kutchin  take  the 
moose-deer  in  snares,  and,  toward  the  spring,  most  of  the  nation 
resort  to  the  mountains  to  hunt  reindeer  and  lay  in  a  stock  of 
dried  venison. 

Beads  are  the  riches  of  the  Kutchin,  and  also  the  medium  of 
exchange  throughout  the  country  lying  between  the  Mackenzie 
and  the  west  coast,  other  articles  being  valued  by  the  number  of 
strings  of  beads  they  can  procure.  No  such  near  approach  to 
money  has  been  invented  by  the  nations  residing  to  the  eastward 

*  Cook  observed  fishing  weira  at  Nootka  Sound. — Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii. 
p.  281. 


? 


TENTS.-VAPOR  BATHS. 


331 


of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  though  their  intercourse  with  the  fur- 
traders  has  given  them  a  standard  of  value  in  the  beaver's  skin. 
Their  accounts  at  the  posts  being  reckoned  by  the  number  of 
"  beavers"  they  owe,  and  the  Company's  tariff  fixes  the  value  of 
a  "  beaver."  To  be  accounted  a  chief  among  the  Kutchin,  a  man 
must  possess  beads  to  the  amount  of  200  beavers.  The  standard 
bead,  and  the  one  of  most  value,  is  a  large  one  of  white  enamel 
which  is  manufactured  in  Italy  only,  and  can  with  difficulty  be 
procured  from  thence  in  sufficient  quantity.  Fancy  beads,  i.e., 
blue  and  red  ones  of  various  sizes,  and  the  common  small  white 
ones,  are,  however,  in  request,  for  ornamenting  their  dresses. 

Dentalium  and  Arenicola  shells  are  transmitted  from  the  west 
coast  in  traffic,  and  are  greatly  valued.  None  of  the  Chepewyan 
tribes  wear  nose-ornaments,  neither  have  the  latter  people  the 
same  passion  for  beads.  A  supply  of  them  is  indeed  sent  to  all 
the  trading  posts  frequented  by  the  'Tinne,  but  they  are  mostly 
purchased  by  the  wives  of  Canadian  voyagers  or  half-breeds  re- 
siding in  the  establishments,  and  if  desired  by  the  natives  for  the 
same  purposes  they  are  given  to  them  as  presents,  or  exchanged 
for  articles  of  small  value,  and  never,  I  believe,  for  furs.  The 
Kutchin,  on  the  contrary,  will  not  part  with  their  furs  unless 
they  receive  most  of  the  price  in  beads  or  shells,  as  they  have  not 
yet  learnt  to  value  English  cloth  and  blankets  above  their  skin 
dresses.  Ammur>ition,  by  the  instructions  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  is  given  in  exchange  for  provisions,  or,  when  the  natives 
are  in  want,  gratuitously,  that  they  may  be  able  to  support  them- 
selves. 

Each  family  possesses  a  deer-skin  tent  or  lodge — the  skins  used 
in  winter  being  prepared  without  removing  the  hair,  that  the 
cold  air  may  be  more  effectually  excluded.  In  summer,  when 
the  family  is  traveling  in  quest  of  game,  the  tent  is  rarely  erected. 
A  winter  encampment  is  made  usually  in  a  grove  of  spruce  firs. 
The  ground  being  cleared  of  snow,  the  lodge-skins  are  extended 
over  flexible  willow  poles,  which  take  a  semicircular  form,  and 
are  transported  with  them  from  place  to  place.  The  hemispheri- 
cal shape  of  their  lodges  is  not  altogether  unknown  among  the 
Chepewyans  and  Crees,  being  that  generally  adopted  for  vapor 
baths,  which  are  framed  of  willow  poles  stuck  into  the  ground  at 
each  end ;  but  the  lodges  used  by  these  nations  for  dwelling  places 
are  cones,  formed  by  stiff  poles  meeting  at  the  top.     I'he  lodges 


M 


1 


232 


DEER  POUNDS. 


of  the  Kutchin  resemble  the  Eskimo  snow  huts  in  shape,  and  also 
the  yourts  of  the  Asiatic  Anadyrski.  When  the  Kutchin  winter- 
lodge  is  raised,  snow  is  packed  on  the  outside  to  half  its  height, 
and  it  is  lined  equally  high  within  with  the  young  spray  of  the 
spruce  fir,  that  the  bodies  of  the  inmates  may  not  rest  against  the 
cold  wall.  The  doorway  is  filled  up  by  a  double  fold  of  skin,  and 
the  apartment  has  the  closeness  and  warmth,  but  not  the  elegance 
of  a  snow  house.  Mr.  Murray  remarks,  that  though  only  a  very 
small  fire  is  usually  kept  in  the  centre  of  the  lodge,  the  warmth 
is  as  great  as  in  a  log  house.  The  provisions  are  stored  on  the 
outside,  under  a  covering  of  fir  branches  and  snow,  and  further 
protected  from  the  depredations  of  the  dogs  by  the  sledges  being 
placed  on  the  top. 

Mr.  Bell  informed  me  that,  on  the  open  hilly  downs  frequented 
by  reindeer,  the  Kutchin  have  formed  pounds,  toward  which  the 
animals  are  conducted  by  two  rows  of  stakes  or  trunks  of  trees 
extending  for  miles.  These  rows  converge,  and  as  the  space  be- 
tween them  narrows,  they  are  converted  into  a  regular  fence  by 
the  addition  of  strong  horizontal  bars.  The  extremity  of  the 
avenue  is  closed  by  stakes  set  firmly  in  the  ground,  with  their 
sharp  points  sloping  toward  the  entrance,  so  that  when  the  deer 
are  urged  vehemently  forward  they  rnay  impale  themselves  there- 
on. The  hunters,  spreading  over  the  coantry,  drive  the  deer  with- 
in the  jaws  of  the  pound  ;  and  the  women  and  children,  ensconced 
behind  the  fence,  wound  all  that  they  can  with  arrows  and  spears. 
These  structures  are  erected  with  great  labor,  as  the  timber  has 
to  be  brought  into  the  open  country  from  a  considerable  distance. 
Some  of  the  pounds  visited  by  Mr.  Bell  appeared  to  him,  from 
the  condition  of  the  wood,  to  be  more  than  a  century  old.  They 
are  hereditary  possessions  of  the  families  by  whom  they  were  con- 
structed. 

Mr.  Murray's  letters  describe  the  meetings  of  several  tribes 
which  he  witnessed.  On  one  occasion  two  parties  who  had  been 
at  war  with  each  other,  and  had  not  yet  arranged  their  differences, 
met  at  his  encampment.  Very  long  harangues  were  made  by 
different  members  of  the  two  bodies  before  they  landed.  After 
this,  one  party,  stepping  from  their  canoes,  formed  a  circle  and 
pranced  round,  yelling  and  shouting  furiously.  The  other  party 
landed  a  little  way  oS,  and  ranging  themselves  in  Indian  file,  the 
chief  in  front  and  the  women  and  children  in  the  rear,  danced 


ANECDOTES. 


233 


5r 


forward  slowly,  until  they  came  up  to  the  others ;  when  the  whole, 
joining  in  one  circle,  capered  for  half  an  hour,  uttering  the  most 
horrible  cries,  the  two  chiefs  meanwhile  keeping  in  the  centre. 

The  formal  dance  is  always  in  a  circle,  but  the  gestures  and 
the  songs  which  accompany  them  vary.  After  a  ball  kept  up 
vigorously  by  man,  woman,  and  child,  for  hours,  the  parties  retire 
to  their  tents,  and  raise  the  song  at  intervals  till  the  morning. 
At  the  festivals  held  on  the  meeting  of  friendly  tribes,  leaping  and 
wrestling  are  practiced. 

Several  other  illustrations  of  the  superstitions  and  manners  of 
this  people  might  be  quoted  from  P^r.  Murray's  letters,  but,  as 
they  relate  only  to  peculiarities  already  mentioned,  I  shall  restrict 
my  extracts  to  two  ether  anecdotes.  A  young  chief  was  at  Mr. 
Murray's  encampment  when  a  party  of  another  tribe,  named  the 
Vanta-kootchi,  arrived,  one  of  whom  had  married  the  chief's 
sister,  and  was  reported  to  have  killed  her.  The  young  chief 
('emanded  an  expiatory  offering  in  beads  for  his  sister's  death, 
which  was  refused ;  and  an  altercation  ensuing,  something  was 
said  which  insulted  him.  He  immediately  drew  his  knife  and 
walked  boldly  up  to  the  others,  who  would  have  cut  him  in  pieces 
but  for  the  immediate  intervention  of  the  white  men.  A  few 
words  of  explanation  from  a  hunter  in  Mr.  Murray's  employment 
calmed  the  storm.  The  woman  had  not  been  kiLcd,  but  was 
drowned  in  crossing  a  river,  through  the  upsetting  of  a  canoe. 
A  present  of  a  large  Eskimo  spear,  valued  at  ten  skins,  was  made 
to  the  brother,  and  peace  was  restored. 

A  body  of  the  Han-kutcki,  residing  at  the  sources  of  the  Yukon, 
came  to  visit  Mr.  Murray  early  in  August.  Rumors  of  their 
hostile  intentions  preceded  them.  The  sudden  death  of  their 
chief  in  summer  had  been  attributed  by  them  to  the  shamanism 
of  the  Kutcha-kutchif  and  also  to  the  presence  of  white  people  in 
the  country.  The  Canadian  voyagers  looked  on,  therefore,  with 
apprehension,  which  was  not  quieted  by  the  first  movements  of 
their  visitors.  Twenty  canoes  first  appeared,  gliding  stealthily 
down  the  river  to  a  point  above  the  encampment,  on  which  the 
party  landed  and  assembled  in  silence.  Mr.  Murray  walked  up 
to  them,  and  expressed  his  pleasure  at  the  meeting  ;  but,  rushing 
past  him,  the  whole  body  ran  in  full  career  to  the  lower  end  of 
the  encampment  and  back  again  to  their  landing-place,  shouting 
and  whooping  in  a  peculiar  manner.     Then  they  formed  a  half- 


i 


!;■ 


m 


I 

li 

1'-- 


m 


231 


THE  YUKON  RiVER  TRIBES. 


I 


circle,  and  danced  with  great  energy  for  a  few  minutes,  beating 
time  to  their  songs  with  their  feet.  Their  dresses,  tinkling  with 
beads  and  brass  trinkets,  and  their  long  clouted  hair  shaking  in 
the  wind,  gave  them  a  wild  and  savage  aspect.  They  were 
armed  with  pikes  of  their  own  manufacture,  also  with  similar 
weapons,  mounted  with  sheet-iron,  \  .^cured  from  the  Russians. 
On  the  dance  ceasing,  Mr.  Murray  presented  the  brother  of  the 
deceased  chief  with  twelve  inches  of  tobacco  to  smoke  over  the 
grave,  which  produced  a  favorable  impression,  and  called  forth 
the  remark  that  now  he  could  consider  the  white  people  as  his 
friends.  These  Indians  afterward  became  troublesome,  asked  for 
goods  on  credit,  and  on  being  denied  threw  out  some  significant 
innuendos,  saying,  among  other  things,  that  the  Russians  had 
used  them  so  at  first,  but  had  become  more  civil  since  they  had 
cut  off  one  of  their  outposts.  At  the  great  dance  in  the  evening, 
the  deceased  chief's  brother  did  not  join  the  circle,  but  retired  to 
a  corner,  and  made  piteous  lamentations. 

Mr.  Murray,  from  information  collected  from  the  natives,  esti- 
mates the  population  of  the  banks  of  the  Yukon  at  about  one 
thousand  men  and  boys  :  ble  to  hunt.  They  are  distributed  as 
follows.  Between  the  upper  branches  of  the  river  and  the  coast 
of  the  Pacific,  on  or  near  the  62d  parallel,  reside  the  Artez-kutchi, 
or  "tough  and  hard  people,"  numbering  100  men.  The  Tchu- 
kutchi,  "  people  of  the  water,"  of  about  the  same  numbers,  in- 
habit the  banks  of  Deep  River,  a  western  affluent  of  the  Yukon, 
opposite  Comptroller's  Bay.  The  Tathzey-kutchi,  "  people  of  the 
ramparts,"  known  to  the  traders  and  Canadian  voyagers  by  the 
name  of  "  Gens  du  Fou^  number  about  230  men,  who  are  di- 
vided into  four  bands,  the  uppermost  of  which  is  called  Tratze- 
kutchi,  "people  of  the  fork  of  the  river."*  The  Tathzey-kutchi 
inhabit  a  wide  country,  which  extends  from  the  sources  of  the 
Porcupine  and  Peel  to  those  of  the  river  of  the  Mountain-Men. 
They  visit  the  Russians  on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  and  trade 
with  the  intervening  tribes.     The  Indians  of  the  lowlands  at  the 

*  One  of  ^Dtchl-ta-ut  Hinne,  or  Mountain  Indians,  who  inhabit  the  con- 
terminous mountainous  country  that  lies  between  the  Noh^hanne  and  the 
Becatess  ("Gull"  or  "Gravel  River"  of  the  voyagers),  called  the  Gens  du 
Fou,  Ey-une  Hinne ;  and  a  Mountain  Indian  hunter,  employed  by  Mr. 
Bell,  called  them  Tratza-ut  Hinne,  which  is  evidently  another  mode  of  pro- 
nouncing the  designation  they  give  themselves,  substituting  for  Kutchx  the 
synonymous  appellation  'Tinnc. 


UELATED  TO  OTHER  COAST  TRIBES. 


235 


influx  of  the  Porcupine  River,  named  Kutcha-kutchi,  number  90 
men.  Further  down  the  Yukon  are  the  Zckathaka  or  Zi-unka- 
kutchi,  "  people  on  this  side,"  or  "  middle  people,"  numbering 
only  20  men.  West  of  these  reside  the  "  people  of  the  bluffs," 
Tanna-kutchi,  100  strong.  And  further  down,  at  the  influx  of 
Russian  River,  are  the  Teytse-hitchi,  "  people  of  the  shade,"  or 
"  shelter,"  of  about  100  men.  Nearer  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon 
are  two  bands,  usually  called  Tlagga-silla,  or  "  little  dogs,"  but 
not  by  themselves.  These  trade  their  furs  with  the  KutcichjMck- 
meuten,  mentioned  in  page  219.  The  banks  of  the  Porcupine 
and  country  on  the  north  of  it  belong  to  the  Vmita-kutchi,  *'  peo- 
ple of  the  lakes,"  having  80  men ;  and  to  another  band,  named 
Neyetse-kutchi,  "  people  of  the  open  country,"  who  have  40  men. 

Though  the  short  Kutchin  vocabulary  formed  by  Mr.  Murray, 
which  will  be  printed  in  the  Appendix,  contains  some  Eskimo 
words,  the  language,  as  far  as  one  can  judge  from  so  brief  an 
example,"  is  more  nearly  related  to  the  'Tinne.  How  far  the 
Kutchin  are  to  be  considered  as  actually  a  distinct  nation  from 
the  'Tinne  or  Chepewyans,  must  be  decided  hereafter  when  their 
two  languages  are  better  known. 

At  my  suggestion  Mr.  Murray  made,  by  the  aid  of  his  Atha- 
bascan interpreter,  the  following  collection  of  words,  having  a 
similar  sound  and  signification  in  the  Kutchin  and  Dog-rib  lan- 
guages. 


e 


English. 

Kutchin. 

Dog-rib. 

One 

Tech-lagga 

Inch-lagga  or  Ingeh-lagg 

Two 

Nak-heiy 

Nak-he. 

A  hare 

K6 

Ka. 

Fire 

Kon  or  Khon 

Khu  or  Kun. 

Wood 

Tutshun 

Tutshin. 

A  blanket 

Tsatte 

Tsat-he. 

Reindeer  (male) 

Bat-zey-tcho 

Bet-sich-tcho. 

A  dog 

Chli-en  or  Chlyn 

Chli  or  Thling. 

My  country 

Sun-nun 

Sa-nun-n&. 

Moss 

Ni-en 

Ni. 

A  goose 

Chre 

Chra. 

A  snow  {■  aose 

Ku-ke 

Ko-ka. 

Thunder 

Nach-thun 

Nach-thun. 

Willow 

Khy-i 

Khy-i. 

Snow  shoes 

Ai-i  or  Ay-i 

Ah. 

A  poplar  tree 

T'ho 

Toe  or  T'hbe. 

An  Indian  cap 

Tse 

Tsa. 

White 

Ta-kyne 

Tek-kyne. 

H'  ft' 


386 


DIALECTS. 


English. 

Man 

A  quill  or  feather 

A  sinew 

You 


Kutchin. 

'Tingi 

Teh  or  Tay 

Tcho 

Nuhn  or  Nunn 


Dog-rib. 

'Dinne,  or  'Tenneh,  or  Dunneh 

Tah. 

Tie. 

Nunney. 


In  this  vocabulary  the  ch,  except  when  immediately  preceded  by  t,  is  pro- 
nounced aa  in  the  Scottish  '''■  loch,''''  or  Irish  '•'' och  ;''''  u  is  sounded  as  oo  in 
good,  except  before  double  consonants  ;  and  t  as  cc  in  "  see,"  or  e  in  "  me." 

Mr.  Murray  remarks  that,  though  the  above  words  and  a  few 

names  of  trading  goods  are  similar  in  sound,  the  languages  of  the 

two  nations  are  very  different.     More  resemblances,  he  thinks, 

might  be  traced  through  the  Mountain  Indian  speech  {Naha 

'tdinne  or  Dtche-ta-ut  'tinne)  than  directly  between  the  Kutchin 

-and  Dog-rib  tongues.     The  Han-Kutchi,  of  the  sources  of  the 

Yukon,  speak  a  dialect  of  the  Kutcha-Kutchi  language,  yet  they 

understand  and  are  readily  understood  by  the  Indians  of  Frances 

Lake  and  the  banks  of  the  Felly.     Now  these  converse  freely 

with  the  Naha-  or  Dtche-ta-ut  'tinne,  and  other  Rocky  Mountain 

tribes,  whose  language  resembles  the  Dog-rib  tongue,  and  who 

are,  in  fact,  acknowledged  members  of  the  Chepewyan  nation. 

Again,  the  Frances  Lake  Indians  understand  the  Netsilley,  or 

Wild  Nation,  who  trade  at  Fort  Halkett,  on  the  P^-iver  of  the 

Mountains ;  these  again  are  understood  by  the  Sikimis  ;  and  the 

Sikdnis  by  the  Beaver  Indians,  whose  dialect  varies  little  from 

that  of  the  Athabascans,  the  longest-known  member  of  the  'Tinne 

nation. 

From  the  great  resemblance  in  manners,  customs,  and  person 

of  the  '  Tnaina*  or  Kenaiyer  of  Cook's  Inlet,  the  Ugalakmutsi 

*  Tnai  signifies  "men,"  and  is  used  when  the  Atnaer  speak  of  tViem- 
selves.  Their  Eskimo  neighbors  the  Kadyakers  call  them  Kenai-yut,  and 
the  Russians  have  adopted  this  latter  appellation.  Koltshanen  means 
"strangers"  in  the  Atnaer  dialect,  and  Gultzancn  "guests"  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Kenaiyer.  These  people,  coming  from  the  interior,  about 
the  sources  of  the  Copper  River  and  the  water-shed  between  it  and  the 
valley  of  the  Yukon,  have  commercial  relations  with  the  Kutchin  who 
dwell  on  Deep  River,  an  affluent  of  the  Yukon.  Their  accounts  of  the 
pointed  skirts  of  the  Kutchin  shirts  have  given  rise  to  the  fable  already 
alluded  to  of  men  with  tails  dwelling  beyond  the  mountains,  current 
among  the  Kenaiyer.  And  their  reports  of  the  cannibalism  of  the  tribes 
of  the  interior  have  a  similar  foundation.  Lynn's  Canal  is  not  mentioned 
as  the  ascertained  southern  limit  of  the  tribes  akin  to  the  Kutchin,  but 
because  down  to  that  inlet  the  language  of  the  Yukon  Kutchin  seems  to 
be  readily  comprehended.     The  traveling  merchants  who  go  from  thence 


i 


1 


KENAIYER.— UGALENTS. 


237 


e 


or  Ugalents  of  King  William's  Sound,  the  Atncier  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Copper  River,  the  Koltsha?icn  or  Galtzanen  of  the  sources 
of  that  stream,  and  the  other  Kolusch  tribes  as  far  as  Tchilkat 
or  Lynn's  Canal,  on  the  54th  parallel  and  135th  meridian,  to 
those  of  the  Kutchin,  I  am  inclined  to  consider  them  as  all  of 
the  same  stock.  Captain  Cook,  from  whom  we  have  the  earliest 
accounts  of  these  people,  remarks  their  dissimilarity  in  person 
and  language  to  the  Wakash  nation  who  inhabit  Vancouver's 
Island. 

The  Kenaiyer  and  Ugalents  are  described  by  Captain  Cook* 
and  Baron  Wrangell  as  a  moderate-sized  race,  occasionally  tall, 
with  women  of  equal  height,  and,  when  young,  handsome ;  par- 
ticulars in  which  they  agree  with  the  Kutchin,  whose  women 
have  finer  persons  than  the  'Tinne  females.  Both  these  authors, 
however,  remark  that  there  are  many  deformed  individuals  among 

to  the  banks  of  the  Pelly  and  sources  of  the  Yukon  meet  there  with  the 
Tratze-kutchi  or  Gens  du  Fou^  by  whom  they  are  understood-— as  has  been 
mentioned  in  page  105  of  the  narristive.  Dr.  Scouler  and  fathers  maintain, 
and  probably  with  justice,  that  the  Kolusch  language  is  spoken  as  low  as 
Queen  Charlotte's  Island  and  the  Observatory  Inlet. 

*  "  The  natives  who  came  to  visit  us  in  the  Sound  were  generally  not 
above  the  common  height,  though  many  were  under  it.  They  were  square, 
or  strong-chested  ;  and  the  most  disproportioned  part  of  their  body  seemed 
to  be  their  heads,  which  were  very  large ;  with  thick  short  necks ;  and 
large,  broad,  or  spreading  faces,  which  upon  the  whole  were  flat.  Their 
eyes,  though  not  small,  scarcely  bore  a  proportion  to  the  size  of  their 
faces ;  and  their  noses  had  full  round  points  hooked  or  turned  up  at  the 
tip.  Their  teeth  were  broad,  white,  equal  in  size,  and  evenly  set.  Their 
hair  was  black,  thick,  straight,  and  strong ;  and  their  beards  m  general 
thin  or  wanting ;  but  the  hairs  about  the  lips  of  those  who  have  them, 
were  stiff  or  bristly,  and  frequently  of  a  brown  color.  And  several  of  the 
elderly  men  had  even  large  and  thick  but  straight  beards."  "  Their  coun- 
tenance indicates  a  considerable  share  of  vivacity,  good-nature,  and  frank- 
ness. Some  of  the  women  have  agreeable  faces." — Cook,  Third  Voyage, 
vol.  ii.  p.  366. 

Wrangell  says,  "  The  Kenaiyer  are  in  general  of  middle  size,  slightly 
built,  and  betray  a  true  American  descent  in  their  features  and  color  of 
the  skin.  Many  arnong  them  are  of  gigantic  stature,  and  I  have  never 
seen  so  many  deformed  persons  among  any  people  in  the  colonies." 

These  quotations  will  give  the  impressions  the  coast  tribes  made  on  two 
accurate  observers  at  distant  periods.  With  respect  to  the  shortness  and 
thickness  of  the  neck,  I  may  mention  that  the  skeletons  of  the  races  which 
flatten  their  foreheads  artificially  have  very  short  necks,  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebrae  being  unusually  thin.  This  is  doubtless  the  result  of  the  process 
resorted  to  in  infancy ;  and  the  same  effect  may  be  produced  by  masses 
of  dirt  and  hair  adding  weight  to  the  head. 


1 


P 

I 


338 


KOLTSHANEN. 


t 


tho  coast  tribes,  contrary  to  what  occurs  among  the  inland  Indians. 
Both  sexes  of  the  Kenaiyer  and  of  the  allied  tribes  powder  their 
hair  with  the  down  of  birds,  and  smear  their  faces  with  black, 
blue,  and  red  pigments.  The  blue  pigment  was  noticed  by  Cook, 
and  Mr.  Bell  iulbrmed  me  that  some  of  the  Peel  River  Kutchin 
possess  it,  but  he  did  not  ascertain  where  they  procured  it,  and  I 
have  not  been  able  to  obtain  a  specimen  of  it,  so  as  to  ascertain 
its  nature.  The  men  wear  dentalium  shells  in  the  nose,  and  also 
ear-pendants,  and  the  unsightly  labrets.  They  are  a  cheerful 
people,  sing  during  labor,  and  when  it  is  over  recreate  themselves 
with  dancing.  Cook  notices  the  thick  short  necks  of  the  people 
of  Prince  William's  Sound.  The  muscles  of  the  necks  of  the 
Kutchin  are  called  strongly  into  action  for  the  support  of  their 
weighty  ties  of  hair,  and,  in  consequence  thereof,  increase  in  size ; 
and  we  might  have  been  inclined  to  attribute  the  disproportion 
noticed  by  Cook  to  a  similar  cause,  had  he  not  mentioned  that 
the  men  wear  their  hair  cropped  round  the  neck.  Some  of  the 
women,  however,  clubbed  it  behind ;  and  this  looks  as  if,  at  that 
period,  the  tribe  had  found  out  the  inconvenience  of  the  unwieldy 
and  uncleanly  cues,  and  thai  a  few  only  of  the  women  retained 
them. 

Among  the  Atnaers  and  neighboring  tribes  who  hunt  reindeer, 
pounds,  formed  of  hedges  converging  thus  >,  are  in  use.  Weirs 
and  wicker-baskets  for  taking  fish  are  also  constructed  by  the 
coast  tribes.  The  shirts  of  the  Ugalents  reach  to  the  knee  or 
lower,  and  are  cut  evenly  round  without  peaks.  They  are  made 
of  skins,  with  the  fur  turned  outward ;  but  the  coast  people  wear 
also  a  waterproof  outer  dress,  made  of  whale-gut  or  other  thin 
membraneous  substance,  which  they  have  most  probably  adopted 
from  their  Eskimo  neighbors.  The  dwellers  of  the  interior  do 
not  use  it,  and  indeed  have  not  the  material.  The  Koltshanen 
construct  birch-bark  canoes ;  but  on  the  coast  skin  boats  or  bai- 
dars,  like  the  Eskimo  kaiyaks  and  umiaks  are  employed.  Another 
opening  has,  however,  been  added  to  the  kaiyak,  which  is  there- 
fore longer,  and  carries  two  sitters.  It  would  seem  that  the  con- 
stant commercial  intercourse  between  the  coast  tribes  had  led 
them  to  adopt  whatever  they  thought  worthy  of  imitation  from 
one  another. 

The  passion  for  glass  beads  extends  from  the  coast  to  the  Mac- 
kenzie.    The  Atnaers  bury  their  accumulations  of  this  treasure 


^ 


SUPPOSED  DESCENT  FROM   A   RAVEN.— COURTSHIP. 


239 


O 


>d 


■e 


in  the  earth,  and  leave  the  hoard  to  their  children.     In  Cook'a 
time  a  large  light-blue  bead  was  in  the  greatest  request. 

All  the  coast  tribes  now  under  consideration  claim  descent 
from  the  Raven  ;  and  it  would  strengthen  the  opinion  we  enter- 
tain of  their  affinity  with  the  Kutchin,  if  the  same  belief  existed 
among  the  latter.  This,  however,  has  not  been  ascertained. 
The  west  coast  Eskimo  and  the  Chepewyan  tribes  agree  in  tra- 
cing the  origin  of  their  respective  nations  to  the  Dog.  The  Raven, 
say  the  Northern  Kolushes,  Prometheus-like,  stole  the  elements 
one  after  another,  out  of  which  he  made  the  world.  The  Kenai- 
yer  tradition  is,  that  the  Raven  also  made  two  women,  one  of 
whom  is  the  mother  of  six  races,  and  the  other  of  five.*  It  was 
the  custom  that  the  men  of  one  stock  should  choose  their  wives 
from  another,  and  the  ofTspring  belonged  to  the  race  of  the  mother. 
This  custom  has  fallen  into  disuse,  and  marriages  in  the  same 
tribe  occur ;  but  the  old  people  say  that  mortality  among  the 
Kenaiyer  has  arisen  from  the  neglect  of  the  ancierrt  usage.  A 
man's  nearest  heirs  in  this  tribe  are  his  sister's  children,  little 
going  to  his  sons,  because  they  received  in  their  father's  lifetime 
food  and  clothing.  . 

Courtship  is  a  simple  affair  with  these  people.  Early  in  the 
morning  the  lover  makes  his  appearance  at  the  abode  of  the 
father  of  the  object  of  his  choice,  and,  without  a  word  of  explana- 
tion, begins  to  heaf.  the  bath-room,  to  bring  in  water,  and  to  pre- 
pare food.  Then  he  is  asked  who  he  is,  and  why  he  performs 
these  offices.  In  reply  he  expresses  hi.s  wish  to  have  the  daugh- 
ter for  a  wife,  and  if  his  suit  be  not  rejected,  he  remains  as  a 
servant  in  the  house  a  whole  year.  At  the  end  of  that  time  he 
receives  a  reward  for  his  services  from  the  father,  and  takes  home 
his  bride.  No  marriage  ceremony  takes  place.  Rich  men  have 
three  or  four  wives.  The  wife,  though  the  most  industrious 
worker  in  the  family,  is  not  the  slave  of  her  husband.     She  may 

*  Tha  stock  descended  from  one  female  ancestor  are,  1.  the  Kachgiya, 
from  Gvkaihze,  "  the  raven ;"  2.  Tlachtana,  so  called  from  their  being 
weavers  of  grass-mats;  3.  Montochtana,  who  take  their  name  from  a 
corner  in  the  back  part  of  their  huts ;  4.  Tschichgi,  named  from  a  color ; 
5.  Nuchschi,  "descendants  from  heaven ;"   6.  Kali,  "fishermen." 

The  races  sprung  from  the  other  women  are,  1.  Tultschinn,  "bathers  in 
cold  water;"  2.  Katluchlna,  "lovers  of  glass  beads;"  3.  Schischlachtana, 
"deceivers  like  the  raven,  who  is  the  primar^'  instructor  of  man;"  4. 
Nutschichgi ,  and  5.  Zaltana,  named  from  a  mountain  on  the  borders  of 
Lake  Skilach  toward  the  sources  of  the  river  Katnu. 


■  m. 


240 


BANQUETS.— MOURNING. 


return,  if  dissatisfied  with  the  treatment  she  receives,  to  her 
father's  house,  and  then  she  takes  with  her  the  dowry  the  hus- 
band received  at  the  conclusion  of  his  year  of  service.  The  wife 
retains  as  her  own  property  whatever  she  gains  by  her  labors, 
and  it  often  happens  that  the  husband  makes  purchases  from  her. 
If  there  be  several  wives  in  a  family,  each  has  her  own  household 
stuff',  which  may  not  be  meddled  with  by  the  other  wives,  or  by 
any  member  of  the  household. 

Banquets,  accompanied  by  dances,  songs,  and  distribution  of 
presents,  take  place  on  various  occasions.  A  man,  on  recovering 
from  sickness,  will  give  a  feast  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  have 
shown  him  most  sympathy  during  his  illness.  One  who  spends 
freely  on  these  occasions  is  looked  up  to  by  his  fellow-countrymen, 
and  his  advice  sought.  This  is  the  origin  of  Toyonlwod,  or  chief- 
tainship. Though  the  power  of  the  petty  chief  does  not  depend 
on  descent,  it  frequently  passes  to  his  heir ;  but  submission  to  him 
is  conditional,  and  any  one  may  attach  himself  to  another  leader. 

If  a  man  be  murdered  or  injured  by  one  of  his  own  clan,  the 
nearest  relative  revenges  it  without  seeking  aid  ;  but  if  the  injury 
be  perpetrated  by  one  of  another  clan,  the  allied  families  are  called 
together  to  consult  on  the  defense  of  their  honor.  The  feud  that 
ensues  is  sometimes  bloody,  but  seldom  of  long  duration,  and  any 
prisoners  that  are  taken  are  set  free  for  a<  ransom,  or  retained  as 
slaves.  Before  the  Russians  came,  all  the  tribes  were  at  war 
with  the  Kadyakers  and  others  of  the  Eskimo  nation,  who  on 
that  account  received  from  the  Kenaiyer  the  denomination  of 
Vltsehna,  or  Ultseiiaga,  "  slaves." 

One  who  dies  is  mourned  by  his  whole  clan.  The  mourners 
assemble  in  the  dwelling  of  the  nearest  kinsman,  sit  round  the  fire, 
and  howl.  The  master  of  the  house,  dressed  in  his  best  garments, 
leads  the  lamentation,  having  his  face  blackened,  an  eagle's  feather 
in  his  nose,  and  a  cap  of  eagle  feathers  on  his  head.  Ringing  a 
bell  whi-.h  he  holds  in  each  hand,  he  raises  the  voico  of  mourning, 
making  at  the  same  time  violent  contortions  of  the  body,  and 
stamping  continually  on  the  ground  with  his  feet.  He  recounts 
in  his  song  the  famous  actions  of  the  deceased  ;  stanzas  are  im- 
provised by  the  other  mourners,  and  sung  to  the  accompaniment 
of  drums.  A  general  cry  of  grief  is  raised  at  the  end  of  every 
verse,  and  during  its  continuance  the  chief  mourner  pauses  from 
his  exertions,  and  lets  his  head  sink  on  his  breast. 


'X 


DO   NOT  NAME  THE   DEAD. 


241 


a 


snt 
!ry 


t 


The  clothing  and  rest  of  the  property  of  the  deceased  are  divided 
among  mourning  relatives.  The  body  is  then  burnt,  and  the  bones 
are  collected  and  interred  by  friends  who  are  not  of  kin  to  the  de- 
ceased. At  the  end  of  the  year  the  nearest  relative  celebrates  a 
festival  to  the  memory  of  the  departed.  From  that  time  the  dead 
man's  name  must  never  bo  pronounced  in  the  presence  ot  that 
relative,  and  he  even  changes  the  name  by  which  the  deceased 
had  been  accustomed  to  address  him.  If  a  relation  transgresses 
this  law,  he  is  reproved  ;  but  if  it  be  a  more  distant  friend  he  is 
challenged  by  the  kindred,  and  must  buy  himself  off.  Poor  men 
will  sometimes  endeavor  to  entrap  a  rich  relative  into  a  breach 
of  this  custom,  to  obtain  the  redemption-money.  The  Kenaiyer 
suppose  that  after  death  a  man  leads,  in  the  interior  of  the  earth, 
where  a  sort  of  twilight  reigns,  a  similar  life  to  his  former  one, 
but  that  he  sleeps  when  those  on  the  surface  are  awake,  and  wakes 
when  they  sleep. 

One  other  way,  among  several,  in  which  a  poor  Kenaiyer  en- 
deavors to  improve  his  condition  is,  to  invite  his  rich  friends  of 
another  family  to  a  festival.  Melted  snow  only  is  set  before  them, 
and  the  relatives,  watching  for  any  sneering  expressions  respecting 
this  Barmecide  feast,  report  them  to  the  host.  He  then  rushes  out 
with  angry  gestures,  and  challenges  his  mockers,  wounding  him- 
self at  the  same  time  with  an  arrow,  to  signify  that  he  prefers 
death  to  degradation.  This  scene  was  expected,  and  the  mockers 
having  their  presents  prepared,  declare  their  readiness  to  make 
reparation. 

The  winter  huts  of  the  Northern  Kolushes  are  high,  large,  and 
roomy,  built  of  wood,  with  the  hearth  in  the  middle,  and  the  sides 
divided  into  as  many  compartments  as  there  are  families  living 
under  the  roof;  the  number  varying  from  two  to  six.  Two  or 
three  bath  rooms  are  constructed  at  the  end,  and  in  them  much 
of  the  winter  is  spent.  These  vapor  baths  resemble  the  den  of  a 
bear,  and  open  into  the  hut  by  a  small  aperture  through  which 
a  man  can  creep  with  difficulty.  They  are  covered  on  the  out- 
side with  earth,  and  heated  within  with  hot  stones. 

Baron  Wrangell,  from  whom  most  of  the  preceding  details  have 
been  translated,  is  of  opinion  that  the  Kenaiyer  came  originally 
from  the  interior,  bringing  with  them  their  bark  canoes,  and  bor- 
rowing the  skin  kaiyaks  from  the  Eskimo  Tchugatschih,  who  are 
more  expert  and  bolder  navigators  of  the  sea.     The  following 


Il 
p 


i'4 


10 

!  '1ft 


Mt* 


'f  ii 


•U2 


JOURNEYS  OF  THE  KEAAlYEtt. 


notice  of*  the  journeys  of  the  Kenaiyer,  given  by  the  author  above 
named,  will  show  that  they  must  come  occasionally  into  contact 
with  the  dwellers  of  the  Yukon  Valley,  as  they  approach  its  water- 
shed. The  people  on  the  south  side  of  Cook's  Inlet  hunt  mount- 
ain sheep  in  the  neighboring  hills.  Those  that  dwell  on  the  north 
side  travel  much  further.  Striking  off  to  the  northeast,  after 
seven  days  of  rapid  march,  or  ten  of  ordinary  traveling,  in  which 
they  can  accomplish  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  or  one  hundred 
and  forty  miles,  they  arrive  at  the  foot  of  a  high  mountain  chain, 
where,  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Knitiben,  the  women,  children,  and 
less  skillful  hunters  are  left.  The  others  cross  the  mountains  in 
a  southerly  direction,  and  in  seven  days  more  arrive  at  Lake 
Chtuben,  on  an  elevated  plateau  not  far  from  the  source  of  the 
Suschitna,  and  fourteen  days'  march  from  the  northern  arm  of 
Cook's  Inlet. 

There  they  kill  reindeer,  which  winter  in  that  district  in  num- 
bers. The  Atnaer  and  Galzanen  of  Nutatlgat,  on  the  Copper 
River  come,  after  ten  days  of  rapid  traveling,  to  the  same  lake. 
From  thence  the  Kenaiyer  go  six  days'  march  further  to  a  small 
lake,  where  they  are  met  for  the  purposes  of  trade  by  the  more 
distant  Koltshanen,  who  supply  them  with  articles  of  English 
manufacture.  Porcupine  quills,  colored  by  the  Atnaer  with  moose 
berries,  used  for  embroidering  seal-skin  shirts,  are  valued  articles 
of  commerce ;  and  in  their  traffic  all  parties  are  wary  and  skillful. 

The  fatigues  of  this  excursion  render  the  Kenaiyer  hunters  lean 
and  exhausted  ;  but  they  kill  beavers  as  they  return  home,  and 
continue  to  do  so  up  to  the  beginning  of  winter,  when  they  hold 
the  annual  festival,  announce  the  produce  of  the  chase,  and  give 
themselves  up  to  recreation  and  pleasure. 

Slavery,  to  a  certain  extent,  prevails  among  the  coast  tribes, 
and  the  slaves,  who  are  originally  prisoners  taken  in  battle  and 
not  redeemed,  are  transferred  from  one  tribe  to  another  by  barter. 
Captain  Cook  mentions,  that  on  his  first  intercourse  with  them 
none  would  come  into  his  ship,  until  a  seaman  had  gone  into  one 
of  their  boats,  when  an  Indian  was  sent  up  into  the  ship.  This  was 
considered  by  the  English  officers  as  an  exchange  of  hostages,  but 
perhaps  the  Indians  reckoned  it  to  be  a  barter  of  slaves,  as  they 
would  not  part  with  the  seaman  until  muskets  were  presented  at 
them ;  and  when  he  returned  on  board  they  took  their  own  man 
and  departed.     The  slaves  are  named  Kalgen,  and  are  occasion- 


# 


SLAVERY. 


243 


a^ly  sacrificed  to  the  manes  of  deceased  chieftains  by  the  Kolt- 
shanen  and  Koluschen,  but  not  by  the  Atnaer.  Previous  to  the 
arrival  of  Europeans,  the  Atnaer  were  workers  in  copper,  and  sup. 
plied  the  neighboring  tribes  with  weapons.  They  have  since  ac- 
quired the  art  of  fabricating  Russian  iron  into  various  articles 
1  hey  are  a  milder  tribe  than  the  other  Kolushes,  and  are  generally 
on  good  terms  with  the  rest. 


.,»v- 


# 


i  ' 


i^ 


f 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

OF    THE    'tINN^    or    CHEPEWYANS. 

Geographical  Position. — National  Name. — Tribes. — Hare  Indians  and  Dog-ribs. — 
Personal  Appearance. — Women. — Dress. — Dispositions. — Wars. — Socialism. — 
Improvidence. — Suffering. — Affection  for  their  Children. — Hospitality  feeble. — 
Falsehood. — Honesty. — Religious  Belief — Volatility. — Marriages. — Wrestling 
for  a  Wife. — Dogs. — Moose-hunting. — Public  Opinion  the  only  Rule  of  Conduct. 
— Chiefs. — Introduction  of  Christianity. — Horses. — Houses. — Dawninga  of  Civ- 
ilization.— Members  of  the  'Tinnd  People  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. — 
Southern  Athabascans. 

'TiNNE  or  ^Dtinrie,  Athabascans,  or  Chepewyans.  Under 
these  national  appellations  I  have  to  speak  of  a  people  whose 
southern  border  is  the  Churchill  River,  or  the  Missinipi,  as  it  is 
termed  by  the  Eythinyuwuk,  to  whom  it  is  also  a  boundary  line. 
Every  where,  in  the  country  lying  east  of  the  Mackenzie,  the 
^Tinne  lands  are  conterminous  with  the  Eskimo  coast,  and,  to 
the  westward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  the  Kutchin  grounds, 
though  the  precise  geographical  limits  of  the  two  nations  in  that 
direction  have  not  yet  been  correctly  ascertained.  The  '  Tinne, 
however,  extend  across  the  continent,  since  the  Td-kuli  and  al- 
most the  entire  population  of  New  Caledonia  have  been  referred 
by  ethnologists  to  their  nation. 

The  name  by  which  the  'Tinne  designate  themselves  has,  as 
is  usual  wiih  the  native  Americans,  the  signification  of  '•  people," 
or  "  the  people,"  and  its  proper  application,  when  ascertained 
with  care,  would  seem,  at  first  sight,  to  be  a  good  test  for  fixing 
the  nationality  of  some  tribes  whose  position  in  the  ethnological 
scale  is  still  uncertain.  But  as  our  acquaintance  with  the  vari- 
ous American  languages  extends,  and  the  way  in  which  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  same  word  in  the  mouths  of  different  tribes  is 
gradually  modified  becomes  known,  doubts  arise  as  to  the  value 
of  such  a  test,  or,  rather,  the  opinion  of  the  intimate  connection 
between  the  various  tongues  is  strengthened,  though  it  may  be 
difficult  to  trace  their  links  in  vocabularies  compiled  by  Euro- 
peans.    Thus,  though  no  two  languages  can  be  apparently  more 


/ 


■^ 


as 

_  j» 


iri- 
jro- 
Is  is 

llue 

lion 

be 

iro- 

iore 


TRIBES. 


245 


4 


\ 


dissimilar  than  the  harsh,  guttural,  unpronounceable,  and  un- 
writable 'Tinne  speech,  and  the  flowing,  harmonious,  and  easily 
acquired  tongue  of  the  Eythinyuwuk,  yet  the  '  Thinyu  (man)  of 
the  latter  may  be  resolved  into  the  '  Tinnc,  '  Tinye,  or  'Dunne, 
of  the  former,  and  the  Ting-i  of  the  Kutchin,  without  much  phi- 
lological artifice.* 

Various  tribes  have  been  distinguished  by  peculiar  names,  but 
there  is  little  variety  in  their  general  appearance,  and  few  dis- 
crepancies in  their  dress,  customs,  or  moral  character.  The  Hare 
Indians  {Ka-cho-dtinne)  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Mackenzie, 
from  Slave  Lake  downward,  and  the  Dog-ribs  {Thling-e-fm- 
'dtinne)  the  inland  country  on  the  east,  from  Martin  Lake  to 
the  Coppermine.  There  is  no  perceptible  difference  in  the  aspect 
of  these  two  tribes.  They  sneet  in  the  same  hunting-grounds  at 
the  north  end  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  intermarry,  and  their  speech 
scarcely  differs  even  in  accent.  The  Hare  Indians,  frequenting 
a  thickly  wooded  district  in  which  the  American  hare  abounds, 
feed  much  on  that  animal,  and  clothe  themselves  with  its  skins, 
while  the  Dog-ribs  depend  more  upon  the  reindeer  for  a  supply 
of  winter  dresses,  but  in  all  essential  respects  they  are  the  same 
i)Pf  le.  To  the  eastward  of  the  Dog-ribs  are  the  Red-knives, 
by  their  southern  neighbors  the  Tantsa-ut-'dtinne  (Birch- 


)>.;. 


nLl  ^jeople).  They  inhabit  a  stripe  of  country  running  north- 
ward from  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  in  breadth  from  the  Great 
Fish  River  to  the  Coppermine.  They  were  also  formerly  in  the 
habit  ot  resorting  to  the  north  end  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  to  kill 
musk-oxen  and  reindeer  ;  but  many  of  their  influential  men  being 
cut  off  by  treachery  in  a  feud  with  the  Dog-ribs,  they  have  lately 
kept  more  toward  the  east  end  of  Great  Slave  Lake.  These 
three  tribes  roam  northward  to  the  Eskimo  boundary  line,  but 
mutual  fears  cause  the  two  people  to  leave  an  ample  neutral 
ground,  on  which  neither  party  are  willing  to  venture. 

Other  members  of  the  'Tinne  nation  inhabit  the  country  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Missinipi,  and  carry  their  furs  to  Fort  Church- 
ill, where  they  meet  the  Eskimos  that  come  from  the  north- 

*  Mr.  Isbister  says  the  Chepewyan  tongue  is  "  harsh  and  guttural, 
difficult  of  enunciation,  and  unpleasant  to  the  ear."  "As  a  language  it 
is  exceedingly  meagre  and  imperfect." — Rep.  Brit.  Asi.  for  1847.  Mr. 
M'Pherson  pointed  out  to  me,  as  a  curious  coincidence,  the  similarity  in 
sound  of  the  Gaelic  word  for  people,  with  the  ''Dunne  of  the  Dog-rib  In- 
dians. 


!l 


246 


CHEPEVVYANS. 


\", 


k 

,1; 


ward,  and,  through  the  influence  of  the  traders,  carry  on  an  ami- 
cable intercourse  with  them,  so  that  the  Tinne  families  occasion- 
ally accompany  the  Eskimos  to  their  hunting-grounds.     A  wide 
tract  of  barren  lands  intervenes  between  the  Churchill  'Tinne 
and  the  Red-knives,  and  the  tribes  on  the  Slave  and  Elk  Rivers 
which  resort  to  Fort  Chepewyan.     These  "  barren-grounds"  are 
very  thinly  peopled,  and  rather  by  isolated  families  who  resort 
thither  for  a  year  or  two  to  hunt  the  reindeer  than  by  parties 
associated  in  such  numbers  as  to  deserve  the  name  of  a  tribe. 
Part  of  these  wandering,  solitary  people  resort  at  intervals  of  two 
or  three  years  to  Churchill  for  supplies,  and  part  to  Fort  Chepe- 
wyan, where,  from  the  direction  in  which  they  came,  they  are 
named    Sa-i-sa-'dtinne   (Eastern  or   Rising    Sun  folks).     The 
Athabasca  'Tinne,  named  also  Chepewyans,  frequent  the  Elk 
and  Slave  Rivers,  and  the  country  westward  to  Hay  River,  which 
falls  into  Great  Slave  Lake.     There  is  some  difference  between 
their  dialect  and  that  of  the  tribes  on  the  Mackenzie,  but  not  so 
much  as  to  occasion  any  difficulty  to  an  interpreter,  versed  in 
either  tongue.     The  name  Cliepewyan  has  no  relation  to  the 
word  Ojibbeway  or  Chippeway,  which  designates  an  Eythinyu- 
wuk  people  frequenting  the  coasts  of  Lake  Superior,  but  has 
rather,  I  believe,  its  origin  in  the  contempt  felt  by  the  warlike 
Crees  for  the  less  manly  Tinne,  whom  they  oppressed  by  their 
inroads,  before  commerce  introduced  peace  between  them.     Chi- 
pai-uk-tim  (you  dead  dog)  is  a  most  opprobrious  epithet.     The 
appellation  of  "  slave"  given  to  the  Dog-ribs  by  the  same  people, 
whose  war-parties  penetrated  even  to  the  banks  of  the  Macken- 
zie, has  a  similar  origin ;  and  it  has  been  stated  in  a  preceding 
page,  that  the  Kolushes  also  called  the  Eskimo  Kadyakers  with 
whom  they  warred  "slaves."     To  the  south  of  the  Athabascans, 
a  number  of  'Tinne  frequent  the  upper  part  of  the  Missinipi, 
where  they  mingle  with  the  Crees,  and  in  common  with  them 
trade  with  the  posts  on  Lac  la  Ronge  and  Isle  a  la  Crosse. 
(See  p.  63).     The  Sarsis  or  Circees,  who  live  near  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  between  the  sources  of  the  Athabasca  and  Saska- 
tchewan Rivers,  are  said  to  be  likewise  of  the  Tinne  stock. 

Between  the  Peace  River  and  the  west  branch  of  the  Macken- 
zie are  the  Beaver  Indians,  who  take  their  name  from  an  affluent 
of  the  latter.  Their  dialect  is  reported  to  be  softej  than  that  of 
the  other  'Tinne,  having  probably  been  modiffed  by  their  inter- 


HARE   INDIANS    AND   DOG  UIB9. 


247 


course  with  the  Crees  of  the  prairies.  Other  tribes  on  the  mount- 
ain branch  of  the  Mackenzie  differ  somewhat,  either  in  language 
or  manners,  from  the  eastern  part  of  the  nation,  and  have  pecu- 
liar designations.  The  Noh'hanne  inhabit  the  angle  between 
that  branch  and  the  great  bend  of  the  trunk  of  the  river,  and  are 
neighbors  of  the  Beaver  Indians.  Higher  up  are  the  'Dtcha-ta- 
ut-tinne,  "  Mountain  Indians"  or  "  Strong-bows,"  who  keep  to 
the  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  Tsilla-ta-ut-tinrie, 
or  "  Brush  wood-people." 

Between  the  trunk  of  the  Mackenzie,  on  the  65th  parallel, 
and  the  Rocky  Mountain  ranges,  dwell  a  tribe  named  Daha- 
'dtin?ie  by  the  Dog-rib  Indians,  and  Nolt'hai-e  by  the  Kutchin. 
They  aescend  the  Gravel  River  to  come  to  Fort  Norman,  and 
are  ill  understood  by  the  Dog-rib  interpreters  there.  In  p.  J 1 2 
I  have  mentioned,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  M'Kenzie,  that  the 
Dalia- dtinnes  name  themselves  in  their  own  tongue  Cheta-ut- 
tdinne,  which  indicates  their  identity  with  the  Strong-bows,  both 
being  mountaineers.  Further  down  the  Mackenzie,  near  the 
6c3th  parallel,  another  small  tribe  also  descends  from  the  mount- 
ains to  visit  Fort  Good  Hope,  and  is  named  Afnba-ta-ut-^tinne, 
or  •'  Sheep-people,"  because  they  hunt  the  Ovis  montana  on  the 
mountain- tops.  These  people  speak  a  dialect  of  the  '  Tinne, 
which  is  well  understood  by  the  Hare  Indians. 

This  enumeration  of  the  various  'Tinne  tribes  dwelling  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  all  of  whom  believe  that  they 
are  sprung  from  a  dog,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  geographical 
extent  of  the  nation.  It  is  not  my  intention  to  speak  of  them 
severally,  as  my  personal  acquaintance  is  too  partial  to  enable  me 
to  state  correctly  in  what  respects,  they  differ  from  each  other. 
The  Athabascans  or  Chepewyans  proper  have  been  so  long  known, 
and  so  often  mentioned  by  writers  on  the  fur  countries,  and 
Hearne  has  given  so  many  details  of  the  habits  of  the,  'Tinne  of 
Churchill,  and  of  the  tribes  he  encountered  in  his  journey  over 
the  barren  grounds,  that  I  could  add  little  of  importance  ;  I  shall, 
therefore,  restrict  my  remarks  to  +he  Dog-ribs  and  Hare  Indians, 
who  resorted  to  Fort  Franklin  and  Fort  Confidence  during  my 
residence  on  Great  Bear  Lake. 

These  people  possess  more  regular  features  than  the  Eskimos, 
with,  at  the  same  time,  a  greater  variety  among  individuals, 
many  of  whom  have  good  profiles.     Taken  as  a  whole,  they  ex- 


m 


:1 


i 


i 


S48 


WOMEN. 


hibit  all  the  characteristics  which  we  observe  in  the  red  races 
dwelling  further  south  ;  but  their  inattention  to  personal  appear- 
ance, want  of  cleanliness,  and  their  abject  behavior,  give  them  a 
very  inferior  aspect,  particularly  when  in  company  of  white  peo- 
ple. For  they  possess  the  whine  and  air  of  accomplished  beggars, 
and  their  solicitations  are  constant  as  long  as  they  have  any  hope 
of  gain.  The  women  are  inferior  to  the  men  in  height,  features, 
and  care  of  their  dress  ;  for,  dirty  as  the  men  generally  are,  they 
do  taint  their  faces  and  wear  ornaments  on  festive  occasions, 
whue  few  of  the  women  take  so  much  trouble.  Most  of  the 
latter,  however,  are  tatooed  on  the  chin,  or  at  the  angles  of  the 
mouth. 

The  clothing  of  the  men  in  summer  is  reindeer  leather,  dress- 
ed like  shammy,  and  is  beautifully  white  and  soft  when  newly 
made.  A  shirt  of  this  material,  cut  evenly  below,  reaches  to  the 
middle  ;  the  ends  of  a  piece  of  cloth  secured  to  a  waistband,  hang 
down  before  and  behind  ;  hose  or  Indian  stockings  descend  from 
the  top  of  the  thigh  to  the  ankle ;  and  a  pair  of  mocassins  or 
shoes  of  the  same  soft  leather,  with  tops  which  fold  round  the 
ankle,  complete  the  costume.  When  the  hunter  is  equipped  for 
the  chase,  he  wears,  in  addition,  a  stripe  of  white  hare-skin,  or 
of  the  belly  part  of  a  deer-skin,  in.  a  bandeau  round  the  head, 
with  his  lank,  black  elf-locks  streaming  from  beneath;  a  shot 
pouch,  suspended  by  an  embroidered  belt,  which  crosses  the  shoul- 
der ;  a  fire-bag  or  tobacco  pouch  tucked  into  the  girdle  ;  a  pair 
of  mittens  ;  and  a  long  fowling-piece,  in  its  coat,  thrown  care- 
lessly across  the  arm  or  balanced  on  the  back  of  the  neck.  The 
several  articles  here  enumerated  are  ornamented  at  the  seams 
and  hems  with  leathern  thongs  wound  round  with  porcupine  quills, 
or  are  more  or  less  embroidered  with  bead-work,  according  to 
the  industry  of  the  wife  or  wives.  One  of  the  young  men  even 
of  the  slovenly  Dog-rib  tribe,  when  newly  equipped  from  top  to 
toe,  and  tripping  jauntily  over  the  mossy  ground  with  an  elastic 
step,  displays  his  slim  and  not  ungraceful  figure  to  advantage. 
But  this  fine  dress,  once  donned,  is  neither  laid  aside  nor  cleaned 
while  it  lasts,  and  soon  acquires  a  dingy  look,  and  an  odor  which 
can  be  perceived  from  some  distance.  In  the  camp  a  smoky, 
greasy  blanket  of  English  manufacture  is  worn  over  the  shoul- 
ders by  day,  and  forms,  with  the  clothes,  the  bedding  by  night. 

In  winter  the  skins  of  fawn  reindeer,  retaining  the  hair,  are 


■ 


WOMEN.— DRESS. 


240 


i 


substituted  for  the  shammy  leather,  and  a  large  robe  of  the  same 
material  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  and  hangs  down  to  the 
feet,  in  place  of  the  blanket.  As  the  preparation  of  so  much 
leather  and  dressed  fur  keeps  the  women  busy,  they  are  glad  to 
use  English  cloth,  of  blue,  red,  or  green  colors,  or  Canadian  capots 
of  white  or  blue  cloth,  which  they  acquire  at  the  trading  posts 
in  exchange  for  venison  or  furs.  But,  with  regard  to  the  winter 
dress  especially,  the  substitution  of  the  produce  of  the  English 
loom  for  their  native  leather  is  a  loss  both  of  comfort  and  of  ap- 
pearance. 

The  women's  dress  resembles  the  men's,  except  that  the  shirt 
is  somewhat  longer,  and,  for  the  most  part,  is  accompanied  by  a 
petticoat  which  reaches  nearly  to  the  knee. 

The  form  of  the  dress  here  described  is  common  to  the  whole 
'Tinne  nation,  and  also  to  the  Crees  and  Dakotas,  though  the 
material  varies  with  the  district ;  moose  deer,  red  deer,  or  bison 
leather,  being  used  in  the  south  and  west,  where  those  animals 
abound ;  and  the  Hare  Indians  make  their  shirts  of  the  skin  of 
the  hare.  This,  being  too  tender  to  be  used  in  the  ordinary  way, 
is  torn  into  narrow  strips,  which  are  then  twisted  slightly,  and 
plaited  or  worked  into  the  required  shape.  I  have  noticed  no 
process  among  the  northern  Indians  that  approaches  so  nearly  to 
weaving  as  the  manufacture  of  these  white  hare-skin  shirts.* 
Such  is  the  closeness  and  fineness  of  the  fur,  that  they  are  ex- 
ceedingly warm,  notwithstanding  the  looseness  of  their  texture. 
Though  the  dress  of  the  southern  Indians  is  after  the  same  pat- 
tern with  that  of  the  'Tinne,  the  Kutchin,  both  in  the  interior 
and  on  the  coast,  form,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  hose 
and  shoes  of  the  same  piece  ;  thus  imitating  the  Eskimo  boot, 
though  with  a  different  material. 

The  Dog-rib  men  and  women  leave  their  hair  without  other 
dressing  than  simply  wiping  their  greasy  hands  on  the  matted 
locks,  when  they  have  been  rubbing  their  bodies  with  marrow, 
which  they  occasionally  do. 

The  Hare  Indian  and  Dog-rib  women  are  certainly  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  scale  of  humanity  in  North  America.  Not  that  they 
are  treated  with  cruelty,  for  the  'Tinne  are  not  a  cruel  people, 
but  that  they  are  looked  upon  as  inferior  beings,  and  in  this  be- 

*  Tho  Kenaiyer  of  Cook's  Inlet  mtf  said  to  weave  the  wool  of  the 
tnountaiii  i^oat  {Capra  amcricana)  into  a  stulT  used  for  clothing. 


m 


i; 


Si  I 

■I'll 


m 
m 


i 


■ml 

mi 


yO') 


Disi'orirrioNH. 


in 


lief  they  theniBelves  acquiesco.  la  curly  infancy  the  boy  discov- 
ers that  he  may  show  any  amount  of  arrogance  toward  his  sisters, 
who,  as  soon  as  they  can  walk,  aro  harnessed  to  a  sledge,  and  in- 
ured betimes  to  the  labors  which  are  their  inevitable  lot  through 
life ;  while  the  future  hunt'ir  struts  in  his  tiny  snow-shoes  after 
the  men,  and  apes  their  contempt  of  the  women.  The  women 
drag  the  sledges  alone  or  aided  by  dogs,  clear-  the  ground  lor  the 
tent,  cut  poles  to  extend  the  lodge  or  tent-skins  upon,  collect  fire- 
wood, bring  water,  make  all  the  dresses  and  shoes,  clean  the  fish, 
and  smoke  or  jerk  the  venison  for  its  preservation.  They  also 
cook  both  for  themselves  and  their  husbands,  the  'Tinne  not  hold- 
ing the  opinion  of  the  Kutchin  that  a  man  ought  not  to  eat  meat 
prepared  by  a  woman.  Neither  are  the  'Tinne  women  altogether 
precluded  I'rom  eating  with  the  men ;  though  in  times  of  scarcity 
the  man  would  expect  to  be  first  fed,  as  it  is  a  maxim  with  them 
that  the  woman  who  cooks  can  be  well  sustained  by  licking  her 
fingers.  The  women  are  not,  however,  generally  discontented 
with  their  lot,  and  better  days  are  certainly  dawning  upon  them, 
as  the  opinions  of  the  traders  are  beginning  to  tell  visibly  on  the 
whole  nation.  Notwithstanding  their  servile  condition  they  are 
not  without  influence  over  the  stronger  sex  ;  and  they  seldom  per- 
mit provisions  or  other  articles  to  be  disposed  of  without  express- 
ing their  thoughts  on  the  matter  with  much  earnestness  and  volu- 
bility. 

Few  traces  of  the  stoicism  popularly  attributed  to  the  red  races 
exist  among  the  Dog-ribs  :  they  shrink  from  pain,  show  little  dar- 
ing, express  their  fears  without  disguise  on  all  occasions,  imagin- 
ary or  real,  shed  tears  readily,  and  live  in  constant  dread  of  ene- 
mies, bodied  and  disembodied.  Yet  all,  young  and  old,  enjoy  a 
joke  heartily.  They  are  not  a  morose  people,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, when  young  and  in  a  situation  of  security,  they  are  remark- 
ably lively  and  cheerful.  The  infirmities  of  age,  which  press 
heavily  on  the  savage,  render  them  querulous.  They  are  fond  of 
dancing,  but  their  dance,  which  is  performed  in  a  circle,  is  with- 
out the  least  pretensions  to  grace,  and  is  carried  on  laboriously 
with  the  knees  and  body  half  bent  and  a  heavy  stamping,  having 
the  effect  of  causing  the  dancers  to  appear  as  if  they  were  desir- 
ous of  sinking  into  the  ground.  It  is  accompanied  by  a  song  re- 
bembling  a  chorus  of  groans,  or  pretty  nearly  the  deep  sigh  of  a 
pavier  as  he  brings  his  rammer  down  upon  the  pavement.    They 


I'KUIIS   WITH  THE   REUKMVE!*. 


3ftl 


I 
s 


are  great  mimics,  and  readily  ape  the  peculiarities  of  any  white 
man  ;  and  many  of  the  young  men  have  caught  the  tunes  of  the 
Canadian  voyagers,  and  hum  them  correctly. 

They  are  an  unwarlike  people,  and  averse  to  shedding  blood  ; 
yet,  as  they  do  not  meet  their  foes  in  open  warfare,  or  man  to 
man,  their  very  timidity  impels  them  to  treachery  or  a  violation 
of  the  laws  of  hospitality,  when,  by  long-continued  oppression  and 
the  loss  of  relatives,  they  have  been  driven  to  retaliate  upon  the 
few  individuals  or  families  of  the  domineering  tribe  who  were  liv- 
ing in  contidence  among  them.     This  remark  applies  directly  to 
their  feud  with  the  Red-knives,  who  for  many  years  resorted  to 
the  hunting-grounds  of  the  Dog-ribs,  tyrannized  over  them,  and 
carried  away  their  women.    This  was  long  borne;  but,  at  length, 
some  lives  having  been  lost  in  the  contests  which  occasionally  en- 
sued, the  Dog-ribs,  watching  their  opportunity,  cut  off  several 
leading  Red-knives  and  their  families,  who,  not  dreading  any 
thing  at  the  time,  were  scattered  among  the  Dog-rib  encamp- 
ments.    The  details  of  these  reprisals  give  a  curious  insight  into 
the  character  of  the  people.     Some  of  the  victims,  deprived  of  the 
means  of  resistance,  and  aware  of  their  intended  fate,  traveled  for 
a  whole  day  with  the  hostile  party  ;  but  the  latter  required  to 
have  their  passions  roused  by  altercation  before  they  acquired  suf- 
ficient boldness  to  perpetrate  the  deed,  and  were  finally  incited  to 
its  commission  by  the  sufferers  demanding  to  be  killed  at  once  if 
their  death  was  intended,  for  they  would  go  no  further.     When 
the  husbands  and  grown  men  were  killed,  the  Dog-ribs  argued 
that  pity  impelled  them  to  slaughter  also  the  wives  and  children, 
who  would  be  unhappy  and  perish  for  want,  having  lost  their 
means  of  support.     To  a  people  who  could  no  longer  support  the 
tyranny  of  their  bolder  neighbors,  nor  combine  so  as  to  repel  ag- 
gression by  force,  treachery  seemed  to  be  the  only  mode  of  obtain- 
ing redress  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  extent  to  which  they  carried  their 
reprisals,  effectually  broke  the  spirit  of  the  Red-knives,  and  drove 
them  to  a  distance. 

The  Dog-ribs  are  practical  socialists  ;  and,  as  much  of  the 
misery  they  occasionally  experience  may  be  traced  to  this  cause, 
the  study  of  the  working  of  such  a  system  may  be  instructive  in 
a  community  like  this,  whose  members  owe  their  condition  in  the 
social  scale  solely  to  their  personal  qualities,  and  not  to  inherit- 
ance, favor,  or  the  other  accidents  which  complicate  the  results 


en 


I 

m 


It 


2r)2 


SOCIALISM. 


;i( 


in  civilized  life.  Custom  has  established  among  them  a  practice 
universally  acted  upon — that  all  may  avail  themselves  of  the  pro- 
duce of  a  hunter's  energy  and  skill ;  and  they  do  not  even  leave 
to  him  the  distribution  of  his  own  game.  When  it  is  known  in 
the  camp  that  deer  have  been  killed,  the  old  men  and  women  of 
each  family  sally  forth  with  their  sledges,  and,  tracing  up  the 
hunter's  footsteps  to  the  carcases  of  the  animals  he  has  slain,  pro- 
ceed to  divide  them  among  themselves,  leaving  to  the  proper  own- 
er the  ribs,  which  is  all  that  he  can  claim  to  himself  of  right. 
He  has  also  the  tongue,  which  he  takes  care  to  cut  out  on  killing 
the  deer.  It  is  not  in  the  power  of  these  people  to  restrain  their 
appetites  when  they  have  abundance  ;  and  the  cons  >quence  is, 
that  when  the  chase  is  successful,  all  the  community  feast  and 
grow  fat,  however  little  many  of  the  men — and  there  are  not  a 
few  idle  ones — may  have  contributed  to  the  common  good.  The 
hunter's  wife  dries  the  rib-pieces,  after  cutting  out  the  bone,  in 
the  smoke,  or  over  a  fire,  to  carry  to  a  fort  for  the  purposes  of 
trade ;  but,  unless  there  is  a  superabundance,  little  provision  is 
made  by  the  party  for  a  time  of  scarcity,  which  is  sure  to  arrive 
before  long ;  since  the  deer,  when  much  hunted,  move  to  some 
other  district.  Taught  by  their  frequent  sufferings  on  such  occa- 
sions, the  more  active  hunters  frequently  withdraw  themselves 
and  their  families  from  the  knowledge  of  the  drones  of  the  com- 
munity, leaving  them  at  some  fishing  station,  where,  with  proper 
industry,  they  may  subsist  comfortably.  A  fjsh  diet  is  not,  how- 
ever, agreeable  to  the  palates  of  these  people  for  any  length  ol" 
time  ;  and,  as  soon  as  rumors  of  a  hunter's  success  reach  them — 
which  they  do  generally  much  exaggerated  by  the  way — a  long- 
ing for  the  fiesh-pots  is  instantly  excited,  especially  among  the 
old,  and  a  general  movement  to  the  hunting-ground  ensues.  If, 
on  their  march,  the  craving  multitude  discover  a  hoard  of  meat 
stored  up  by  any  of  the  hunting  parties,  it  is  devoured  on  the 
spot ;  but  they  are  not  always  so  fortunate.  Before  they  reach 
the  scene  of  anticipated  abundance,  the  deer  may  have  gone  off, 
followed  by  the  hunters,  with  uncertain  hopes  of  overtaking  them, 
and  nothing  remains  for  the  hungry  throng,  including  the  old  and 
the  lame,  but  to  retrace  their  steps,  with  the  prospect  of  many  of 
them  perishing  by  the  way,  should  their  stock  of  food  have  been 
quite  exhausted.  Such  occurrences  are  by  no  means  rare  ;  they 
came  several  times  under  our  immediate  notice  during  our  winter 


t 


H 


AFFECTION   FOR   PARENTS. 


9A3 


the 

LCh 

)ff; 

m, 
,nd 
of 
len 
ley 
,cr 


residence  at  Fort  Confidence,  and  similar  facts  are  recorded  by 
Mr.  Simpson  of  the  same  tribe.  This  gentleman  expresses  his 
opinion  that  the  charge  made  against  this  nation,  of  abandoning 
their  infirm  aged  people  and  children,  had  its  origin  in  the  sauve 
qui  pent  cry  raised  during  a  forced  retreat  from  some  one  of  these 
most  injudicious  excursions ;  and  I  am  inclined  fully  to  agree 
with  him ;  for  T  witnessed  several  unquestionable  instances  of 
tenderness  and  afiection  shown  by  children  to  their  parents,  and 
of  compliance  with  their  whims,  much  to  their  own  personal  in- 
convenience. The  grief  they  show  on  the  loss  of  a  parent,  is  often 
great  and  of  long  continuance,  and  it  is  the  custom,  both  for  men 
and  women,  to  lament  the  death  of  relations  for  years,  by  nightly 
wailings. 

Hospitality  is  not  a  virtue  which  is  conspicuous  among  the 
Dog-ribs,  who  differ  in  this  respect  from  the  Eythinyuwuk,  in 
whose  encampments  a  stranger  meets  a  welcome  and  a  proffer  of 
food.  It  is  not  customary,  however,  for  the  Dog-rib  to  receive 
the  traveler  who  enters  his  tent  with  the  same  show  of  kindness. 
If  he  is  hungry,  and  meat  hangs  up,  he  may  help  himself  without 
eliciting  a  remark,  for  the  'Tinne  hold  it  to  be  mean  to  say  much 
about  a  piece  of  meat ;  or  he  may  exert  his  patience  until  some 
cookery  goes  on,  and  then  join  in  the  meal ;  and  should  there  be 
venison  at  hand,  he  will  not  have  long  to  wait,  for  every  now 
and  then  some  one  is  prompted  to  hang  a  kettle  on  the  fire,  or  to 
place  a  joint  or  steak  to  roast  before  it. 

Another  habit  which  darkens  the  shade  in  the  character  of 
these  Indians  is  that  of  lying,  which  they  carry  to  such  an  extent, 
even  among  themselves,  that  they  can  scarcely  be  said  to  esteem 
truth  a  virtue.  If  a  young  man  has  been  successful  in  his  morn- 
ing's hunt  in  a  time  of  famine,  he  does  not  rush  into  his  family 
circle  with  joy  beaming  on  his  countenance,  to  tell  that  there  is 
food,  but,  assuming  an  aspect  of  sadness,  squats  himself  in  silence 
beside  the  fire.  The  women  with  doubt  and  anxiety  examine 
his  shoes  and  dress  for  spots  of  blood,  that  may  betoken  the  death 
of  an  animal,  but  discovering  none,  put  the  question,  "  Did  you 
see  no  deer?"  "  Not  one,  the  deer  are  all  gone,  not  a  single  foot- 
step was  to  be  seen."  When  the  colloquy  has  continued  for  a 
time,  and  hope  seems  to  be  extinct,  he  then  draws  out  from  be- 
neath his  shirt  two  or  three  tongues,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  says 
with  an  air  of  the  utmost  indifference,  "  You  may  go  for  the 


Mi 


« 


■  w 


\X^i 


'1 

i 


4 


254 


HONESTV.-RELtGlOUa  BELIEF. 


meat."  It  is  not,  however,  merely  at  such  times,  and  to  enhance 
the  pleasure  by  previous  disappointment,  that  truth  is  violated, 
but  on  almost  every  occasion  ;  and  the  skill  of  an  Old  Bailey 
practitioner  would  find  exercise  in  eliciting  facts  from  the  mass 
of  contradictions  with  which  they  overload  them.  A  story  which 
was  at  first  a  pure  invention,  or  perhaps,  a  perversion  of  some 
simple  occurrence,  becomes  so  changed  by  the  additions  it  receives 
in  its  transmission  from  individual  to  individual,  that  it  deceives 
the  originators,  and  if  it  bears  on  the  safety  of  the  community, 
may  spread  consternation  among  them,  and  occasion  a  hasty 
flight. 

It  1/  pleasant,  instead  of  dwelling  longer  on  this  defect,  to  turn 
to  another  feature — their  strict  honesty  ;  the  practice  of  the 
'Tinne  with  regard  to  the  property  of  white  people  diflering  re- 
markably from  their  northern  neighbors,  the  Eskimos,  and  their 
southern  ones,  the  Crecs,  though  the  temptations  to  which  they 
are  exposed  are  equally  great.  No  precautions  for  the  safety  of 
our  property  at  Fort  Confidence  were  required.  The  natives 
carefully  avoided  touching  the  magnetic  instruments,  thermome- 
ters, and  other  things  placed  outside  the  house,  and  could  be 
trusted  in  any  of  the  rooms  without  our  finding  a  single  article 
displaced.  Our  dining-hall  was  open  to  all  comers ;  and  though 
the  smallness  of  our  separate  apartments  caused  us  to  exclude 
hangers-on,  new  comers  were  permitted  to  satisfy  their  curiosity 
respecting  our  occupations,  and  they  always  squatted  themselves 
down  at  the  door,  and  looked  on  in  silence,  wondering,  as  we  were 
told,  at  our  constant  writing.  From  M.  La  Fleche,  the  intelli- 
gent missionary  at  Isle  a  la  Crosse,  I  received  a  similar  character 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  nation,  who,  if  they  find  any  article 
left  by  the  voyagers  on  the  portages,  are  sure  to  bring  it  in  to  be 
claimed  at  the  forts. 

Of  the  peculiarities  of  their  religious  belief  I  could  gain  no  cer- 
tain information.  The  interpreters  to  whom  I  applied  for  assist- 
ance disliked  the  task,  and  invariably  replied,  "  As  for  these  sav- 
ages, they  know  nothing;  they  are  ignorant  people."  The  ma- 
jority of  the  nation  recognize  a  "  Great  Spirit,"  at  least  by  name, 
but  some  doubt  his  existence,  assigning,  as  a  reason  for  their  athe- 
ism, their  miserable  condition  ;  or  they  say,  "  If  there  be  such  a 
being,  he  dwells  on  the  lands  of  the  white  people,  where  so  many 
useful  and  valuable  articles  are  produced."     With  respect  to  evil 


«( 


bllAMANI:JM. 


2M 


Spirits,  their  name  in  the  Dog-rib  country  is  legion.  Tiio  Tinnu 
recognize  them  in  the  13ear,  Wolf,  and  Wolverene,  in  the  woods, 
waters,  and  desert  places  ;  often  hear  them  howling  in  the  winds, 
or  moaning  by  the  graves  of  the  dead.  Their  dread  of  these  dis- 
embodied beings,  of  whom  they  spoke  to  us  under  the  general 
name  of  "  enemies,"  is  such,  that  few  of  the  hunters  will  sleep  out 
alone.  They  never  make  any  oiierings  to  the  Great  Spirit,  or 
pay  him  an  act  of  adoration  ;  but  they  deprecate  the  wrath  of  an 
evil  being  by  prayer,  and  the  sacrifice  of  some  article,  generally 
of  little  value,  perhaps  simply  by  scattering  a  handful  of  deer-hair 
or  a  few  feathers. 

The  dead  are  not  burnt,  after  the  maiiner  of  the  Kolushes,  but 
are  buried.  In  lamenting  for  deceased  relatives  the  mourners 
sometimes  gash  their  bodies  or  limbs  with  knivee,  but  more  rarely 
now  than  in  old  times.  It  was  formerly  the  custom,  on  a  death 
occurring,  for  the  family  to  abandon  every  iirticle  they  poviessed, 
and  betake  themselves  in  a  perfectly  destitute  condition  to  the 
nearest  body  of  their  own  people,  or  to  the  trading  post.  The 
advice  of  the  traders  is  gradually  breaking  dv  wn  this  practic' 

Shamanism  does  not  seem  to  exert  the  important  infi'  (.  ice 
upon  the  'Tiune  that  it  does  among  the  Asiatic  Tchukciio,  the 
Kutchin,  or  the  Eskimos.  There  are  men  in  th  '  ;xtion,  with 
the  reputation  of  sorcerers,  who  profess  to  have  pov  er  o«  er  spirits ; 
but  they  have  but  little  personal  influence,  and  are  generally  of 
small  repute,  to  which,  perhaps,  the  contempt  of  the  white  people 
for  their  arts  contributes.  A  belief,  however,  in  the  power  of  the 
Eskimos  and  of  strange  Indians  to  hurt  them 'by  recantations,  or 
"  bad  medicine,"  prevails.  White  people  are  said  to  be  exempt 
from  such  dangers,  their  "medicine"  being  the  most  powerful. 
The  "  conjurers"  are  occasionally  employed  to  cure  the  sick,  and 
I  suppose  on  such  occasions  receive  some  reward  ;  but  I  heard  of 
no  instance  of  their  being  beat  and  coef'^d  to  influence  the  spirits 
favorably,  in  the  manner  that  the  Asiui'r  rchukche  are  reported 
in  Baron  Wrangell's  work  to  deal  with  their  shamans. 

Among  the  Crees  the  conjurers  perform  a  much  more  promi- 
nent part  than  with  the  'Tinne,  anl  their  practices  come  frequently 
under  the  observation  of  residents  on  the  lands  of  that  people ;  but 
I  never  saw  one  exhibit  among  the  Hare  Indians,  Dog-ribs,  or 
Red-knives,  in  the  course  of  four  or  five  years  passed  among  them, 
though  I  have  many  times  seen  some  of  the  old  men  throw  trifling 


■fH 


I 


256 


MARRIAGES.— WRESTLING    FOR   A    WIFE. 


, 


articles  into  the  water,  to  procure  a  fair  wind,  or  secure  a  safe 
passage  across  a  lake  or  down  a  rapid. 

From  a  people  so  liable  to  be  actuated  by  fears  of  imaginary 
evils  no  steady  line  of  action  can  be  expected,  and  the  Dog-ribs 
are  in  reality  as  volatile  as  children.  When  accompanied  by  a 
white  man,  they  will  perform  a  long  journey  carefully  to  a  distant 
post ;  but  we  found,  by  experience,  that  however  high  the  reward 
they  expected  to  receive  on  reaching  their  destination,  they  could 
not  be  depended  upon  to  carry  letters.  A  slight  difficulty,  the 
prospect  of  a  banquet  on  venison,  or  a  sudden  impulse  to  visit 
some  friend,  were  sufficient  to  turn  them  aside  for  an  indefinite 
length  of  time. 

In  general,  the  'Tinne  have  only  one  wife,  the  numbers  of  the 
sexes  being  equal,  or  the  males  rather  predominating.    The  women 
are  married  very  young,  but  the  man  must  have  shown  some  skill 
in  hunting  before  he  obtains  a  helpmate  readily.    The  consent  of 
the  parents  is  usually  gained  by  the  suitor,  and  is  seldom  withheld 
from  a  man  whose  activity  promises  the  old  folks  some  addition 
to  their  comforts  or  consequence.     The  woman's  wishes  have, 
perhaps,  some  weight  with  her  parents,  but  I  could  not  ascertain 
that  any  show  of  courtship  *  was  made,  or  that  her  disinclination 
was  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  man's  determination  to  take 
her,  if  the  parents  did  not  oppose.      No  ceremony  attends  the 
union.     Hearne  says,  that  it  is  the  established  etiquette  among  the 
Eastern  'Tinne  for  the  woman  to  affect  unwillingness  to  change 
her  condition,  and  for  the  man  to  rush  into  her  father's  tent,  and 
drag  her  off  by  the  hair  of  the  head.     We  witnessed  no  scene  of 
this  kind  among  the  Dog-ribs,  but  more  than  once  saw  a  stronger 
man  assert  his  right  to  take  the  wife  of  a  weaker  countryman. 
Any  one  may  challenge  another  to  wrestle,  and,  if  he  overcomes, 
may  carry  off  his  wife  as  the  prize.     The  younger  children  gen- 
erally follow  the  fortunes  of  the  mother,  but  the  father  may  retain 
them  if  he  chooses.      In  such  contests,  it  is  suspected  that  the 
wife  sometimes  prompts  the  aggressor ;  but  I  have  been  told — 
for  I  never  actually  witnessed  one  of  these  wrestling  matches — 

*  The  term  "dear,"  or  "beloved,"  is  said  to  be  unknown  in  the  lan- 
guage 5  and  Captain  Lefroy,  who  tried  to  ascertain  if  it  was  so,  says,  "  I 
endoavoied  to  put  this  intelligibly  to  Nannette,  by  supposing  such  an  ex- 
pression as  ma  chere  fcmmc  ;  ma  chcre  fillc.  When  at  length  she  under- 
stood it,  her  reply  was  (with  great  emphasis),  '/'  discnl  jamais  fffl;  V  di- 
scnt  ma  fcmmc  ;  ma  fillc. ^  ^^ 


DOGS.— MOOSE-HUNTING. 


257 


lan- 
"I 

ex- 

idor- 

di- 


II 


that  she  looks  on  with  composure  and  impartiality,  and  does  not 
insult  her  late  master  with  a  display  of  pride  on  being  the  object 
of  such  a  struggle,  the  causa  teterrima  belli.  The  bereaved  hus- 
band meets  his  loss  with  the  resignation  which  custom  prescribes 
in  such  a  case,  and  seeks  his  revenge  by  taking  the  wife  of  an- 
other man  weaker  than  himself.  From  a  passage  in  one  of  Mr. 
Murray's  letters,  I  infer  that  this  practice  extends  to  the  Kutchin, 
but  it  is  unknown  among  the  Cree  tribes,  and  does  not  exist 
among  the  Eskimos.  The  'Tinne  are  said  to  be  jealous  of  their 
wives ;  but  rather,  I  believe,  lest  they  should  be  enticed  away, 
than  from  any  nice  sense  of  honor.  The  laxity  of  morals,  how- 
ever, with  respect  to  female  chastity,  which  prevails  in  the  Eskimo 
tribes  is  not  conspicuous  in  the  'Tinne,  and  is,  perhaps,  contrary 
to  the  national  character,  though  some  corruption  may  have  crept 
in  through  their  acquaintance  with  white  people. 

Before  the  introduction  of  articles  of  European  manufacture, 
the  'Tinne  caught  fish  with  hooks  of  bone,  or  speared  them  with 
weapons  pointed  with  bone  or  copper.  Some  of  their  fish  harpoons 
were  constructed  very  artistically.  They  also  used,  and  still  con- 
tinue to  use,  nets  made  of  lines  of  twisted  willow  bark,  or  thin 
stripes  of  deer-hide  cut  very  evenly.  Nets  are  unknown  among 
the  northern  tribes  west  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  some  of  the  par- 
ties of  the  Eskimos  that  we  saw  declared  their  ignorance  of  their 
use.  On  the  banks  of  the  Mackenzie  and  other  rivers  frequented 
by  moose-deer,  these  animals  are  hunted  in  spring  by  a  small 
breed  of  dogs,  which  run  lightly  over  the  crusted  snow,  and  hold 
the  animal  at  bay  until  the  Indian  comes  up  in  his  snow-shoes. 
At  other  times  of  the  year,  the  success  of  the  Hare  Indians  and 
Dog-ribs  in  killing  the  moose  is  small,  as  they  have  not  the  skill 
of  approaching  so  wary  an  animal  which  the  Athabascans  and 
Crees  possess.  Reiideer  are  captured  in  pounds  and  by  nooses, 
but  are  in  the  present  day  more  generally  killed  with  the  fowling- 
piece,  which  is  also  the  weapon  used  against  the  musk-ox.  The 
pounds  are  formed  on  the  verge  of  the  woods,  and  are  made  with 
much  less  labor  than  those  of  the  Kutchin ;  yet,  as  they  need  the 
exertions  of  all  the  community  for  their  construction,  the  indolence 
of  the  major  part  causes  them  to  be  rarely  made.  The  black  bear 
is  snared  or  shot,  but  few  of  the  Dog-ribs  will  venture  to  attack 
the  "  brown  barren-ground  bear,"  whose  fierceness,  or,  as  they 
say,  "potent  medicine,"  appalls  them.     It  is  killed  by  them,  how- 


ft- 


■  <<.: 


•  ii 


•t' 


m 


1^ 

? 

I 


'  i. 

I 


258 


PUBLIC  OPINION.-CHrEFS. 


ever,  without  risk  when  it  is  detected  hybernating  under  the  snow 
in  spring. 

Order  is  maintained  in  the  tribe  solely  by  public  opinion.  It  is 
no  one's  duty  to  repress  immorality  or  a  breach  of  the  laws  of  so- 
ciety which  custom  has  established  among  them,  but  each  opposes 
violence  as  he  best  may  by  his  own  arm  or  the  assistance  of  his 
relations.  A  man's  conduct  must  be  bad  indeed,  and  threaten 
the  general  peace,  before  he  would  be  expelled  from  the  society ; 
no  amount  of  idleness,  nor  selfishness,  entails  such  a  punishment. 
Superior  powers  of  mind,  combined  with  skill  in  hunting,  raise 
a  few  into  chiefs,  under  whose  guidance  a  greater  or  smaller  num- 
ber of  families  place  themselves ;  and  a  chief  is  great  or  little,  ac- 
cording to  the  length  ofliis  tail.  His  clients  and  he  are  bound 
together  only  by  mutual  advantage,  and  may  and  do  separate 
as  inclination  prompts.  The  chief  does  not  assume  the  power  of 
punishing  crimes,  but  regulates  the  movements  of  his  band,  chooses 
the  hunting-ground,  collects  provisions  for  the  purchase  of  ammu- 
nition, becomes  the  medium  of  communication  with  the  traders, 
and  extends  his  sway  by  a  liberal  distribution  of  tobacco  and  am- 
munition among  his  dependents.  At  present,  the  rank  of  a  chief 
is  not  fully  established  among  his  own  people  until  it  is  recognized 
at  the  fort  to  which  he  resorts.  The  Company  send  in  annually 
a  number  of  red  coats,  ornamented  with  lace,  for  presents  to  the 
chiefs,  which  are  worn  as  badges  of  office  on  great  occasions. 
The  power  of  a  chief  varies  with  his  personal  character.  Some 
have  acquired  an  almost  absolute  rule,  by  attaching  to  themselves 
in  the  first  instance  an  active  band  of  robust  young  men,  and 
using  them  to  keep  in  order  any  refractory  person  by  claiming  his 
wife,  after  the  custom  of  the  tribe.  It  is  in  vain  in  such  cases 
that  the  poor  husband,  dreading  to  be  deprived  of  his  most  valua- 
ble property,  retires  to  a  remote  hunting-ground ;  for  he  is  sure  to 
receive  a  message,  from  some  passing  Indian,  expressive  of  the 
chief's  intentions ;  and  he  generally  comes  to  the  conclusion  that 
submission  is  the  best  policy.  He  is  certain  to  fall  in  with  the 
chief  and  his  band  sooner  o  later,  either  as  he  goes  to  the  fort  for 
supplies  of  ammunition  or  elsewhere.  A  free  expenditure  by  the 
chief  of  the  presents  he  receives  from  the  traders,  and  even  of  the 
produce  of  his  furs,  is  a  main  bulwark  of  his  authority,  in  addition 
to  the  skill  which  he  must  possess  in  the  management  of  the 
various  tempers  with  which  he  has  to  do. 


INTRODUCTION  OP  CHRISTIANITY. 


259 


the 
for 
the 
the 
tion 
the 


The  sounds  of  the  'Tinne  language  can  scarcely  be  expressed 
by  the  English  alphabet,  and  several  of  them  are  absolutely  un- 
pronounceable by  an  Englishman.  In  my  attempts  to  form  a 
vocabulary  I  had  great  difficulty  in  distinguishing  several  words 
from  one  another  -which  had  dissimilar  sounds  to  the  native  ear, 
and  were  wid  .ly  jiflerent  in  their  signification.  A  Dog-rib  or 
Athabascan  appears,  to  one  unaccustomed  to  hear  the  language, 
to  be  stuttering.  Some  of  the  sounds  must  have  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  Hottentot  cluck,  and  palatal  and  guttural  syllables 
abound  in  the  language.  Vocabularies  of  this  tongue  can  not  be 
greatly  depended  upon,  as  no  two  people  will  agree  on  the  ortho- 
graphy. 

With  respect  to  the  future  prospects  of  the  'Tinne,  the  nation 
in  general  may  be  said  to  be  more  docile  and  confiding,  and  more 
directly  under  the  influence  of  the  traders,  or  of  missionary  exer- 
tions, than  their  southern  neighbors,  the  Crees.  As  yet  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  alone  have  entered  the  'Tinne  country,  and 
they  have  already  a  large  number  of  nominal  converts.  For  some 
years  Canadian  priests  from  the  Red  River  colony  went  annually 
to  Methy  Portage,  where  many  of  the  Athabascans  and  Churchill 
River  'Tinne  congregate  at  the  usual  season  of  transporting  the 
outgoing  furs  and  incoming  supplies.  On  these  occasions,  num- 
bers of  the  Indians  were  baptized,  a  considerable  inducement  to 
submit  to  the  rite  being  the  present  of  a  piece  of  tobacco,  or  per- 
haps some  vague  notion  of  the  protection  thereby  afforded  against 
evil  influences.  There  was  no  time  to  instruct  them  in  the  truths 
of  the  Christian  religion,  and  this  could  be  but  very  imperfectly 
done  through  the  medium  of  interpreters.  In  1846,  however, 
the  Roman  Catholic  mission  under  Monsieur  La  Fleche  was 
established,  as  has  been  mentioned  in  a  preceding  chapter.  This 
gentleman  and  his  associate,  Monsieur  Tasche,  members,  I  be- 
lieve, of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  applied  themselves  to  the  study  of 
the  'Tinne  language,  and  were  soon  enabled  to  teach  many  of 
their  converts  to  read  and  write. 

By  sympathizing  with  their  people  in  all  their  distresses,  taking 
a  strong  interest  in  every  thing  that  concerns  them,  by  acting  as 
their  physicians  when  sick,  and  advisers  on  all  occasions,  the 
priests  of  the  mission  have  gained  their  entire  confidence.  It  is 
not  likely  that  Protestant  missionaries,  coming  later  into  the  field, 
will  succeed  in  introducing  their  more  spiritual  but  less  imposing 


m\'M 


m. 


f: 


f'H 


' !' '  i*\ 


260 


WESTERN  TRIBES." 


I 


n 


form  of  worship  among  a  people  whose  first  teachers  have  been 
so  successful. 

When  the  fur  traders  first  penetrated  to  the  Elk  River,  the 
Athabascans  had  only  a  small  breed  of  dogs  useful  for  the  chase, 
but  unfitted  for  draught ;  and  the  women  did  the  laborious  work 
of  dragging  the  sledges.  Now  the  cultivation  of  a  stouter  race 
of  dogs  has  in  some  respects  ameliorated  the  lot  of  the  females, 
and  within  a  few  years  the  acquisition  cf  horses  by  many  of  the 
natives  on  that  river,  has  introduced  a  still  greater  improvement. 
Houses  are  beginning  to  be  built,  and  the  more  provident  and 
staid  of  the  people  have  fixed  homes  to  retire  to.  With  the 
means  of  securing  their  property  and  provisions,  new  ideas  re- 
specting them  spring  up,  and  a  revolution  in  the  opinions  of  the 
nation  is  evidently  in  progress.  Recently,  also,  it  has  been  the 
policy  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  employ  many  of  the  young 
natives,  during  the  summer,  in  navigating  their  boats  to  the 
depots,  and  back  again  to  the  outposts.  By  these  trips  prejudices 
are  broken  down ;  the  youth  acquire  information  and  habits  of 
labor  and  steady  industry,  and,  being  well  paid,  the  clothing  they 
purchase  gives  them  respectability  in  the  eyes  of  their  country- 
men. A  generation  has  passed  away  since  the  whole  Indian 
country  was  demoralized  by  the  opposition  of  trading  companies, 
and  the  present  race  of  Chepewyans  are  ignorant  of  the  use  of 
spirituous  liquors. 

Of  the  nations  belonging  to  the  'Tinne  stock  who  inhabit  the 
country  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Ta-kuli  or  Carriers 
occupy  the  greater  part  of  New  Caledonia.  They  subsist  chiefly 
on  fish,  and  their  name  denotes  people  employed  on  the  waters. 
They  burn  their  dead ;  the  widow  becomes  the  servant  of  the 
relations,  is  harshly  treated,  and  is  compelled  to  carry  about  with 
her  for  several  years  the  ashes  of  the  deceased.  When  the  time 
of  her  trial  ends,  a  feast  is  made  by  the  kindred,  and  she  is  at 
liberty  to  marry  again.  A  custom  somewhat  similar  prevails 
among  the  Chippeways.  The  Tsitka-ni,  who  dwell  between 
the  Stikeen  and  Simpson's  Rivers,  to  the  north  of  the  Carriers, 
are  said  also  to  be  of  the  same  stock.  They  bury  their  dead  and 
are  hunters. 

In  addition  to  these  tribes,  a  detached  portion  of  the  'Tinne 
people  is  mentioned  by  Dr.  Latham,  under  the  name  of  Southern 
Athabascans.     They  occupy  the  sea-coast  from  the  north  bank 


\ 


SOUTHERN   ATHABASCANS. 


261 


of  the  Oregon,  southward  to  the  River  Umqua,  in  43^°  of  lat. 
For  an  account  of  these,  I  mnst  refer  the  reader  to  the  works  of 
the  author  just  named,  and  to  the  Transactions  of  the  American 
Ethnological  Society  from  which  he  quotes. 

Dr.  Latham  may,  also,  be  consulted  for  an  account  of  four  or 
five  isolated  languages,  spoken  by  tribes  that  interpose  between 
the  North  and  South  Athabascans  to  the  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  for  notices  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Archipelago 
skirting  that  coast.  The  Kolush  language  ends,  he  thinks,  at 
the  north  end  of  King  George's  Archipelago. 

The  Chenooks,  one  of  these  isolated  people,  are  noted  for  their 
habit  of  flattening  the  foreheads  of  their  infants  artificially,  a 
custom  which  crosses  the  continent  southward  to  the  coast  of 
Florida,  and  was  practiced,  though  not  exactly  in  the  same  way, 
by  the  extinct  Peruvian  races  of  Lake  Titicaca.* 

*  Among  some  good  examples  of  flattened  skulls  from  the  west  coast 
of  America,  in  the  Museum  at  Haslar,  there  is  the  remarkable  one  of 
Comcomly,  the  hero  of  Washington  Irving's  Astoria. 


'    t 

.  <\ 


[31 


f: 


* 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


li 


EYTHINYUWUK,    OR   CREES   AND    CHIPPEWAYS. 

National  Names. — Division. — Tribes. — Territory. — Wars  with  the  Mengw^. — 
Conventional  Character  not  true. — Persons. — Gait. — Crimes. — Wabunsi. — Wig- 
wams.— Religious  Belief. — Vapor  Baths. — Everlasting  Fire. — Its  Rites. — Used 
in  Sickness. — Its  Priests. — Its  Origin. — Chief  Sun. — Policy.— Calumet. — 
Maize. —  Food. —  Reindeer. — Bison. — White-Fish. — Earth-Works.— Pottery. — 
Language. — Half-breeds. — Colony  of  Red  River,  or  Osnaboya. — Spirituous 
Li(juors. 

The  people  who  designate  themselves  Eythinyuumk  or  Ininyu- 
ur-u,  occupy  the  country  lying  between  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  Hudson's  Bay,  and  reaching  from  the  'Tinne  boundary  down 
to  the  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan  and  valley  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence ;  their  hunting-grounds  on  the  plains  interlocking  with 
those  of  the  Dakotas  or  Sioux.  They  are  identified  as  a  nation 
with  the  Algonkins  and  Lenni-lenape  or  Delawares,  who  once 
owned  the  whole  country  east  of  the  Mississippi  as  far  south  as 
Carolina,  but  who,  blighted  by  the  precocious  expansion  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  colonists,  have  dwindled  down  to  a  few  remnants 
of  mixed  blood.  The  generic  term  Algic,  taken  from  the  root  of 
the  word  Algonkin,  has  been  employed  by  the  philologists  of  the 
United  States  to  comprehend  all  the  tribes  who  speak  dialects  of 
the  Algonkin  tongue,  and  whose  southern  limits  are  stated  by 
Schoolcraft  to  be  conterminous  with  the  Catawbas,  Creeks,  Cher- 
okees,  Chactas,  and  Chickasas.  The  tract  which  they  occupied 
in  the  year  1600,  includes  the  whole  area  of  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  north  of  these  nations,  excepting  the 
grounds  of  several  tribes  of  the  Iroquois  race,  north  and  south.* 
In  1603,  when  the  French  settled  in  Canada,  the  Algonkins, 
according  to  Colden,  were  "  the  most  warlike  and  polite  nation 
in  all  North  America." 

The  national  name  of  this  people  is  derived,  according  to  the 

*  The  Menakis,  Etchemins,  and  some  kindred  tribes  located  to  the 
Houth  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Hochungarras,  or  Winnebagoes, 
and  WyandotSj  to  the  northwest,  belonged  to  the  Iroquois  stock. 


NATIONAL  NAME. 


263 


tes 


he 


es. 


custom  of  the  Americans,  from  the  word  "  mau,"  which  is  in  dil- 
ferent  dialects  Ethinyu,  Ethin-u,  Inin-yu,  or  Inine*  Accord- 
ing to  Schoolcraft,  they  do  not  call  themselves  Unischauba,\  or 
"  aborigines,"  but,  on  the  contrary,  have  a  tradition  current  among 
the  southern  members  of  tlie  nation,  that  the  country  they  now 
hold  was  previously  possessed  by  the  AUigewi,  of  whom  the  name 
only  remains  in  the  appellation  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 

Before  the  European  invasion,  the  Dakota,  Huron,  OneiJa, 
Mohawk,  and  Iroquois  association,  or  Mengwe,  t  generally  known 
as  the  "  Five  Nations,"  had  penetrated  into  the  Eythimjuwuk 
territory  by  way  of  the  Missouri  and  St.  Lawrence.  The  con- 
tests by  which  the  Mengwe  established  themselves  in  a  district, 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  their  enemies,  must  have  been  severe  ; 
and  they  are  not  even  now  ended,  but  are  carried  on  in  the  coun- 
try between  the  Saskatchewan  and  Missouri,  notwithstanding 
the  persevering  efforts  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and  the 
officers  of  the  American  outposts,  to  suppress  them.  Deadly  feuds 
exist  between  the  Blackfeet  Eythinyuwuk,  and  the  Mandans, 
Minetares,§  and  other  Dakota  tribes  which  frequent  the  bison 
plains ;  and  on  the  Red  River  of  Lake  Winipeg  fatal  conflicts 
took  place  in  the  last  year  between  the  Chippeways  and  the 
Sioux,  who  are  Dakotas. 

Dr.  Latham  states  that  the  Shyen7ies,  who  dwell  on  the  head 
waters  of  the  Yellow  Stone  and  Platte  Rivers,  are  of  the  Algon- 
kin  race,  though  insulated  by  other  people  from  the  rest  of  their 
nation ;  and  that  there  is  in  like  manner  a  southern  detachment 
of  Iroquois  {Tuscaroras,  &c.),  between  whom  and  their  country- 
men the  Delawares  interpose ;  but  as  I  mean  to  restrict  myself 
to  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley,  and  the  country  lying  north  of  it,  I 

*  Dr.  Latham  traces  affinities  between  the  terms  for  "people,"  in  sev- 
eral languages.  The  similarity  of  the  terms  Iniik  or  Inuit,  and  '  T\nney  or 
'lYnye,  to  some  of  the  above  is  obvious.  Mr.  Howes  Makes  Ethtn'u=z 
edv-og.  From  Ethinu  comes  eihintseu,  "manly;''  "w  le,"  indicating  the 
opinion  the  Crees  have  of  their  own  nation. 

t  From  unisha,  "common"  or  "general,"  inine,  "a  man,"  and  aub,  a 
generic  particle  denoting  "light,"      virility,"  or  "life." — Schoolcraft. 

t  This  confederacy  assumed  the  appellation  of  Mengwe  from  the  ancient 
Iroquois  title,  Ongwe-honwe,  which  signifies,  according  to  Golden,  "men 
surpassing  all  others." 

§  Called  also  Absoroka.  These  and  the  Mandans  arc  the  so-called  Welsh 
Indians,  said  to  be  descended  from  Madoc  and  his  followers.  The  same 
origin  has  been  attributed  to  the  southern  Tuscarora^  of  the  Iroquois  stock. 


r, ; 


m 


.1 

■  s^ 
-■'l-p' 

■    Ni 


; 


864  DIVISIONS. 

must  refer  the  reader  who  wishes  for  a  general  classification  of 
the  native  American  races,  to  the  "  Natural  History  of  the  Varie- 
ties of  Man,"  by  the  learned  author  just  named. 

The  various  tribes  of  Eythinyuwuk  assume  local  designations 
from  the  rivers  or  other  remarkable  features  of  the  districts  they 
inhabit,  and  they  have  also  names  of  more  general  import.  Thus 
the  northern  ones,  who  border  on  the  'Tinne,  call  themselves 
Nathewy-vrithinyu,  NeJiethe-wuk,  or  Nithe-wuk,*  "  Exact  or 
complete  men."  These  are  the  Crees  of  the  fur-traders ;  and 
Mr.  Howse,  though  he  does  not  publish  the  grounds  of  his  opin- 
ion, considers  them  to  be  the  stem  of  the  Algonkin  race.  On  the 
south  of  these,  in  the  country  extending  from  Lake  Winipeg  to 
the  south  side  of  the  basin  of  Lake  Superior,  dwell  the  Odchipeica 
(Chippeways  or  Ojibbeways,  called  also  Sauteurs  t  or  Sotoos). 
A  third  great  division  of  the  nation  name  themselves  Lenni- 
lenape  (Delawares),  which  denotes  "  Uncommon  men."| 

*  FromiVt,  "exactly." 

t  Spelt  by  some  Canadian  writers  Saulteaux.  A  populous  Chippeway 
tribe  frequent  the  Saut  Ste.  Marie  to  feed  on  the  Mikumayg  or  Attikamaig 
(White-fish,  Coregonua  sapidissimtis,  Agassiz),  whence  the  name  of  "Cas- 
cade people"  (sauteurs). 

t  The  following  list,  drawn  up  in  1770  by  Mr.  Hutchins  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Service,  gives  the  names  of  the  Eythinyuwuk  tribes  then  trad- 
ing with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  : 

KEISCATCHEWAN   NATION. 

Names  of  Tribes  or  Places.  Districts  they  inhabit. 

Muska-siskow Saskatchewan  prairies. 

Athapeskow 

Omiska-sipi Beaver  River  and  Lake. 

Pegogif-tnc-u  mpi Muddy  Lake,  Moose  Lake. 

Misi-nipi Churchill  or  English  River. 

Wuskesew-sipi Red-deer  River. 

Po-i-thinnc-kaw-sipi Nelson  or  North  River. 

Pemmichi-ke-me-u Cross  Lake  (Nelson  River). 

Maskegoumk Swampy  or  low  grounds  near  Hud- 
son's Bay. 

Ne  nte-u  sipi Sturgeon  River. 

Chuki-tanu  sipi Hill  River. 

Pencsay-vfichewan  sipi Hay's  River. 

Washe-u-sipi Severn  River. 

Wewanito-wuk 

Ka-stitcheicanuk Albany  River.    Here  Hudson  had  his 

first  interview  with  the  natives,  among  whom  traditions  of  the 
circumstances  attending  it  were  current  in  1770. 

NAKA-WE-WUK,    OR  NORTHERN   TTTAWAWA.     ' 

This  people  inhabit  the  country  lying  between  Christianux  Lake  (Lake 


i 


% 


Hud- 


lad  hi» 
I  of  the 


(Lake 


t 


I 


TR1BE3.  265 

The  Iroquois  name  the  Algonkin  race  Adirondak,  and  Mr. 
Schoolcraft  thinks  that  this  appellation,  being  still  retained  for 
the  Highlands  at  the  source  of  the  Hudson,  countenances  the 

Winipeg)  and  James's  Bay,  approaching  within  one  hundred  miles  of  the 
latter.     They  speak  the  Odchipewa  tongue. 

Names  of  Tribes  or  Places.  Districts  they  inhnbit. 

Namekusi-sipi Trout  River. 

Wa-pusi-sipi Hare  River. 

Christianux Lake  Winipeg. 

Weniska-sipi Badger  River. 

Odchipewe-sipi River  Winipeg. 

Mistehe-saka-hegcn Great  Lake  Winipeg. 

Mith-kwa-ga  mc-u-sipi Red  or  Bloody  River. 

Shama-tawa Henly  House  River. 

UPE-SHI-rOW. 

This  people  resort  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Hudson's  Bay,  between  Ru- 
pert's and  Whale  Rivers.  Their  language  differs  in  some  words  both  from 
the  Keiskatchewau  and  Nakawawa.  (They  border  on  the  Eskimos  of  the 
Labrador  peninsula.) 

Muswa-sipi Moose  River. 

Winne-pcskouiik East  Main. 

La  Hontan  enumerates  the  tribes  speaking  the  Algonkin  language  in 
1700  as  follows: 

In  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia):  ./Ibenakis ;  *  Mickcmar ;  Canihas ;  Mahin- 
gaus ;  Opcnangos ;  Soccokis  (Sokokies,  living  eastward  of  Boston.  New 
England — Golden)  ;  EtcchcminsA  These  seven  tribes  are  brave  warriors, 
more  expert  and  less  cruel  than  the  Iroquois.  Their  language  dilTers  little 
from  the  Algonkin. 

On  the  St.  Lawrence,  from  the  Sea  up  to  Montreal  :  Papinachois  ;  Mon- 
tagnois  ;   Gaspesiens  ;  ^6cnaWs  of  Sciller  ;  Algonkins, 

On  Lake  Huron:  Outaouas ;  Nuckes  ;  Missisagues ;  JlUtkamek ;  Out- 
chipoues  {O'hhipetva),  called  Sauteurs,  brave  warriors. 

On  the  borders  of  Lake  llinois  (Lake  Micliigau)  :  Snnie  Ilinois  of  Che- 
gakou ;  Oumamis,  bravo  warriors;  Maskoutens ;  Kikapous,  brave  warriors; 
Outagamis,  brave  warriors ;  Malomimis  ;  Poutcouatamis  ;  Ojatinons,  bravo 
warriors ;    Sakis. 

On  the  borders  of  Lake  Frontenac  (Lake  Ontario)  :  Tsonontonans ;  Goy' 
oguans ;  Onontagues ;  all  of  whom  speak  a  language  differing  from  the 
Algonkin  ;   Onnoyoutes  and  Agnies. 

On  the  Outaouas  (Uttawa)  :  Tabitihi ;  Monzoni ;  Mnchakandibi ;  No- 
;)gwjtrt  of  Achirini ;  Nepisirini ;  Tcm/sAviMintTc  (Lake  Temiscamaing).  These 
six  tribes  speak  Algonkin,  and  are  all  cowards. 

*  This  tribe  are  of  the  Iroquois  stock,  accordiiiR  to  Schoolcraft,  who  says  that  Abenaki  is 
a  derivative  from  Wabanun^, ''  the  east,"  and  ahke,  "  eartli,"  and  signifies  "  eastlanders." 
The  Abenakis  were  called  Tarrenteens  by  the  early  English  colonists,  and  formerly  in- 
habited part  of  the  present  States  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire.  They  were  divided 
into  several  sub-tribes,  of  whom  the  best  known  are  the  Penobscots,  Norridgeufocks,  and 
Amcriscoggins.  About  the  year  1754,  all  but  the  PenobscotH  withdrew  iuto  Canada. 
The  fullest  vocabulary  of  the  Abenaki  language  is  furnished  by  the  manuscripts  of  Father 
Rale,  and  has  been  published  by  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  The  lan- 
guage is  peculiar,  from  the  frecjuent  use  of  the  rolling  sound  of  r,  or  a  burr. 

t  The  Etchemins  arc  of  the  Iroquois  race,  according  to  Schoolcraft. 


I 


960 


WARS  WITH  THE  MENGVVE. 


traditions  current  among  the  western  Algonkins,  that  their  an- 
cestors came  from  the  eastern  coa^t.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Mengwe,  on  the  contrary,  advanced  from  the  west,  if  wo  may 
judge  by  the  way  in  which  their  tribes  are  distributed.  The  ag- 
gressive movements,  however,  of  the  two  nations,  would  throw 
little  light  on  the  primary  peopling  of  the  continent,  even  were 
they  ascertained,  since  there  are  traces  of  their  respective  districts 
having  been  previously  occupied  by  a  people  of  small  stature  but 
superior  in  the  arts,  who  have  left  memorials  of  their  existence, 
in  numerous  and  extensive  earth-works,  and  mounds  of  ancient 
date,  wherein  copper  bosses  overlaid  with  silver  have  been  found. 
The  shafts  or  galleries  lately  discovered  at  the  copper  mines  on 
the  south  side  of  Lake  Superior,  containing  immense  quantities 
of  stone  chisels,  betoken  a  people  more  advanced  than  the  Cana- 
dians were  on  the  first  arrival  of  the  French  ;  and  are  said  to  bo 
now  followed  by  the  American  miners,  as  guides  to  the  most 
valuable  deposits  of  native  copper. 

The  wars  of  the  Eythinyuivuk  and  the  Mengtve  with  each 
other,  or  with  Europeans,  have  been  recorded  by  many  pens,  and 
have  supplied  incidents  for  numerous  works  of  fiction,  in  which 
the  writers  have  ascribed  a  loftiness  of  soul  and  other  noble  qual- 
ities to  these  people,  of  which  it  would  be  in  vain  to  seek  traces 
in  the  present  day ;  and  we  may  without  much  skepticism  assert, 
that  they  never  really  possessed  them.  Actions  prompted  only 
by  the  caprice  of  a  barbarous  people,  have  been  considered  as  the 
results  of  refined  sentiment ;  and  savage  cunning,  seen  through  a 
false  medium,  has  been  elevated  to  the  promptings  of  far-seeing 
policy.  The  revolting  cruelty  with  which  they  tortured  prison- 
ers of  war,  and  the  stoicism  with  which,  when  vanquished,  they 
endured  such  treatment  in  their  turn,  are  more  certain  traits  of 
character.  A  few  men,  remarkable  for  their  powers  of  mind, 
have  certainly  appeared  among  the  Eythinyuwuk  nations,  and 

On  the  north  of  the  Missiseippi,  and  in  the  country  bordering  on  Lake 
Superior  and  Hudson's  Bay  :  Sonkaskitons  ;  Ouadbatons  ;  Atintons  ;  Clis- 
tinos^  brave  and  skillful  warriors. 

The  ^asimpouah,  {Assinipoytuk,  or  Stone  Indiana)  and  Eskimaux  are 
struck  out  from  La  Hontan's  list,  as  they  belong  to  other  nations.  The 
chart  appended  to  his  book  gives  the  positions  he  assigns  to  the.se  several 
tribes ;  but  Schoolcraft,  whose  authority  is  of  the  greatest  weight,  says 
that  the  list  contains  many  errors.  The  chart,  of  course,  has  all  the  im- 
perfections which  attached  to  the  geography  of  the  great  lakes  and  more 
northern  country  then,  and  for  more  than  a  century  afterward. 


PERSON.-GAIT.-CRIMES. 


267 


)rison- 

l,  they 

lits  of 

minci, 

and 

In  Lake 
Clis- 

iux  are 
The 
I  several 
\t,  says 
the  iin- 
i(l  more 


t 


4? 


from  them  the  abstract  idea  of  a  North  American  Indian  has 
been  formed  by  Europeans. 

Among  this  people  there  are  to  be  found  finer  examples  of  the 
human  figure,  handsomer  countenances,  and  a  more  manly  and 
independe.it  carriage,  than  among  the  Eskimos  and  'Tinno  ;  and 
West's  exclamation  on  seeing  the  Apollo  Belvidere,  that  he  was 
a  young  Mohawk  warrior,  may  be  adduced  as  evidence  of  the 
natural  grace  which  a  ranger  of  the  woods,  unfettered  by  artifi- 
cial restraints,  may  possess.  In  fact,  the  attitudes  of  the  Eytliin- 
yuwuk  are  occasionally,  and  especially  when  actuated  by  strong 
passion,  striking,  and  sometimes  elegant ;  yet  the  habitual  gait 
of  the  Red  Man  is  not  a  graceful  one.  The  toes  are  turned  in  ; 
the  step,  though  elastic,  has  an  appearance  of  insecurity,  and  is 
by  no  means  majestic,  nor  even  pleasing,  to  one  unaccustomed  to 
see  the  centre  of  gravity  thrown  so  much  forward.  Even  though 
the  palm  of  personal  appearance  be  given  to  the  Eythinyuwuk,  in 
moral  conduct  I  hold  them  to  be  decidedly  inferior  to  the  Eskimo 
and  'Tinne.  They  are  less  honest,  and  though,  perhaps,  not  so 
much  given  to  falsehood  as  the  'Tinne,  are  more  turbulent  and 
more  prompt  to  invade  the  rights  of  their  countrymen,  as  well  as 
of  neighboring  nations.  Their  wars  are  carried  on  by  ambuscade 
and  treachery,  seldom  in  open  field :  they  spare  neither  infants 
nor  women  in  their  forays ;  and  instances  of  personal  bravery, 
such  as  the  Eskimos  often  exhibit,  are  rare  indeed  among  them. 
The  worst  of  the  vices  of  which  St.  Paul  accuses  the  heathen 
world  are  said  to  exist  among  the  Crees  of  the  plains,  and  gam- 
bling is  practiced  to  excess  by  the  whole  nation.*  One  game  i^i 
which  the  odd  or  even  number  of  pebbles,  and  the  hand  in  which 
they  are  held,  are  to  be  guessed,  is  constantly  resorted  to  when- 
ever two  or  three  meet  together,  and  it  is  accompanied  by  singing 
and  gestures,  indicating  some  kind  of  divination.  Tiiey  will  pass 
a  whole  day  so  occupied,  and  will  stake  all  that  they  hold  most 
valuable  on  the  result. 

As  the  Narrative  of  Sir  John  Franklin'b  First  Overland  Expe- 

*  A  society  named  Wabuno  is  said  to  have  been  formed  among  the 
Chippeways,  for  the  practice  of  certain  nocturnal  orgies  called  Wabunsi — 
an  appellation  signifying  "  not  yet  light,"  from  waubcn,  "  daylight,"  and 
the  negative  suffix. — See  Schoolcraft.  The  appellation  of  Wahunsenacawh, 
by  which  Powhattan's  subjects  were  accustomed  to  address  him,  had  prob- 
ably reference  to  his  being  chief  of  a  society  of  this  kind.  (See  Virginia 
by  Strachey). 


V'i 


l\ 


li 


268 


WIGWAMS. 


dition  in  1819-21,  contains  all  the  particulars  of  the  manners  and 
religious  belief  of  the  Crees,  or  Ncthciruk,  that  I  had  then  col- 
lected, I  shall  not  here  repeat  them  ;  but  shall  merely  allude  in 
a  brief  way  to  such  of  their  habits  and  usages  as  have  not  been 
noticed  among  the  'Tinne. 

The  ordinary  wigwams,*  skin  tents,  or  "  lodges,"  as  they  are 
called,  of  the  two  people  are  exactly  alike  as  to  form,  being  ex- 
tended on  poles  set  up  in  a  conical  manner ;  but,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  tents  of  the  Crees  are  more  commodious,  and  more  care- 
fully and  frequently  supplied  with  a  fresh  lining  of  the  spray  of 
the  balsam  fir.  This  people  also  occasionally  erect  a  larger  dwell- 
ing of  lattice-work,  covered  with  birch  bark,  in  which  forty  men 
or  more  can  assemble  for  feasting,  debating,  or  performing  some 
of  their  religious  ceremonies.  These  erections  are  chiefly  made 
on  the  skirts  of  the  bison  plains,  or  in  localities  where  a  large 
number  of  the  nation  are  accustomed  to  assemble  together.  The 
entire  nation  of  the  Eythinyuwuk  cultivate  oratory  more  than 
their  northern  neighbors,  who  express  themselves  much  more 
simply,  and  at  the  same  time  with  much  less  readiness. 

Neither  among  the  Eskimos  nor  'Tinne  did  I  observe  any  im- 
age or  visible  object  of  worship ;  but  most  of  the  Crees  carry  with 
them  one  or  more  small  wooden  figures  rudely  carved,  some  of 
which  they  state  to  be  representatives  of  a  malicious,  or,  at  least 
capricious  being  named  Kepttchikan,^  to  whom  they  make  offer- 
ings. They  acknowledge  other  spirits  or  Manito-ivuk,  and  de- 
mons or  vampires  called  Witako  ;  but  I  could  not  ascertain  that 
prayer  was  ever  made  to  the  Kitche-manito,  the  "  Great  Spirit" 
or  "  Master  of  Life."  The  vapor-bath,  which  is  comparatively 
seldom  used  by  the  'Tinne,  is  in  frequent  request  with  the  Crees, 
and  is  more  or  less  connected  with  religious  observances.  It  is 
the  great  medium  by  which  the  shamans  or  conjurors  cure  the 
sick.  The  operator  in  this  case  shuts  himself  up  with  his  patient 
in  the  sweating-house,  where  he  shampoes  him,  singing  all  the 

*  Wigge  or  Wigtvap  signifies  a  dwelling.  Most  of  the  Indian  words 
and  names  of  places  adopted  into  the  languages  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  are  of  Algic  origin.  The  Mandans  and  other  Dakotas  of  the  Mis- 
souri build  more  substantial  huts,  with  dome-shaped  roofs,  covered  with 
earth,  to  which,  as  to  look-out  places,  the  men  resort. 

t  Or  Gepuchikan.  The  propensities  as  well  as  designation  of  this  being 
resemble  those  of  "  Puck."  Dr.  Johnson  derives  the  latter  word  and  Pug, 
from  the  Icelandic  and  Gothic  word  Puke,  signifying  "  a  hobgoblin." 


EVERLASTING  FIRE. 


260 


words 
,tes  anil 
he  Mis- 
ed  with 


a 


time  a  kind  of  hymn.  As  long  as  the  shaman  can  hold  out,  so 
long  must  the  sick  man  endure  the  intensely  hot  atmo8j»h"re,  and 
then,  if  the  invalid  bo  able  to  move,  they  both  plunge  into  the 
river. 

One  custom  of  the  Chippeways  which  fell  into  desuetude  after 
the  arrival  of  the  French  on  the  Great  Lakes,  is  still  preserved 
by  tradition  in  the  tribe.  It  was  an  institution  for  preserving 
an  eternal  fire  named  Kagagisk'koda.*  Mr.  Schoolcraft  gives 
the  following  account  of  the  rites  and  duties  connected  with  it, 
which  I  make  no  apology  for  quoting,  as  so  singular  a  custom, 
related  on  such  good  authority,  deserves  to  be  mentioned,  when 
the  peculiar  habits  of  the  race  are  spoken  of : 

"  The  Chippewa  tribe  had  its  council-house,  and  the  scat  of 
eternal  fire,  on  the  south  side  of  Lake  Superior,  west  of  Keewee- 
nau  Point.  Here  lived  the  principal  chief,  called  the  Mutchrke- 
wis,  who  exercised  more  authority,  and  assumed  more  state,  than 
would  be  compatible  with  the  present  feelings  of  the  Indians. 
The  designation  was  official,  and  not  personal,  and  the  office  was 
hereditary  in  the  direct  male  line.  He  was  supported  by  volun- 
tary contributions,  his  mushinaun,  or  provider,  making  known 
from  time  to  time  his  necessities  by  public  proclamation.  What- 
ever was  required  on  these  occasions,  whether  food  or  clothing, 
was  immediately  furnished.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  chief 
priest,  and  could  neither  engage  in  war  nor  hunting." 

"In  the  village  where  he  resided,  and  near  his  cabin,  the  eternsi^ 
fire  was  kept  burning.  The  altar  was  a  rude  kind  of  oven,  over 
which  no  building  was  erected.  Four  guardians  were  selected  by 
the  Mutchekewis,  to  take  care  of  the  fire.  Two  of  these  were 
men,  and  two  women.  They  were  all  married  ;  but  the  wives 
of  the  men  employed  on  this  service,  were  required  to  cook  and 
do  the  necessary  domestic  work,  while  the  husbands  of  the  wo- 
men destined  to  the  sacred  duty  were  always  engaged  in  hunting, 
and  in  providing  whatever  else  was  wanted.  The  four  persons 
devoted  to  the  altar  were  thus  left  without  any  secular  cares  to 
divert  their  attention  from  the  holy  trust  committed  to  them.  A 
perpetual  succession  was  kept  up  in  the  priesthood,  by  a  preroga- 
tive of  the  Mutchekewis,  and  the  principal  head  woman  ;  the 
former  selecting  a  husband,  and  the  latter  a  wife  for  the  survivor, 

*  From  Ka-gi'-gi,  "everlasting,"  and  iskoda,  "fire."  The  correspond- 
ing words  in  Cree  are  ka-ki-ki  and  iscu-teyu. 


r*.; 


^< '  i  tl 


'if 

m 


f  i 


270 


FIRE  USED  IN   SICKNESS. 


whenever  one  of  these  ei/^ht  persor^i  died.  The  chain  was  thus 
always  unbroken,  and  the  traditionary  rites  transmitted  unim- 
paired. Death  was  the  penalty  for  any  neglect  of  duty,  and  it 
was  inflicted  without  delay  and  without  mercy." 

"  The  council  fires  were  lighted  at  the  greet  fire,  and  carried 
wherever  the  council  was  held.  After  the  transaction  of  the 
business,  a  portioa  of  it  was  carefully  returned,  and  the  remainder 
extinguished.  Whenever  a  person  became  dangerously  ill,  if  near 
enough,  he  was  taken  to  the  house  of  the  Mutohekewis,  where 
his  fire  was  extinguished,  and  a  brand  was  brought  from  the  altar 
and  a  fire  kindled,  at  which  a  feast  was  prepared.  A  great  dance 
was  then  held,  and  the  viands  consumed.  And  it  is  added  that 
the  patient  seldom  Tailed  to  recover. 

"  Once  in  eight  years,  the  whole  Chippewa  tribe  assembled  at 
their  principal  villa* ;e,  about  the  season  of  the  swelling  of  the 
buds.  Early  ir..  the  morning  the  great  pipe  was  lighted  at  the 
sacred  fire,  and  delivered  to  the  Mutchekewis.  He  took  one 
smoke,  and  then  handed  it  to  the  women,  and  these  to  the  men, 
by  all  of  whom  it  was  in  like  manner  smoked.  It  was  then 
passed  to  the  children.  This  ceremony  consumed  the  day,  and 
early  next  morning  a  feast  was  held,  at  which  the  men  and  wo- 
men and  children  sat  in  separate  groups.  This  feast  was  par- 
taken silently,  and  without  singing  cr  dancing.  Tn  the  evening 
they  departed  to  their  difl^erent  villages." 

"  The  principal  male  attendant  on  the  Kaugagiskoda  was  the 
Kauga  gizlick,  or  '  Everlasting  Sun  ;'  and  his  assistant  was 
named  Kanaivaudetik-shkucJa,  or  the  'Fire  Keeper.'  The  prin- 
cipal female  was  called  Gaubeivckwa,  or  the  '  Everlasting  stand- 
ing woman ;'  and  her  assistant  Kabagaubewekiva,  *  The  woman 
who  stands  3.il  the  time.'  " 

*'  The  Chippeways  assert  that  they  received  this  custom  from 
the  Sfuiwnees,  vho  are  the  most  southern  of  the  westc/ii  Algoix- 
kms,  their  country  being  in  the  present  State  of  Kentucky.  Traces 
of  its  prevalence  at  a  former  period  among  other  North  American 
nations  exist.  The  Natchez  and  most  of  the  Louisiana  tribes 
are  represented  by  Charlevoix  as  having  had  a  perpetual  fire  in 
their  temples.  Both  he  and  Du  Pratz  were  eye-witnesses  of  the 
rite.  The  hereditary  ruler,  or  'Chief  Sun,'  whose  title  was 
equivalent  to  that  of  Inca  or  Emperor,  exercised  a  more  despotic 
power  than  appears  to  have  been  permitted  in  any  other  nation 


«' 


• 


THE  CALUMET. 


271 


north  of  Mexico.  This  power  and  this  worship  were  kept  up 
with  an  oriental  display  of  honor  and  cerenjony  long  after  the 
French  had  settled  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  indeed 
up  to  the  destruction  of  the  nation  by  them  in  1729.  '  The  Sun 
has  eaten,'  proclaimed  an  official  functionary  daily,  before  the 
Ruling  Sun,  after  his  morning's  repast ;  '  the  rest  of  the  princes 
of  the  earth  may  now  eat.'  " 

From  this  interesting  extract  we  may  gather,  that  the  Algic 
race  were  much  more  advanced  in  the  forms  of  government  and 
association  of  tribes  than  the  more  northern  nations,  and  especial- 
ly than  the  'Tinne,  who  had  no  villages  when  first  known  to  Eu- 
ropeans. Cultivation  of  the  earth  was  not  carried  on  to  the  north 
of  the  Chippeway  country,  since  maize  does  not  prosper  in  Amer- 
ica beyond  the  52d  parallel. 

M'Kenney  relates  that  a  Chippeway  widow  must  carry  a  bun- 
dle of  rags,  or  a  doll,  which  is  called  her  husband,  constantly  in 
her  arms,  until  the  relations  of  the  deceased  think  that  she  has 
mourned  long  enough,  when  one  of  them  releases  her  from  it. 
This  occurs  generally  at  the  expiration  of  a  year,  and  the  widow 
is  then  allowed  to  marry  again  ;  but  the  probation  may  be  ex- 
tended much  longer,  if  her  husband's  relations  choose. 

The  use  of  the  Uspogan,  or  Calumet,  which  forms  so  import- 
ant a  part  of  every  ceremony  among  the  Eythinyuwuk,  was  not 
an  original  practice  of  the  'Tinne,  but  was  introduced  to  that 
people  by  Europeans  along  with  tobacco,  whereas  this  weed  must 
have  been  grown  from  the  most  ancient  times  by  the  Chippeways, 
if  the  traditions  which  Mr.  Schoolcraft  collected  during  his  long 
residence  with  that  people  are  tu  be  trusted .  Maize  is  more  used 
on  the  Missouri  than  in  the  proper  Chippeway  country,  "  s  cul- 
tivation forming  a  part  of  the  regular  economy  of  the  Dakota 
tribes ;  the  Chippeways,  however,  do  not  admit  that  they  received 
it  from  that  quarter  ;  but,  in  a  legend  related  ky  Mr.  Schoolcraft, 
ascribe  its  origin  to  one  of  their  own  chiefs,  who  received  it  as 
the  prize  of  a  victory  he  obtained  over  a  spirit.  Hence  its  name 
of  Mmulamin,  or  the  Spirit's  Grain.  The  Delawares  had  ex- 
tensive fields  of  maize  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America, 
and  to  them  the  early  Virginian  colonists  were  indebted  on  their 
first  lauding  for  food,  which  being  afterward  withheld,  produced 
extreme  misery  and  famine. 

x^rom  some  of  the  details  of  Mr.  Schoolcraft's  account  of  the 


*ir^ 


'¥■ 


I : 
U 


272 


REINDEER. -WHITE  FIrfH. 


rites  of  Kagagish'ko'la,  we  may  infer  that  the  national  pohty  and 
social  condition  of  the  Chippcways  have  greatly  deteriorated  since 
their  acquaintance  with  Europeans.  The  contact  with  civilised 
man  has  induced  among  them  an  incontrollable  desire  for  intoxi- 
cation, unaccompanied  by  any  real  benefit.  For  though  mission- 
aries have  made  a  number  of  nominal  converts,  the  blessings  of 
vital  Christianity  are  confined,  as  far  as  I  could  ascertain,  to  only 
a  few  Chippeway  communities  on  Lake  Huron,  and  to  some  of 
the  Crees  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  territory.  The  well- 
fed  Sauteiirs  of  the  River  Winipeg,  who  are  independent  of  the 
traders,  repel  the  missionaries  ;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with 
the  bison-hunters  ou  the  prairies. 

Throughout  the  whole  eastern  wooded  and  barren  country, 
down  to  the  42d  parallel  of  latitude,  the  reindeer  was,  three 
centuries  ago,  the  most  abundant  of  the  deer  kind,  and,  being  the 
most  easily  approached,  furnished  the  staple  provision  for  the  Es- 
kimos, 'Tinnc,  and  Eythinyuwuk.  On  the  wide  prairies  of  the 
Missouri  and  Saskatchewan,  the  populous  Sioux,  Stone-Indians, 
or  Assini-poytuk,  and  other  Dakota  tribes,  fed  on  the  countless 
herds  of  bison  which  pasture  there.  Next  to  the  reindeer  in  im- 
portance in  the  eastern  districts,  is  the  species  of  Corcgo?ius, 
named  "  white-fish,"  to  which  the  Chippeways  and  Nithe-wuk 
have  given  the  figurative  appellation  of  "  reindeer  of  the  waters," 
Adikumaig  or  Atih-luoneg*  On  referring  to  Strachey's  account 
of  Virginia,  I  do  not  find  this  word,  nor  the  name  of  the  reindeer, 
in  his  vocabulary  of  the  Delaware  tongue ;  the  white-fish  indeed 
not  being  an  inhabitant  of  the  southern  waters.  The  Chippe- 
ways have  a  legend,  which  relates  that  the  white-fish  sprung  first 
into  existence  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior,  being  produced 
from  the  scattered  brains  of  a  woman,  whose  head,  for  some  very 
guilty  conduct,  was  doomed  to  wander  through  the  country,  but, 
coming  in  its  travels  to  the  Falls  of  St.  Mary,  was  there  dashed 
in  pieces.  A  Ci:,ne,  by  virtue  of  that  inherent  power  so  frequent- 
ly attributed  to  birds  and  beasts  by  the  aboriginies  of  America 
instantly  transformed  the  particles  of  brain  into  the  roe  of  a  white- 
fish,  to  the  wide-spread  benefit  of  the  Indian  nations.t 

Though  the  earth- works  already  alluded  to  arc  supposed  to 

*  Mikumaig,  from  adik^  a  "roindcer,"  and  guma,  a  generic  word  for 
"water"  in  composition,  and  the  animate  plurai  »g,  (Schoolcraft).  Jlthik 
or  atik,  "  a  roiudoor,"  in  Cioe.  t   Schoolcraft. 


^ 


POTTER  Y.-LA  NGU  AGE. 


273 


/hite- 

led  to 

Ird  for 
1  Jthik 
ai't. 


^ 


,v-tf 


have  been  raised  by  a  people  more  ancient  than  the  Eythinyuwuk, 
yet  the  fact  of  their  northern  Hmits  being  within  the  Chippeway 
lands  is  worthy  of  note  ;  and  vestiges  of  pottery  works,  apparent- 
ly of  a  rude  kind,  have  been  found  on  the  south  branch  of  the 
Saskatchewan  within  the  Nithe-wuk  bounds,  but  not  further 
north,*  the  substitute  for  earthenware  among  the  Eskimos  being 
vessels  of  potstone,  and  among  the  Tinne  water-tight  baskets,  in 
which  the  fluid  was  warmed  by  hot  stones  dropped  into  it. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  softness  and  harmony  of  the  Cree 
language.  It  differs  in  construction  from  the  Eskimo  tongue,  in 
the  personal  pronouns  being  prefixes,  not  suffixes,  and  in  other 
particulars  ;  but  both  have  the  polysynthetic  character  of  tho 
other  American  idioms.  The  sounds  of  the  English  /  and  v  do 
not  occur  in  the  Cree;  /  and  r  are  also  wanting  in  the  pure  Cree 
of  the  plains.  Other  Algic  tribes  substitute  y,  n,  or  I,  for  the 
Cree  t/i,  and  instead  of  k,  V  e  inhabitants  of  East  Maine  use  the 
sound  of  tch.  The  Chippeway  is  distinguished  from  tho  Cree  by 
the  frequent  omission  of  s  before  k  an'^  /,  and  the  insertion  of  m 
before  d,  and  of  ?i  before  d  and  g.  The  permutations  of  the  Cree 
and  its  cognate  dialects  chiefly  affect  the  Unguals ;  but  the  Mo- 
hawk and  Huron  languages  have  none  of  the  labials,  neither  b, 
p,  f,  V,  nor  7)1.  When  conversing,  the  teeth  of  these  people  are 
always  visible  ;  the  auxiliary  office  usually  performed  by  the  lips 
being  by  them  transferred,  or  superadded,  to  that  of  the  tongue 
and  throat. t  Of  the  grammar  of  the  'Tinne  I  know  little,  but 
the  nouns  seem  to  be  much  more  frequently  monosyllabic  than  in 
the  Algonkin  dialects.  The  Appendix  contains  some  portions  of 
a  Cree  vocabulary,  which  I  formed  in  1819-20. 

It  is  from  among  the  Eythinyuwuk  that  most  of  the  servants 
of  the  Fur  Companies,  who  have  married  native  women,  have 
selected  their  wives ;  few  of  them  having  chosen  Chcpewyan 
females,  and  no  one,  I  believe,  an  Eskimo  maiden.  From  these 
marr'~T""  a  large  half-breed  population  has  arisen,  which  will  ere 
long  work  a.  change  in  the  fur  trade,  and  in  the  condition  of  the 
whole  native  population.     In  character,  the  half-breeds  vary  ac- 

*  On  the  oast  side  of  tho  Ptocky  Mountains.  Tho  Eskimos  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Russian  Aniorica  manufactured  a  very  rude  pottery  when  first 
visited  by  the  Russians. 

t  Mr.  Howse.  from  whose  Grammar  much  of  this  paragraph  has  been 
borrowed. 


i' 


m 


!  !■ 


I 


'il! 


ill 


274 


IIALF-BREEDS.— EDUCATION. 


cording  to  their  paternity ;  the  descendants  of  the  Orkney  laborers, 
in  the  employ  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  being  generally 
steady,  provident  agriculturists  of  the  Protestant  faith  ;  while  the 
children  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Canadian  voyagers  have  much 
of  the  levity  and  thoughtlessness  of  their  fathers,  combined  with 
that  inability  to  resist  temptation,  which  is  common  to  the  two 
races  from  whence  they  are  sprung.  Most  of  the  half-breeds  have 
been  settled  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  the  colony  of  Os- 
naboya,  which  extends  for  fifty  miles  along  the  banks  of  the  Red 
River  of  Lake  Winipeg,  Of  the  six  thousand  souls,  to  which  the 
mixed  population  of  this  settlement  is  said  to  amount,  three-fifths 
are  stated  by  Mr.  Simpson  to  be  Roman  Catholics;  while  the 
valuable  property  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the  remaining  two- 
fifths,  who  own  sixteen  out  of  eighteen  wind  and  water  mills, 
erected  within  the  precincts  of  the  colony. 

The  settlement  is  under  the  government  (it  can  scarcely  be  said 
the  control)  of  a  governor,  council,  and  recorder,  all  nominated  by 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The  recorder  is  the  civil  and  crim- 
inal judge,  presides  at  jury  trials,  and  is  aided  by  justices  of  the 
peace,  and  a  constabulary  in  the  Company's  pay. 

In  1849  a  bishop  was  sent  from  England  to  oversee  the  Episcopal 
church.  There  are  also  some  ministers  of  the  Wcsleyan  persua- 
sion ;  and  the  Roman  Catholic  worship  is  maintained  by  two 
bishops,  a  staff  of  priests,  and  a  nunnery.  The  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  aid  the  clergymen  of  all  the  persuasions  by  free  passages, 
rations,  and  other  advantages,  besides  granting  salaries  to  those 
employed  at  their  fur  posts,  whether  Protestants  oi  Roman  Cath- 
olics. There  are  also  various  educational  establishments  in  the 
colony  for  the  settlers  and  native  population ;  and  most  of  the 
children,  both  male  and  female,  of  the  Company's  officers  are 
now  instructed  in  a  boarding-school  in  the  colony,  of  a  high  char- 
acter, a  few  of  them  only  being  sent  to  Great  Britain  or  Canada. 
Many  of  the  young  men  so  educated  have  entered  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company's  service  as  clerks,  and  some  have  attained  the  rank 
oC chief  traders  and  chief  factors;  while  the  young  women,  in  thoir 
vocations  as  wives  of  the  officers  and  clerks,  diffiise  a  knowledge 
of  Christianity,  and  a  taste  for  domestic  comfort  and  decorum,  to 
the  remotest  posts.  The  present  state  of  society  in  the  fur  coun- 
tries contrasts  most  favorably  with  the  almost  general  heathenism 
which  prevailed  during  the  murderous  contests  between  the  trad- 


55 


si 


RPIRITUOL'S   LIQL'ORS. 


275 


lada. 
[sou's 
I  rank 
thoir 
(ledgo 
lo 

JOUU- 

knism 
trad- 


5J 


1 


ing  companies  by  which  the  country  was  demoralized  when  I  first 
traversed  it  thirty  years  ago. 

The  half-breeds,  as  a  class,  show  great  quickness  in  acquiring 
a  knowledge  of  letters,  as  well  as  skill  in  the  mechanical  arts. 
As  joiners,  workers  in  iron,  and  boat-builders,  many  of  them  would 
rank  high  among  European  craftsmen ;  and,  taught  by  necessity, 
they  have  generally  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  work  at  all 
the  several  branches  of  the  carpenter's  and  blacksmith's  arts,  even 
to  the  forging  of  their  tools. 

At  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  establishment  of  Rossville,  near 
Norway  House,  and  round  the  Episcopal  church  at  the  Pas  on 
the  Saskatchewan,  native  villages  huve  sprung  up,  and  agricul- 
ture to  a  small  extent  is  practiced.  Though  the  cf^realia  and 
leguminous  vegetables  thrive  well  at  Red  River,  and  horses,  cat- 
tle, hogs,  poultry,  and  sheep  flourish,  agriculture  is  eschewed  by 
the  large  section  of  the  population,  who  are  descendants  of  the 
Canadian  voyagers.  The  pleasures  of  the  precarious  chase  are 
preferred  by  this  part  of  the  community  to  steady  industry,  and 
every  summer  there  is  accordingly  an  extensive  movement  to  the 
plains  to  dry  bison  meat  for  winter  use. 

As  lo  the  efiect  of  the  colony  on  the  neighboring  natives,  Mr. 
Simpson,  who  from  his  residence  in  the  settlement  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  facts,  speaks  as  follows  : 
"  Nothing  can  overcome  the  insatiable  desire  of  the  Indian  tribes 
for  intoxicating  liquors ;  and  though  they  are  interdicted  from  the 
use  of  spirits,  and  the  settlers  are  fined  when  detected  in  supplying 
them  with  ale,  yet,  from  the  great  extent  of  the  colony,  they  too 
often  contrive  to  gratify  that  debasing  inclination,  to  which  they 
are  ready  to  sacrifice  every  thing  they  possess.  They  feel  no 
gratitud'^  to  their  benefactors  or  spiritual  teachers;  and  while 
they  1  jO  the  haughty  independence  of  savage  life,  they  acquire  at 
once  all  the  bad  qualities  of  the  white  man,  but  arc  slow  indeed 
in  imitating  his  industry  and  virtues."  It  appears  from  this  tes- 
timony that  the  Chippeways  have  not  the  friendly  feelings  toward 
their  instructors  which  the  'Tinno,  according  to  Monsieur  La 
Fleche,  manifest ;  but  Mr.  Simpson  speaks  more  favorably  of  the 
Crees,  who  arc  in  general  better  disposed  than  the  Chippeways. 

Goods  for  the  use  of  the  colonists  are  imported  both  by  the 
Company  and  by  individual  store-keepers  in  the  ships  that  come 
annually  to  York  Factory ;  but  the  distance  is  too  great,  and  the 


p,i 


276 


HUDSON'S    BAY  COMPANY. 


inland  navigation  too  difficult,  to  admit  of  agricultural  produce 
being  carried  down  profitably  in  return.  Hence  most  of  the  half- 
breed  settlers,  encouraged  by  some  of  the  colonial  merchants  and 
Roman  Catholic  priests,  have  made  strenuoiis  attempts  to  share 
the  fur  trade  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  who  at  present 
have  the  monopoly  of  that  traffic ;  and  the  Company  do  not  seem 
to  possess  a  force  adequate  to  prevent  their  eventually  succeeding 
in  their  object. 

Of  late  years,  a  communication  has  been  formed  between  the 
colony  and  the  United  States  by  way  of  the  plains  and  St.  Peter's 
River.  This  furnishes  a  channel  for  the  disposal  of  peltry  with- 
out detection ;  and  through  the  relationship  existing  between  the 
half-breeds  of  the  colony  and  the  various  tribes  of  Indians  as  far 
north  as  Methy  Portage,  no  great  difficulty  is  experienced  by 
them  in  withdrawing  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  most  valua- 
ble furs  ^Aom  the  Company's  trade. 

In.  liO  winter  of  1848  a  half-breed  was  summoned  before  the 
Rccorrlor  of  Osnaboya  for  a  breach  of  the  Company's  regulations 
iii  this  respect,  and  on  the  day  of  trial,  five  hundred  of  his  class, 
nrnied  to  the  teeth,  surrounded  the  court-house.  The  Recorder 
was  o'oiiged  to  secrete  himself,  and  the  matter  was  finally  com- 
proialiod  by  the  Company's  agent  purchasing  the  furs  from  the 
delinquent.  Secretly  or  openly,  this  contravention  of  the  right  of 
exclusive  trade  in  fur  claimed  by  the  Company  is  sure  to  proceed, 
and,  emboldened  by  success,  the  young  half-breeds  are  not  likely 
to  acknowledge  any  law  that  is  contrary  to  their  own  will.  They 
hold  that  the  territorial  right  derived  from  their  Indian  ancestry 
is  theirs,  and  not  the  Company's ;  and  their  claims  have  been 
supported  by  a  philanthropic  body  in  England,  and  advocated  in 
parliament.  WiLhout  entering  into  the  question  of  the  chartered 
rights  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Comppny,  or  the  propriety  of  main- 
taining a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade,  it  is  my  firm  conviction, 
founded  on  the  wide-spread  disorder  I  witnessed  in  times  of  com- 
petition, that  the  admission  of  rival  companies  or  independent 
traders  into  these  northern  districts  would  accelerate  the  downfall 
of  the  native  races.  This  has  been  rapid  on  the  confines  of  the 
settled  parts  of  the  United  States  and  of  Canada,  and  has  been 
stayed  only  by  the  extinction  of  the  fur-bearing  animals,  by  which 
the  power  of  the  Indians  to  purf^hase  spirits  has  been  cramped. 
Even  the  benevolence  of  the  English  government  in  making  an- 


li^ 


TRAFFiC. 


277 


nual  presents  of  clothing  and  blankets  to  the  Indians  of  Canada 
is  converted  into  an  injury  by  a  set  of  unscrupulous  petty  dealers, 
who  hang  about  the  encampments  to  purchase  these  articles  as 
soon  as  they  come  into  the  possession  of  the  Indians,  by  supplying 
them  with  the  baneful  liquid  they  so  ardently  covet.  This  is 
punishable  by  the  colonial  laws;  but  when  crimes  are  committed 
beyond  the  pale  of  civihzation,  conviction  is  difficult.  By  the 
laws  of  the  Uniied  States,  also,  it  is  penal  to  supply  Indians  with 
spirits ;  but  according  to  general  report  this  benevolent  enactment 
is  extensively  violated  by  their  fur  traders ;  and  it  is  greatly  to  be 
regretted  that  competition  for  the  Indian  trade  in  that  quarter 
should  induce  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  follow  so  bad  an 
example,  after  having  abolished  the  use  of  spirits  with  so  much 
advantage  in  the  north,  where  they  have  no  rivals. 

T  was  informed  that  in  1848  the  natives  at  the  Red  River 
colony  of  Osnaboya  were  paid  a  high  money  price  for  their  furs 
by  the  Company's  agent,  and  that  they  immediately  crossed  the 
boundary-line  to  purchase  rum  at  the  American  post  with  their 
money ;  but  it  would  be  better  to  seek  for  the  redress  of  such  an 
abuse  by  a  representation  to  the  United  States  government,  than 
resort  to  retaliatory  measures  of  the  same  nature. 


i1 


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in 

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1^ 


CHAPTER   XV. 

OCCURRENCES  IN  WINTER. 

Fort  Confidence. — Its  Situation. — Silurian  Limestone. — Lake  Basin. — Trees. — 
Dwelling-house. — Occupations. — Letters. — Galena  Newspaper. — Oregon  Spec- 
tator.— Extent  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  Territory. — Fisheries. — Veni- 
son.— Wolverenes. — Native  Socialism. — Provisions  collected  at  Fort  Confi- 
dence.— Ff'tcs. — Winter  Fishery. — Eskimo  Sleds. — Reindeer. — Wolverene. — 
Wolves. — Honesty  of  the  Dog-ribs. — Their  Indolence. — Provisions  not  individ- 
ual Property. — Indians  move  oflf. — An  Accouchement. — Coelebs  in  Search  of  a 
Wife. — IVTight  makes  Right. — None  but  the  Brave  deserve  the  Fair. — Progress 
of  the  Seasons. — Temperature. — Arrival  of  Summer  Birds. — At  Fort  Confi- 
dence.— At  Fort  Tranklin. — On  the  Yukon. 

The  site  selected  for  our  winter  residence  was  about  tliito  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  Dease  River,  on  a  peninsula  having  an  undu- 
lating surface,  which,  at  the  distance  of  three  or  four  miles  from 
the  lake,  attained  a  height  of  about  three  hundred  feet.  In  front, 
or  to  the  south,  and  separated  from  the  main  by  a  strait  five  or 
six  hundreds  yards  in  width,  lies  Fishery  Island,  elevated  toward 
its  centre  two  hundred  and  forty-five  feet  above  the  water.* 

The  peninsula  is  composed  of  limestone,  which  forms  low  preci- 
pices at  the  edge  of  the  water,  as  well  as  in  various  places  of  the 
interior ;  and  the  same  rock  appears  in  higher  cliffs  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  lake,  about  eight  miles  to  the  westward,  at  Limestone 
Point.  Six  or  seven  miles  back,  on  tl  e  banks  of  Dease  River, 
red  sandstone  is  the  prevailing  rock.  The  soil  generally  is  a 
mixture  of  gravel  and  loam' ;  and  boulders  of  granite  and  trap 
rocks  are  scattered  over  the  surface  of  both  hill  and  valley. 

Ten  miles  to  the  eastward,  a  range  of  primitive  rocks  rises 
gradually  from  the  horde,  i  of  the  lake,  to  the  height  of,  perhaps, 
six  hundred  or  seven  hundred  feet,  and  separates  Dease's  Bay 
from  the  northern  arm  of  M'Tavish's  Bay.  This  rising  ground 
is  a  continuation  of  the  "  intermediaie  primitive  belt"  mentioned 
in  page  189,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  preceding  journal,  and 
which  will  be  described  more  fully  in  the  Appendix.     The  nearest 

*  This  altitude  was  ascertained  by  Mr.  Rao,  in  the  spring  of  1848,  by 
the  aneroid  barometer. 


^1 


SILURIAN    LIMKSTONE.-TREES. 


271» 


ireci- 
the 
)or- 
one 

iver, 
is  a 
rap 


pyrogenous  or  metamorphic  roclts  to  Fort  Confidence  that  wo  ob- 
served are  about  four  miles  off,  in  a  bay  on  the  southeast  side  of 
Fishery  Island. 

The  limestone  is  probably  the  remains  of  the  silurian  strata, 
which  were  removed  when  the  basin  of  the  lake  was  excavated. 
On  the  south  side  of  the  lake,  about  ninety  miles  distant  in  a  di- 
rect line  from  Fort  Confidence,  stands  the  Scented  Grass  Hill, 
between  Smith's  and  Keith'd  Bays.  It  consists  of  bituminous 
shale,  and  is  one  of  the  extreme  points  of  that  shaly  formation, 
which  constitutes  so  large  a  part  of  the  banks  of  the  Athabasca 
and  Mackenzie  Rivers,  and  which  has  been  thought  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  the  Marcellus  shale  of  the  New  York  system  of  rocks. 

The  summits  of  the  higher  eminences  are  mostly  naked,  but 
on  the  edges  of  streams  and  small  lakes  a  thin  forest  of  spruce  fir 
covers  the  ground.  In  wet  places  there  is  a  tolerable  growth  of 
willows.  Little  underwood  of  any  other  kind  exists.  Birch  is 
very  scarce ;  neither  the  balsam  spruce  nor  banksian  pine  were 
observed  on  the  lake,  and  only  a  few  young  aspens.  Except 
where  the  forest  has  been  destroyed  by  fire,  the  spruce  firs  are 
from  three  to  four  hundred  years  old,  as  ascertained  from  their 
annual  rings.  One  of  the  best-grown  trees  that  I  saw,  measured 
fifty-seven  inches  in  circumference,  at  the  height  of  four  feet  from 
the  ground.  The  tallest  of  them  are  between  forty  and  fifty  feet 
high.  The  observations  of  Mr.  Simpson  in  1837-8  place  Fort 
Confidence  in  66°  54'  of  north  latitude,  and  118°  49'  of  west 
longitude,  whicn  corresponds  pretty  closely  with  the  position  I 
assigned  to  the  mouth  of  Dease  River  on  the  chart  constructed 
in  1825.  The  mean  of  Mr.  Rae's  observations  for  latitude  gave 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  more  northing  than  Mr.  Simpson's. 

Our  winter  dwelling,  though  dignified,  according  to  custom,  by 
the  title  of  '•  the  fort,"  had  no  defensive  works  whatever,  not  even 
the  stockade  which  usually  surrounds  a  trading  post.  It  was  a 
simple  log-hcuse,  built  of  trunks  of  trees  laid  over  one  another, 
and  morticed  into  the  upright  posts  of  the  corners,  doorways,  and 
windows.  The  roof  had  considerable  slope  :  it  was  formed  of 
slender  trees  laid  closely  side  by  side,  resting  at  the  top  on  a  ridge- 
pole, and  covered  with  loam  to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight  inches. 
A  man,  standing  on  the  outside,  could  touch  the  eaves  with  his 
hand.  Well- tempered  loam  or  clay  was  beat  into  the  spaces 
left  in  the  walls  by  the  roundness  of  the  logs,  both  on  the  o«^ide 


r- ' 


'      'I 


,  : 


1>80 


DVVKLLINUI10U8E. 


V 


I 


and  inside,  and  as  this  cracked  in  drying,  it  was  repeated  I)  coated 
over,  lor  the  space  of  two  months,  with  a  thin  niixturu  of  cUy 
and  water,  until  the  walls  became  nearly  impervious  to  the  aii. 
The  rooms  were  floored  and  ceiled  with  deal.  Massive  struc- 
tures of  boulder  stones  and  loam  formed  the  chimney-stackt*,  and 
tlie  capacious  lire-places  required  three  or  four  armfuls  of  fire- 
wood, cut  into  billets  three  feet  long,  to  fill  them. 

The  building  was  forty  feet  long  by  fourteen  wide,  havino;  a 
dining-hall  in  the  centre,  measuring  sixteen  by  fourteen,  aixl  Lhe 
remaining  space  divided  into  a  store-room  and  three  sleeping 
apartments.  A  kitchen  was  added  to  the  back  of  the  house,  and 
a  small  porch  to  the  front.  Mr.  llae's  room  and  mine  had  glazed 
windows,  glass  for  the  purpose  having  been  brought  up  from  York 
Factory.  The  other  windows  were  closed  with  deerskin  parch- 
ment, which  admitted  a  subdued  light.  Two  houses  for  the  men 
stood  on  the  oast,  and  a  storehouse  on  the  west,  the  whole  form- 
ing three  sides  of  a  square  which  opened  to  the  south.  The  tall- 
est and  straightcst  tree  that  could  be  discovered  within  a  circuit 
of  three  miles  was  brought  in,  and,  being  properly  dressed,  was 
planted  in  the  square  for  a  fiag-post ;  and  near  it  a  small  observ- 
atory was  built,  for  holding  magnetic  instruments. 

Of  the  buildings  which  Dease  and  Simpson  erected,  Mr.  Bell, 
on  his  arrival  in  the  middle  of  August,  found  only  part  of  the 
men's  house  and  a  stack  of  chimneys  standing  ;  the  others  having, 
through  the  carelessness  of  the  Indians,  been  destroyed  by  fire. 
Ouv  predecessors  had  cut  down  most  of  the  timber  within  a  mile 
oi  the  house,  and  what  wo  needed  had  consequently  to  be  brought 
in  from  a  wider  circle.  A  part  of  Mr.  Bell's  people  were  con- 
stantly engaged  with  the  fisheries,  but  the  others  had  worked  so 
diligently,  that  the  buildings  were  all  covered  in  on  our  arrival, 
and  the  flooring,  ceiling,  and  partitions  were  shortly  afterward 
completed.  Two  of  the  sappers  and  miners,  Mackay  and  Brodie, 
carpenters  by  trade,  were  employed  to  make  tables  and  chairs : 
and  Bruce,  the  guide,  acted  as  general  architect,  and  was  able 
and  willing  to  execute  any  kind  of  joiner's  work  that  was  needed. 
Two  men  were  constantly  employed  as  sawyers  ;  four  as  cutters 
of  fire-wood,  each  of  them  having  an  allotted  task  of  providing  a 
cord  of  wood  daily  ;  others  were  occupied  in  drawing  it  home  on 
sledges  ;  and  four  men  were  continually  engaged  in  fishing.  On 
the  Sunday  no  labor  was  performed,  the  fishing  party  came  in, 


OLCLrATlU.N'd. 


28 1 


ers 

?  ^ 
on 

On 

in. 


and  all  were  dressed  iu  their  best  clothes.  Prayers  were  Huid  iii 
the  hall,  and  a  sermon  read  to  all  that  understood  Englieih  ;  and 
some  ol'  the  Canadians,  though  they  were  Roman  Cathuli(;a, 
usually  attended.  James  and  Thomas  Hope,  who  were  Crec 
Indians,  having  been  educated  at  Norway  House  as  I'rotestaiils, 
and  taught  to  read  and  write,  were  regular  attendants  ;  and 
James  Hope's  eldest  son,  a  boy  about  seven  years  of  afro,  who  had 
already  begun  to  read  the  Scriptures,  frequently  reco^uized  j)as- 
sagcs  in  the  lessons  that  he  had  previously  read. 

During  the  winter  Mr.  Rae  and  I  recorded  the  temperatures 
hourly,  sixteen  or  seventeen  times  a  day  ;  also  the  hei«fht  of 
the  mercury  in  Delcrc's  barometer ;  the  degrees  of  the  aneroid 
barometer,  the  declinometer,  and  dipping-needle.  Once  in  the 
month  a  term  day,  extending  to  thirty-six  hours,  was  kept,  iu 
which  the  fluctuations  of  the  magnets  were  noted  every  two  and 
a  half  minutes,  and  various  series  of  ^>scrvations  were  made  lor 
ascertaining  the  magnetic  intensity  ih  the  magnetometer,  the 
vibration  apparatus,  and  Lloyd's  dipping-needle.  JMr.  Rae  as- 
certained frerjuently  the  time  and  iates  of  the  chronometers  by 
observations  of  the  fixed  stars  ;  and  a  register  of  the  winds  and 
weather  and  appearances  of  the  aurora  was  constantly  kept.* 

From  this  sketch  of  our  occupations,  it  will  be  seen  that  our 
time  was  filled  up,  and  that  we  had  no  leisure  for  ennui  in  the 
long  winter.  In  fact,  we  enjoyed  as  much  comfort  as  we  could 
reasonably  expect,  and  had  our  postal  arrangements  succeeded 
as  well  as  ihe  others,  wo  should  have  had  little  more  to  dcbire. 
Our  schemes  for  sending  and  receiving  letters  were,  however, 
failures,  and  productive  of  much  subsequent  disappointment. 

The  packet  of  the  Admiralty  dispatches  and  private  letters 
sent  ofl'  on  the  18th  of  September,  1848,  on  the  third  morning 
after  our  arrival  from  the  coast,  was  placed  in  the  charge  of 
Francois  Chartier  and  Louis  le  Ronde,  with  directions  for  them 
to  proceed  with  all  speed  to  Isle  a  la  Crosse,  at  which  place 
Chartier's  wife  was  residing.  I  wrote  to  Mr.  M'rherson,  re- 
questing him  to  forward  the  party  without  delay  ;  and  Mr.  Rae, 
who  put  up  the  packet,  inclosed,  I  believe,  a  circular,  soliciting 
the  gentlemen  at  the  several  posts  to  send  the  packet  on,  as 
quickly  as  possible.     Mr.  Rae  himself  was  of  opinion  that  he 

*  The  magnotic  observations  are  now  in  process  of  reduction  at  Wool- 
wich, and  will  soon  be  published  under  the  superintendence  of  Lieutenant 
Colonel  Sabine,  along  w.'th  an  abstract  of  the  meteorological  observations. 


IV 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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Photographic 
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Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14380 

(716)  •72-4S03 


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LETTERS. 


inclosed  such  a  document,  though  he  does  not  perfectly  recollect 
that  he  did  so.  But  whether  the  circular  was  inclosed  or  not  in 
the  first  instance,  or  afterward  left  out,  the  circumstance  of  a 
packet  being  sent  express  for  fifteen  hundred  miles  ought  to  have 
insured  its  being  forwarded  from  the  further  posts.  No  delay 
occurred  at  Fort  Simpson,  Mr.  M'Pherson  sending  the  party 
on  as  soon  as  their  provisions  could  be  prepared.  Chartier  and 
his  companion  reached  Fort  Chepewyan  by  open  water,  and  were 
dispatched  to  Isle  a  la  Crosse  as  soon  as  the  ice  was  strong  enough 
for  traveling  over.  At  Isle  a  la  Crosse  the  letters  were  put  en 
route  again  after  a  fortnight's  detention,  and  at  Carlton  House 
they  were  kept  two  months.  This  last  delay  was  unaccountable. 
When  they  did  reach  Red  River  they  were  sent  on  ;  but  instead 
of  reaching  England  in  April  or  May,  as  we  had  a  right  to  ex- 
pect, and  when  a  knowledge  of  our  proceedings  was  much  desired 
by  the  Admiralty  previous  to  the  sailing  of  the  *•  North  Star," 
they  did  not  arrive  till  the  middle  of  July,  and  our  families  were 
nearly  twelve  months  without  iniclligence  from  us.  We  were 
also  unfortunate  with  our  subsequent  letters,  which  were  not, 
however,  sent  by  special  express,  but  were  left  to  the  chance  of 
the  ordinary  conveyance  through  Rupert's  Land. 

On  the  31st  of  October,  two  men  and  an  Indian  guide  were 
sent  with  a  second  packet  of  letters  to  Fort  Simpson,  hoping  that 
they  would  be  in  time  for  an  express  which  leaves  that  post  an- 
nually for  the  south  on  the  Ist  of  December.  The  Indian  lost 
himself,  or  rather,  I  believe,  went  willfully  astray,  for  the  purpose 
of  falling  in  with  some  hunters  that  he  expected  to  find.  In  this 
he  failed ;  and  the  party,  after  suffering  some  privations,  were 
saved  from  starvation  by  killing  a  deer.  They  did  not  reach  Fort 
Simpson  till  some  time  after  the  winter  express  had  left ;  and  as 
the  letters  were  not  of  public  importance  they  remained  there  until 
the  spring,  when  they  were  forwarded  along  with  some  others  that 
we  subsequently  sent  to  Fort  Chepewyan,  that  they  might  go 
down  with  the  first  boats.  On  my  way  out  in  the  summer,  find- 
ing part  of  these  letters  at  one  of  the  posts,  I  took  them  on  with 
me ;  the  others  reached  England  by  the  same  mail  packet  that 
I  crossed  the  Atlantic  in,  and  were  delivered  on  the  day  after  my 
arrival  at  home. 

The  only  letter-bag  from  England  that  we  received  during  our 
stay  at  Fort  Confidence  came  in  on  the  12th  of  April,  1849,  and 
brought  us  home  news  up  to  the  22d  of  June,  1848,  ten  months 


GALENA  " ADVERTISER."— OREGON  "SPECTATOR, 


283 


go 


,hs 


old.  This  came  by  the  usual  canoe  route,  and  was  brought  up 
from  Canada  with  the  Red  River  mail ;  but  at  the  same  time  we 
received  a  single  newspaper,  which  gave  us  some  English  intelli- 
gence as  late  as  the  15th  of  September.  The  history  of  this  news- 
paper is  that  of  the  triumph  of  the  electric  telegraph.  While 
the  English  mail  packet  was  steaming  up  the  sound  of  New  York, 
on  the  30th  of  September,  a  summary  of  European  news  having 
been  carried  on  shore  by  an  express  steam-vessel,  was  in  the  act 
of  being  transmitted  by  telegraph  to  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi. 
Within  a  few  hoars,  it  was  published  there  in  the  Galena  "  Ad- 
vertiser," of  which  it  filled  one  entire  folio.  This  paper,  being 
carried  over  the  plains  to  Red  River,  by  a  party  which  set  out 
on  the  day  following  its  publication,  was  sent  to  Great  Bear  Lake, 
and  gave  us  the  first  intimation  of  a  rebellion  in  Ireland.  The 
other  newspapers  that  we  received  at  the  same  time  were  of  very 
old  date,  but  every  paragraph  of  them,  as  well  as  of  our  letters, 
was  read  again  and  again  with  a  keenness  that  can  be  understood 
only  by  those  who  have  undergone  similar  privations  of  intelli- 
gence. We  heard  of  an  old  resident  in  Rupert's  Land,  who  was 
philosophic  enough  to  extend  this  pleasure  over  the  whole  year, 
by  laying  up  his  annual  file  of  newspapers,  and  taking  one  down 
daily  for  perusal  according  to  its  date,  so  that  he  had  just  mas- 
tered the  news  of  the  preceding  year  when  a  new  file  arrived. 
Our  impatience  was  too  great  to  permit  us  to  follow  an  example 
so  systematic. 

By  the  return  of  our  packet  men  from  Fort  Simpson  in  Janu- 
ary, we  received  the  Oregon  "  Spectator,"  dated  Oregon  City, 
February  10th,  1848,  with  the  motto  "  Westward  the  star  of 
Empire  takes  its  way."  It  was  a  creditable  production  for  so 
young  a  State,  remarkable  for  the  extreme  dearth  of  "  news,"  but 
a  strenuous  advocate  of  temperance  and  morality,  and  curious 
for  the  insight  which  it  gave  of  the  first  movements  of  a  commu- 
nity destined  at  no  distant  period  to  play  a  conspicuous  part  among 
the  nations  of  the  world.  The  State  is  already  involved  in  an 
Indian  war,  which  will  not  cease  until  the  Red  Men  are  hunted 
from  their  native  soil.  The  cause  of  hostility  was  one  of  those 
unavoidable  accidents  which  the  vicinity  of  white  people  entails 
on  the  Indian  race.  A  large  body  of  emigrants  brought  small- 
pox and  measles  with  them,  which,  spreading  among  the  popu- 
lous and  warlike  Kaiyuses  or  Black-feet,  cut  off  mtiny  of  the  tribe. 
6v  the  Indian  moral  code,  the  death  of  their  brethren  was  to  be 


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284 


FISH  ERIES.— VEN ISON. 


revenged  by  the  slaughter  of  people  from  whom  the  injury  came, 
and  as  it  was  sufficient  if  the  victims  were  of  the  same  nation 
with  the  ofienders,  the  Kaiyuses  fell  upon  the  nearest  and  most 
defenseless.  A  missionary  and  his  family,  to  the  number  of 
twelve  persons,  were  cut  off,  and  their  property  and  some  women 
and  children  seized.  Through  the  interference  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company's  Governor  at  Fort  Vancouver,  the  captives  were 
redeemed,  but  five  hundred  of  the  inhabitants  of  Oregon  marched 
to  chastise  the  Indians.  The  paper  says,  "  the  thunders  of  war 
have  commenced  ;  let  them  be  continued  until  American  property 
and  American  life  shall  be  secure  upon  American  soil."  We 
afterward  learnt  that  the  demonstration  had  little  effect  upon  the 
Indians,  who,  being  well  provided  with  horses,  shunned  the  en- 
counter, or  returned  to  harass  the  Oregon  army  at  their  pleasure. 
Sooner  or  later,  however,  the  Kaiyuses  will  feel  the  strong  arm 
of  the  white  man,  and  be  compelled  to  cede  their  native  lands  to 
the  emigrant  hordes  that  are  pressing  westward. 

As  the  crow  flies,  the  distance  between  Fort  Vancouver,  on  the 
Oregon,  and  Fort  Confidenee  exceeds  1350  geographical  miles, 
and  the  space  between  the  Company's  posts  on  the  Labrador  coast, 
or  on  Lake  Huron,  and  their  advanced  station  on  the  Porcupine, 
measures  about  2500  miles.  Throughout  this  vast  extent  of 
territory,  a  regular  communication  is  kept  up  between  the  Gov- 
ernor and  the  numerous  scattered  posts,  and  supplies  are  for- 
warded to  all  the  districts  annually,  with  a  regularity  which  can 
not  be  interrupted  without  hazarding  the  lives  of  both  traders  and 
natives.  Besides  the  establishment  of  fisheries  for  our  winter 
support,  Mr.  Bell  employed  several  of  the  most  active  Dog-ribs 
in  the  capacity  of  fort  hunters,  furnishing  them  with  clothing, 
guns,  and  ammunition,  to  be  repaid  in  venison.  He  also  gave 
large  credits  of  ammunition  and  other  articles  of  trade  to  several 
leaders  of  small  bands,  for  the  same  object.  In  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember and  in  October,  which  is  the  best  hunting  season,  we 
heard  of  great  success.  Two  hundred  carcasses  of  reindeer  were 
reported  as  having  been  put  en,  cache  for  us,  which  we  were  to 
send  for  as  soon  as  the  snow  was  sufficiently  deep  to  permit  the 
dog-sledges  to  run.  A  few  animals  killed  near  the  fort  were 
brought  in,  and  our  prospects  looked  flourishing.  In  the  mean 
time  the  Indians  sent  a  sick  man  and  a  very  aged  woman  to 
be  nourished  by  us  through  the  winter,  and  a  large  body  of  old 
men,  elderly  widows,  and  children  settled  down  near  us  at  a  fish- 


\i 


1 


ill 


WOLVERENES. 


286 


3ral 
jep- 


ean 
to 
old 
ish- 


ing  station  behind  Fishery  Island.  From  this  body  visitors  came 
to  us  almost  daily,  begging  for  a  meal  or  two  of  dried  meat  to 
vary  their  diet,  or  bringing  in  a  trout  or  two  for  sale.  The  fish 
were  always  purchased,  and  then  the  seller  invariably  asked  for 
a  bit  of  meat,  as  he  could  not  walk  back  without  eating.  The 
simple  cunning  by  which  these  poor  folks  endeavored  to  accom- 
plish their  ends,  and  to  move  Mr.  Bell  to  be  liberal,  was  amusing, 
and  generally  in  the  end  successful,  for  his  habitual  good-nature 
was  not  long  proof  against  their  varied  entreaties. 

In  the  first  two  weeks  of  October,  the  ice  driving  about  com- 
pelled the  fishermen  to  take  the  nets  out  of  the  water,  and  during 
that  time  the  Indian  party  subsisted  mostly  on  rations  from  us, 
being  supplied  with  both  meat  and  fish.  As  soon  as  the  straits 
separating  Fishery  Island  from  the  main  froze  completely  over, 
which  occurred  on  the  16th  of  the  same  month,  the  old  men  were 
well  supplied  with  trout-hooks  to  set  under  the  ice,  and  they 
caught,  I  believe,  fish  enough  for  their  wants,  but  they  concealed 
their  success  that  they  might  continue  to  draw  aid  from  our  store. 
By  dint  of  much  talking,  occasionally  withholding  supplies,  and 
threatening  to  do  so  entirely,  Mr.  Bell  at  length  persuaded  most 
of  the  party  to  move  toward  Cape  M'Donald,  where  fish  were 
reported  to  be  more  plentiful.  Our  own  fisheries,  however,  as 
well  as  the  Indian  ones,  declined  as  the  winter  wore  on,  and  in 
Feb-^uary  scarcely  suflficed  to  furnish  a  meal  daily  to  the  fishermen 
themselves. 

The  snow  having  by  the  middle  of  October  smoothed  the  in- 
equalities of  the  surface,  and  covered  the  stones  and  stumps,  Mr. 
Bell  sent  out  parties  to  bring  in  the  venison  that  had  been  stored 
up  for  us ;  but  instead  thereof  we  received  a  very  beggarly  ac- 
count of  empty  caches.  The  wolverenes  had  destroyed  some ;  our 
Lidian  friends  at  the  fishery  had  eaten  up  a  greater  quantity,  hav- 
ing, unknown  to  us,  made  several  excursions  for  the  purpose ;  and 
we  did  not  take  into  the  store-house  a  tithe  of  what  had  been  re- 
ported to  us.  The  hunters  by  whom  the  caches  had  been  made 
came  in  for  fresh  supplies  of  ammunition,  and,  on  being  remon- 
strated with,  merely  said,  what  could  they  do  if  hungry  Indians 
came  their  way?  they  must  eat.  This  socialist  practice  presses 
heavily  on  the  industrious  hunter,  and  encourages  the  lazy  indi- 
viduals in  their  idleness  ;  but  its  continuance  in  force  after  so  long 
an  intercourse  with  white  men  is  a  proof  of  a  fund  of  goodnature 


"'<■■!;' 


il 


i'  ,!i 


'*'  w 


;    ! 


H 


1 


"I   ! 
I  i 


286 


PROVISIONS. 


at  the  bottom  of  the  national  character.  It  is  of  itself  sufficient 
evidence  against  the  imputation  that  the  Chepewyan  tribes  habit- 
ually desert  the  old  and  infirm.  We  saw  on  several  occasions 
children  attending  their  sick  or  aged  parents  with  tenderness  and 
solicitude.  Instances  of  desertion,  which  have  undoubtedly  oc- 
curred, are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  pressure  of  famine,  which  has 
urged  the  able-bodied  to  hurry  on  in  quest  of  relief,  disregarding 
those  who  were  unable  to  keep  up  with  the  line  of  march. 

Our  intercourse  with  the  Indians  continued  throughout  the 
winter  in  the  way  that  has  been  stated.  The  more  industrious 
among  them  resorted  to  good  hunting  stations,  generally  in  par- 
ties of  two  or  three  families  together,  and  also  in  two  more  numer- 
ous bands,  under  the  direction  of  two  chiefs.  Most  of  them  re- 
sorted to  the  confines  of  M'Tavish's  Bay,  where  the  animals  are 
plentiful  in  winter.  From  them  we  received  occasional  supplies 
of  venison,  and  two  or  four  of  our  men  were  employed  for  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  winter  in  bringing  it  in  with  the  dog-sledges. 
From  two  steady  old  men,  who  had  been  furnished  with  nets,  we 
purchased  some  hundreds  of  fine  trout,  together  with  a  quantity 
of  white-fish  and  freshwater  herrings.  Some  of  the  Martin  Lake 
Dog-ribs  also,  though  not  fitted  out  by  us  with  ammunition,  found 
it  convenient  to  bring  their  meat  to  Fort  Confidence,  instead  of 
going  to  Fort  Simpson.  In  this  way  we  obtained  more  than  we 
required  for  our  present  and  future  wants,  including  the  eleemosy- 
nary demands  of  the  Indians,  which  were,  however,  kept  within 
bounds  by  Mr.  Bell's  careful  management. 

The  following  table,  extracted  from  Mr.  Bell's  journal,  gives  a 
summary  of  all  the  provisions  received  into  our  store-house  up  to 
the  middle  of  April,  1849: 


Months. 

No.  of 

Fish. 

Fresh 

Venison. 

Half  dry 

Venison, 

Pnundod 
Meat 

Reindeer 
Kilt. 

Reindeer 
Tongues. 

1848  September 

Octol)er 

November  

December 

1849  January 

February 

March 

April 

No. 
4'20 
2370 
lir.3 
560 
27i* 
223 
176 

Ib3. 
500 
130 
4330 
1830 
2005 
1830 
3165 

lbs. 

1500 

2100 

570 

140 

560 
1680 
2670 

lbs. 
200 

105 
55 

lbs. 

150 

170 

18 

10 
5 

No. 

120 

105 

65 

10 

40 
125 
160 

Totals  .... 

5191 

13,810 

9220 

3(i0 

353 

625 

In  addition  to  the  above,  Mr.  Bell  brought  up,  in  autumn, 


i?i 


FETES. 


287 


1200  lbs.  of  dried  meat  from  Fort  Simpson,  6  cwt.  of  barley- 
meal,  and  three  kegs  of  rough  barley,  several  90  lb.  bags  of  flour, 
some  bags  of  potatoes,  with  tea  and  sugar,  together  with  a  full 
supply  of  pemican  for  Mr.  Rae*s  summer  expedition,  and  for  the 
provisioning  of  the  men  returning  to  England. 

So  well  provided,  we  had  no  dread  of  want  at  any  time,  and 
passed  the  winter  in  abundance  Our  men  had  each  a  daily 
ration  of  8  lbs.  of  venison  on  five  days  in  the  week,  and  on  the 
other  two  from  10  lbs.  to  15  lbs.  of  fish.  The  women  also  re- 
ceived rations,  and  the  children  smaller  allowances.  Barley  and 
potatoes  were  issued  in  addition  as  long  as  they  lasted,  and 
flour  occasionally.  All  the  men  preferred  barley-meal  to  wheaten 
flour,  as  it  answered  better  for  thickening  the  soup,  and  they 
thought  that  it  was  a  more  substantial  article  of  diet.  The  rough 
barley  was  beaten  in  a  wooden  trough  until  the  husks  separated, 
and  then  boiled  whole  along  with  venison,  in  which  way  it  made  a 
nourishing  soup,  that  was  much  relished  by  all  the  party.  Few 
of  the  Europeans  consumed  the  whole  of  their  provisions,  and  the 
Indians  were  generally  in  attendance  at  their  meals  to  receive  the 
surplus. 

Several  feasts  varied  the  monotony  of  our  winter  life :  one  was 
given  as  a  house-warming  when  the  buildings  were  finished ; 
another,  as  is  customary  at  all  the  posts,  on  the  first  day  of 
the  new  year  ;  and  two  others  when  the  winter  was  further  ad- 
vanced. On  these  occasions,  the  fishermen  and  wood- cutters  were 
called  in,  and  the  whole  establishment,  man,  woman,  and  child, 
supped  at  long  tables  placed  temporarily  in  the  hall.  Prepara- 
tions for  the  feasts  were  made  by  a  great  baking  of  bread,  pies, 
and  tarts*  for  two  days  previously ;  and  tea  was  served  liberally 
as  long  as  any  of  the  party  felt  an  inclination  to  drink.  The 
tables  were  then  cleared  away,  and  the  dance  was  kept  up  with 
vigor  to  a  late  hour,  or  rather  to  an  early  one,  for  the  party  did 
not  separate  till  the  morning  was  advanced.  Mr.  Bell  and  Bruce 
were  the  musicians.  The  latter,  with  that  aptness  which  the 
half-breeds  show  to  learn  any  thing  that  comes  under  their  ob- 
servation, had  made  his  own  fiddle,  and  taught  himself  to  play 
upon  it. 

*  We  had  large  supplies  of  cranberries,  bleaberries,  and  the  fruit  of  the 
amelanchier,  the  produce  of  the  country ;  which,  with  a  few  pounds  of 
Zante  currants,  served  for  tarts  and  pies  all  the  winter. 


ym 


il 


'  V 


-J' 


H 


,i 


'fi 


f4i 


(  i 


\ 


'  s 


288 


WINTER  FISHERY. 


A  short  description  of  the  modes  of  fishery  by  which  most  of 
the  fur  posts  in  Rupert's  Land  are  supported  may  not  be  inap- 
propriate in  this  place.  The  nets,  formed  like  those  used  in  the 
herring  fishery,  measure,  before  mounting,  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty yards  in  length,  but  are  gathered  in  to  eighty  yards  by  the  in- 
troduction of  the  backing-line  along  the  upper  edge.  The  depth 
of  the  net  varies  with  that  of  the  waters  in  which  it  is  to  be  em- 
ployed, from  two  to  four  yards.  For  the  capture  of  white-fish, 
of  the  ordinary  size  of  three  or  four  pounds,  the  mesh  is  five  and 
a  half  inches  long,  and  where  these  fish  are  very  large  it  is  in- 
creased to  six.  For  taking  the  Bear  Lake  herring,  and  the  small 
coregoni  of  other  localities,  the  meshes  vary  from  two  inches  to 
two  and  three-quarters.  In  open  waters  the  nets  are  shot,  as  in 
the  herring  fishery ;  the  upper  margin  being  buoyed  with  cedar 
or  fir  floats,  and  the  lower  one  depressed  by  stones.  The  fish 
hang  themselves  in  the  meshes,  being  unable,  from  the  form  of 
the  gill-plates,  to  withdraw  their  heads  after  having  once  passed 
them  through.  Trout  of  15  lbs.  weight  may  be  taken  in  the 
white-fish  nets,  and  also  inconnu  {Salmo  mackenzii)  weighing 
25  lbs. ;  but  the  meshes  will  not  admit  the  heads  of  the  larger 
trouts  {nammjcush),  which  weigh  from  30  lbs.  to  50  lbs.  These 
are  caught  with  cod-hooks. 

In  winter  the  nets  are  set  under  the  ice.  The  first  step  is  to 
make  a  series  of  holes,  about  fifteen  feet  apart.  A  pole  is  then 
introduced,  and  conducted  along  the  surface  of  the  water  from 
hole  to  hole,  carrying  with  it  a  line,  which  serves  to  haul  in  a 
string  of  nets,  properly  buoyed  and  loaded,  but  seldom  exceeding 
five  in  number.  The  rope  is  then  detached,  and  each  end  of  the 
net  is  fastened  to  a  piece  of  wood,  laid  across  its  respective  hole, 
or  to  a  stake  driven  into  the  ice.  On  visiting  the  nets  next  day 
only  the  extreme  holes  are  opened,  the  rope  is  attached  anew  at 
one  end,  and  is  veered  away  as  the  nets  are  withdrawn  by  the 
opposite  hole.  The  fish  that  have  been  caught  being  removed, 
the  nets  are  dtawn  back  to  their  places  by  the  line.  A  line  of 
nets  reaches  about  400  yards,  and  the  fisherman  generally  en- 
deavors to  carry  it  entirely  across  a  strait  or  pass  in  the  lake  which 
fish  are  known  to  frequent. 

Every  second  or  third  day,  fishermen  who  are  careful,  take 
their  nets  out  of  the  water  to  dry  and  repair  them.  If  this  be 
not  attended  to,  the  threads  swell  and  rot  and  few  fish  enter  the 


KriKIMO  SLEDOES. 


280 


en- 
lich 

take 
IS  be 

the 


meshes ;  the  floats  also  become  water-logged  if  not  often  dried. 
In  severe  weather,  the  fisherman  erects  a  canvas  or  skin  screen 
to  windward,  to  shelter  him  while  he  overhauls  his  nets.  Eskimo 
snow  barricades  are  much  more  effective,  but  pride  will  not  per- 
mit the  Orkney  or  Canadian  fishermen  to  turn  the  useful  expe- 
dients of  the  Eskimos  to  account. 

In  the  winter,  Albert  built  a  snow  wall  very  neatly  round  the 
water-hole  by  which  the  fort  was  supplied,  to  keep  off  the  snow- 
drifts, cut  steps  through  the  ice  down  to  the  water,  and  then  fit- 
ted to  the  aperture  a  light  snow-lid,  that  could  be  easily  removed. 
By  this  contrivance  the  water-hole  required  little  clearing  for  a 
week,  and  the  convenience  was  great ;  but  after  the  first  admi- 
ration of  his  ingenuity  subsided,  the  cover  was  thrown  aside,  and 
the  hole  allowed  to  fill  up  with  snow-drift.  The  consequence  of 
this  neglect  was,  that  the  first  man  or  woman  who  went  for 
water  in  the  morning  had  half  an  hour's  hard  work  to  procure  it, 
and  then  it  was  necessary  to  remove  all  the  impurities  left  by  the 
dogs  which  had  resorted  there  to  drink  on  the  preceding  day. 

Albert  found  more  ready  imitators  in  another  practice  which 
he  taught  the  men.  He  was  appointed  to  attend  to  the  officers' 
fires,  and  immediately  set  about  preparing  his  wood-sledge  accord- 
ing to  his  own  fashion.  He  first  coated  the  runners  with  earth 
or  clay  tempered  with  water,  coat  after  coat  freezing  as  rapidly 
as  it  was  applied.  Hot  water  was  used  in  this  operation,  other- 
wise it  would  have  frozen  too  quickly  for  him  to  give  it  the  con- 
vex form  and  smoothness  that  were  necessary.  He  next  washed 
the  runners  with  water,  polishing  the  ice  with  his  naked  hand 
as  it  formed.  Canadians  and  Europeans  looked  on  carelessly, 
merely  saying  to  one  another,  "  What  cv.n  the  savage  be  about?" 
but  none  of  them  having  the  most  distant  idea  that  they  would 
follow  his  example  next  day.  The  four  sledges  employed  by  the 
woodmen  were  of  equal  size,  and  each  was  drawn  by  two  men. 
The  drawers  of  wood  went  out  together,  were  equally  loaded, 
and,  to  their  extreme  surprise,  Albert  and  his  companion  outstrip- 
ped them  all  on  the  journey  home  ;  their  emulation  was  excited, 
they  labored  hard  the  whole  day,  and  at  night  confessed  that  they 
were  fairly  beaten.  Then  they  tried  Albert's  sledge,  and  found 
it  run  so  easily,  that  forthwith  they  requested  him  to  prepare 
their  sledges  in  the  same  way  ;  and  during  the  winter  the  sledge- 
men  invariably  dressed  their  runners  in  the  Eskimo  mode. 

N 


■I' 

m 


m 


h: 


290 


RCINOEBR 


The  veniBon  that  we  obtained  was  the  flesh  of  the  small  or 
barren  ground  reindeer,  which  drops  its  young  on  the  coasts  or 
islands  of  the  Arctic  Sea.     This  kind  does  not  penetrate  far  into 
the  I'orest  even  in  severe  seasons,  but  prefers  keeping  in  the  iso- 
lated clumps  or  thin  woods  that  grow  on  the  skirts  of  the  barren 
grounds,  making  excursions  into  the  latter  in  fine  weather.     A 
full-grown,  well-fed  buck  seldom  weighs  more  than  150  lbs.  after 
the  intestines  are  removed.     The  bucks  of  the  larger  kind,  which 
were  mentioned  in  a  preceding  chapter  as  frequenting  the  spurs 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  weigh  from 
200  lbs.  to  300  lbs.,  also  without  the  intestines.     Whether  these 
be  the  same  with  the  woodland  reindeer,  which  inhabit  the  south- 
ern districts  of  Rupert's  Land  and  the  adjoining  parts  of  Canada, 
and  of  the  United  States,  has  not  been  determined,  no  compari- 
sons having  been  instituted.     The  small  barren  ground  deer  are 
generally  in  excellent  condition  in  the  proper  season,  and  yield 
the  very  finest  venison,  hence  they  can  scarcely  be  supposed  to 
have  been  dwarfed  through  defective  pasture  ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  a  rigid  comparison  of  examples  of  the  several  kinds  would 
elicit  specific  differences.     The  reindeer  that  visit  Hudson's  Bay 
travel  southward  toward  James's  Bay  in  spring.     In  the  year 
1833,  vast  numbers  of  them  were  killed  by  the  Cree  Indians  at 
a  noted  pass  three  or  four  days  march  above  York  Factory.    They 
were  on  their  return  northward,  and  were  crossing  Hayes  River 
in  incredible  multitudes.     The  Indians,  excited  by  the  view  of 
so  many  animals  thronging  into  the  river,  committed  the  most 
unwarrantable  slaughter ;  man,  woman,  and  child  rushed  into 
the  water  and  stabbed  the  poor  deer  wantonly,  letting  most  of  the 
carcasses  float  down  the  stream  or  putrefy  on  the  beach,  for  they 
could  use  only  a  small  number  of  those  they  slew.     From  that 
date  the  deer  did  not  use  the  pass  until  last  year,  when  a  few 
resumed  their  old  route,  and  were  suffered  to  go  unmolested,  the 
Indians  not  being  prepared  for  their  coming.     Mr.  Rae  made  two 
successful  excursions  in  search  of  deer  in  the  winter,  and  the 
Hopes  likewise  went  a  short  way  into  the  barren  grounds  on  the 
same  errand,  but  though  the  latter  also  killed  animals,  their  caches 
being  carelessly  made,  were  invaded  by  the  wolverenes,  and  our 
store  reaped  no  advantage  from  their  efforts.     The  wolverene  is 
extremely  wary,  and  shows  extraordinary  sagacity  and  persever- 
ance in  accomplishing  its  ends.     The  Indians  believe  that  it  is 


I 


:i  I 


WOLVERENES.  391 

inspired  with  a  spirit  of  mischief,  and  endowed  with  preternatural 
powers.     Though  more  destructive  to  their  hoards  of  provision 
than  the  wolf,  or  even  the  bear,  and  able  to  penetrate  fences  thtut 
resist  their  powerful  eflbrte,  it  is  only  about  thirty  inches  long,  a 
foot  high  at  the  shoulder,  and  one  foot  six  inches  at  the  rump, 
but  it  is  very  compactly  made.*     With  teeth  that  do  not  seem 
to  be  peculiarly  fitted  for  cutting  wood,  it  will  sever  a  log  equal 
to  a  man's  thigh  in  thickness  by  constant  gnawing.     In  selecting 
the  spot  it  intends  to  breach  it  shows  as  much  skill  as  the  beaver, 
generally  contriving  to  cut  a  log  near  one  end,  so  that  it  may  fall 
down  into  some  void  space,  and  thus  open  an  entrance  into  the 
hoard.     The  animal  works  so  hard  in  carrying  on  this  operation 
that  it  causes  its  mouth  to  bleed,  as  the  ends  of  the  logs  and  the 
snow  often  testify.     Once  admitted  into  the  hoard,  it  has  to  gnaw 
the  pieces  of  meat  asunder,  as  they  are  generally  frozen  together, 
and  then  it  proceeds  to  drag  them  out  one  by  one,  and  to  bury 
them  in  the  snow,  each  in  a  separate  place.     As  it  travels  back, 
ward  and  forward  over  the  meat,  it  smears  it  with  a  peculiarly 
fetid  glandular  secretion,  after  which  no  other  animal  will  touch 
it.     In  this  way  one  of  these  beasts  will  spoil  a  large  cache  in  an 
hour  or  two,  and  wholly  empty  it  in  a  few  nights.     The  pieces 
which  are  carried  off  are  so  carefully  concealed  in  the  snow,  and 

*  Its  Dog-rib  name  is  Noh-gaiye,  pronounced  from  the  depths  of  the 
throat  with  a  strong  aspirate  on  the  h.     The  exact  dimensions  of  a  wol- 
verene, which  was  surprised  in  one  of  our  caches,  and  killed  in  tbejnonth 
of  March,  were  as  follows  : 
Length  from  root  of  tail,  measured  along  the  back  and  between  the     inches. 

ears  to  the  point  of  the  nose 30"5 

Length  of  stump  of  tail 6'5 

"      of  long  hairs  at  top  of  ditto 5*5 

Total  length  of  animal,  including  the  entire  tail 42"5 

Height  at  fore  shoulder 12*0 

"      at  rump 12-6 

Breadth  of  fore  paw,  the  toes  moderately  spread 2*5 

"       of  hind  paw 2"7 

The  legs  are  remarkably  muscular,  the  fore  ones  in  particular,  when  skinned, 
having  a  strong  resemblance  to  a  finely  proportioned,  muscular  human 
arm,  rather  than  to  the  limb  of  a  quadruped.  The  paws  are  covered 
underneath  with  long  matted  fiir  in  winter,  so  that  the  small  callosities 
that  do  exist  are  discovered  with  difficulty.  The  anal  glands,  one  on 
each  side,  of  the  size  of  an  olive,  are  filled  with  a  very  fetid  secretion  of  a 
yellowish  color,  and  the  consistence  of  cream.  A  young  female  produces 
two  young ;  an  older  one  four ;  and  it  brings  forth  later  in  the  summer 
than  other  ferine  animals  inhabiting  the  same  districts. 


'in 


Hi; 


m 


m 


S02 


WOLVES. 


the  wolverene  makes  bo  many  tracks  in  the  neighborhood,  that  it 
is  difficult  to  trace  out  the  deposits,  and  they  are  seldom  found. 

Where  there  are  trees,  the  meat  caches  are  generally  made  with 
logs  let  into  each  other  at  the  corners  by  notches,  as  in  building 
a  log-house.  This,  as  we  have  seen,  can  be  invaded  by  the  wol- 
verene. Mr.  Rae,  however,  made  a  safe  cellar  by  cutting  a  hole 
in  the  ice,  covering  it  thickly  with  snow,  and  then  pouring  water 
over  all,  until  the  frost  had  rendered  the  whole  a  solid  mass. 

Wolves  also  follow  the  hunter,  and  lurk  in  his  neighborhood, 
to  share  in  the  produce  of  his  gun.  Their  strength  enables  them 
to  break  occasionally  into  a  cache,  but  they  have  neither  the  skill 
nor  the  tenacity  of  purpose  of  the  wolverene,  and  the  damage 
they  commit  is  generally  on  the  carcasses  of  deer  recently  slain, 
while  the  hunter  has  gone  for  a  sledge  to  bring  them  in.  On  his 
return  in  an  hour  or  two  he  often  finds  only  the  well  picked  bones. 
These  wolves,  though  of  large  size,  are  a  timid  race,  and  seldom 
or  never  exhibit  the  ferocity  and  ravenous  boldness  of  their  Pyre- 
nean  brethren.  When  reduced  by  famine  they  are  very  abject 
and  unresisting.  Mr.  Bell  once,  while  residing  on  Mackenzie's 
River,  caught  a  full-grown  but  famished  wolf  in  a  marten-trap 
tied  to  a  small  log,  which  it  had  not  strength  to  carry  away. 
He  went  to  the  fort  for  a  line  to  lead  it  home,  and  the  children 
who  accompanied  him  back  assisted  in  bringing  it  in,  by  pushing 
it  on  from  behind.  It  made  no  resistance,  and  suffered  itself  to 
be  tied  quietly  to  the  stockades  of  the  fort.  The  experiment  of 
taming  it  was  not,  however,  made,  and  after  the  curiosity  of  the 
people  was  satisfied,  it  was  killed.  At  another  time,  a  wolf, 
driven  by  hunger,  was  prowling  about  Fort  Edmonton,  when, 
being  scared  by  some  of  the  people  who  were  passing,  it  took 
shelter  in  the  kitchen.  The  cook,  an  old  Canadian,  who  was 
busily  engaged  in  frying  pancakes,  was  frightened  by  the  aspect 
of  his  visitor,  and  oversetting  the  frying-pan  in  the  fire,  and  leap- 
ing into  bed,  he  hid  himself  beneath  the  blankets.  The  poor 
wolf,  astonished  at  the  novelty  of  the  scene,  and  amazed  by  the 
blaze  of  the  flaming  grease,  and  the  screams  that  issued  from  the 
bed,  retreated  into  the  square  of  the  fort,  and  was  there  killed  by 
the  people  who  had  rushed  from  their  several  houses  on  the  alarm 
being  raised. 

One  of  Mr.  Rae's  hunting  and  exploring  excursions  was  made 
in  the  month  of  December,  in  the  coldest  period  of  the  winter ; 


f* 


INDOLENCB  UF  THE  UOG  RIBB. 


908 


;he 

[he 

by 

Irm 

ide 


and  he  iiifonncd  me  that  at  that  time  the  vapor  which  lose  from 
the  reindeer  completely  hid  the  individuals  of  a  herd  ;  so  that, 
unless  he  could  approach  a  detached  one,  or  get  into  the  midst 
of  them,  he  could  not  take  an  aim. 

Notwithstanding  the  indolence  of  a  large  part  of  the  Dog-rib 
and  Hare  Indians  who  resorted  to  Fort  Confidence,  and  their 
total  disregard  of  truth,  they  had  the  merit  of  being  strictly  hon- 
est with  respect  to  property,  and  also  of  being  quiet  and  unwill- 
ing to  offend.  No  precautions  were  taken  to  guard  knives  and 
other  articles  used  in  the  house  to  which  they  had  easy  access, 
but  they  meddled  with  nothing,  and  we  missed  none  of  our  effects. 
The  thermometers,  of  which  at  least  a  dozen  were  constantly 
hanging  up  outside,  were  never  touched,  and  none  of  the  natives 
ever  intruded  into  the  magnetic  observatory,  after  a  general  inti- 
mation that  they  were  not  to  do  so.  When  parties  of  them  came 
in  with  venison,  they  slept  in  our  dining-hall,  and  their  friends 
from  the  fishery  joined  them  to  hear  the  news,  and  to  talk  for  a 
great  part  of  the  night,  yet,  though  the  place  was  crowded,  they 
gave  us  very  little  trouble.  Some  of  the  new-comers  would  fre- 
quently enter  the  sleeping  apartments,  and  crouching  down  against 
the  wall,  remain  in  perfect  quietness  for  an  hour  together,  gazing 
at  the  books  and  other  things  exposed  to  view,  and  watching  Mr. 
Rae  and  myself  writing. 

In  December,  January,  and  February,  the  Indians  pressed 
heavily  on  our  store,  as  the  fishery  was  at  a  low  ebb,  and  they 
had  either  consumed,  or  we  had  bro"j?ht  in,  all  the  venison  that 
had  been  put  en  caclie  for  us.  The  more  active  hunters,  with 
their  families,  had  followed  the  game  to  a  greater  distance,  and 
several  detachments  of  stout  but  idle  young  men  had  joined  the 
fishery  encampment.  From  these  able-bodied  fellows  we  steadily 
withheld  rations,  though  they  were  more  than  once  furnished  with 
provisions  and  ammunition  to  go  out  on  a  hunting  excursion.  The 
efforts  to  get  them  to  do  any  thing  were,  however,  ineffectual. 
They  generally  returned  when  their  food  was  exhausted,  saying 
that  the  animals  were  all  gone.  They  were  afraid,  I  believe,  to 
venture  far  in  the  proper  direction,  lest  they  should  meet  enemies 
of  whom  they  are  in  constant  dread,  and  especially  of  their  spirit- 
ual foes.  Their  complaints  of  the  M'ant  of  game  were,  however, 
proved  to  be  unfounded,  by  the  excursions  of  Mr.  Rae  and  the 
two  Hopes. 


11 


:irti 


4 


294 


PROVISIONS  NOT  INDIVIDUAL  PROPIiRTY. 


In  January,  intelligence  came  that  the  hunters  had  stored  up 
a  number  of  deer  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  fort,  but  the 
news  reached  Cape  Macdonald  as  soon  as  Fort  Confidence,  and  a 
party  from  the  fishery  set  off  in  quest  of  it.  They  were,  never- 
theless, too  late,  some  of  their  wandering  countrymen  having  dis- 
covered and  consumed  the  store  before  their  arrival,  and  they  were 
compelled  to  return,  in  a  famishing  condition,  to  the  fishery.  Our 
men  had  also  a  fruitless  journey  to  the  empty  cache.  The  lies 
that  were  told  on  these  occasions  were  innumerable,  and  every  one 
was  ready  to  clear  himself,  and  inculpate  some  other  party.  We 
generally,  however,  succeeded  after  a  time  in  finding  out  the  real 
delinquents,  who  consequently  were  coolly  received,  and  had  short 
rations  when  they  came  to  the  fort. 

As  the  months  of  February  and  March  rolled  away,  and  the 
days  lengthened,  cheering  reports  from  the  hunting  parties  came 
in,  and  some  of  the  more  active  of  the  fishery  party  went  to  join 
them.  Mr.  Bell,  on  two  several  occasions,  fitted  out  the  whole 
of  the  residents  at  Cape  Macdonald  with  provisions  enough  to 
take  them  to  the  hunting  stations ;  but  their  hearts  failing  them, 
they  consumed  what  was  given  to  them,  and  came  with  their 
daily,  petitions  as  before.  During  this  time  they  were  taking 
trout,  and  denying  that  they  did  so,  though  they  occasionally  sold 
us  a  few.  At  length,  toward  the  end  of  March,  two  of  our  fort 
hunters,  who  had  left  their  wives  at  the  fishery,  coming  to  fetch 
them,  the  desire  of  the  whole  party  to  eat  venison  became  uncon- 
trollable, and  they  came  en  masse  to  the  fort,  with  their  sledges 
and  all  their  movables,  to  receive  another  fit-out.  They  remained 
encamped  near  the  house  on  this  occasion  for  about  three  weeks 
before  they  took  their  departure,  subsisting  chiefly  on  the  produce 
of  their  trout-lines.  During  this  time  some  of  the  young  men 
made  two  excursions  to  plunder  the  caches  of  the  hunters  em- 
ployed by  us,  but  were  foiled  in  the  attempt,  and  came  back  fast- 
ing ;  for  Mr.  Bell,  taught  by  former  losses,  had  been  very  prompt 
in  sending  men  for  the  venison,  and  had  secured  it  before  the  ma- 
rauders reachec'  the  spot. 

At  this  time  some  considerable  supplies  were  brought  in  by  the 
Martin  Lake  Indians,  and  we  had  several  opportunities  of  o?  serv- 
ing the  way  in  which  these  people  act  toward  each  in  regard  to 
provisions.  The  venison  intended  for  us  was  neatly  packed  on 
the  sledges,  but  each  Indian  generally  carried  a  kind  of  knapsack 


t 

8 
V 

f( 


»:mr 


AN   ACOUCHEMENT. 


290 


to 
on 
ck 


I 


P 


on  his  shoulders,  containing  some  choice  pieces  of  meat  to  be  con- 
sumed on  the  journey  back  to  his  tent.     The  sharp  eyes  of  the 
hungry  party  at  the  encampment,  discovered  the  approach  of 
strangers  while  yet  at  a  great  distance,  and  the  rumor  of  an  arri- 
val spreading  with  rapidity,  men,  women,  and  children  crowded 
into  the  square  of  the  fort.     The  first  act  of  the  new-comers  was 
to  run  the  loaded  sledges  at  once  into  the  store-house,  which  was 
opened  to  receive  them  ;  but  as  they  arrived  in  succession,  the 
women  from  the  camp  generally  pressed  in,  and  throwing  their 
arms  round  a  young  hunter,  with  much  kindness  of  manner  would 
say  to  him,  "  It  is  long  since  we  have  seen  you,  my  relation ;  how 
have  you  fared  since  we  met  ]     You  are  a  generous  man  !"  and 
so  on.    While  his  attention  was  thus  engaged,  and  before  he  could 
free  himself  from  the  unwashed  sirens,  whose  unwonted  softness 
of  speech  led  him  to  suspect  either  ridicule  or  plunder,  one  of  the 
females,  having  cut  the  strings  of  his  knapsack,  would  carry  it 
off,  amidst  the  laughter  of  the  crowd.    The  young  fellow,  thus  de- 
spoiled of  his  provisions,  however  much  he  might  be  vexed  in 
secret,  was  obliged  to  join  openly  in  the  mirth :  and  the  expres- 
sion of  face  of  some  of  the  youths  thus  preyed  upon,  as  they  en- 
deavored to  force  a  smile  in  their  distress,  was  irresistibly  comic. 
The  loss  fell  ultimately  on  the  store,  as  Mr.  Bell  had  to  furnish 
the  party  with  food  for  their  return,  though  in  that  case  he  did 
not  certainly  select  titbits.    When  at  length  the  great  move  was 
made,  and  the  fishery  party,  exceeding  forty  in  number,  went  off, 
in  the  end  of  March,  news  came  that  the  wife  of  one  of  the  hunt- 
ers, a  very  small  woman,  had  been  taken  with  the  pains  of  labor. 
The  three  females  belonging  to  the  fort  went  to  her  aid,  and  found 
the  new-born  infant,  the  mother's  first  child,  wrapped  in  a  deer's 
skin,  and  stuck  into  a  hole  made  in  the  snow.     It  was  brought 
into  the  house,  and  dressed  by  the  J* re.     This  event  delayed  tha 
mother's  departure  about  two  hours.     She  then  set  out  dragging 
a  sledge,  and  having  her  first-born  suspended  between  her  shoul- 
ders, in  a  bag  or  Indian  cradle.     She  was  not  suffered,  however, 
to  profit  by  the  well-beaten  path  pursued  by  the  rest  of  the  party, 
who  had  gone  before  her,  but  had  to  make  a  new  track  parallel 
to  it  through  the  loose  snow,  always  a  laborious  task,  even  to  a 
stout  man.    Want  of  success  in  hunting,  or  some  other  calamity, 
was  sure  to  befall  an  Indian  who  should  incautiously  tread  in  her 
footsteps.     This  was  the  custom ;  no  slight  or  unkindness  was 


ii.[' 


r-n 


1;  I 


'Ah. 


296 


MIGHT  MAKES  RIGHT. 


shown  to  her ;  her  husband  was,  I  believe,  really  fond  of  her ; 
and  her  sledge  was  a  light  one,  being  loaded  only  with  things  be- 
longing to  herself. 

Soon  after  what  may  be  considered  a  great  event  in  the  simple 
annals  of  Fort  Confidence — the  departure  of  so  numerous  a  body 
of  hangers-on — we  had  a  visit  from  a  Dog-rib,  who  had  been  re- 
siding on  the  other  side  of  the  lake,  at  the  plentiful  fishery  oppo- 
site Fort  Franklin.  Our  visitor,  a  stout,  able-bodied  fellow,  came 
empty-handed,  and  introduced  himself  as  a  very  serviceable  man, 
who  had  been  of  great  use  to  our  two  fishermen  stationed  at  Fort 
Franklin.  We  readily  understood  that  the  truth  concealed  under 
this  self-praise  was,  that  he  had  been  living  by  their  labors,  per- 
haps bringing  in  a  little  wood  for  them  occasionally,  but  really 
sharing  in  the  produce  of  their  nets.  On  questioning  him  more 
closely  as  to  the  object  of  his  coming,  he  at  length  said  that  he 
came  to  look  for  a  wife.  Had  he  no  wife  ?  Yes,  he  had  had  one, 
but  an  Indian  had  taken  her  from  him.  Had  he  an  aversion  to 
his  wife  that  he  had  parted  from  her  without  a  struggle  1  No  ; 
his  wife  was  a  very  good  wife  ;  she  suited  him  very  well.  Then 
why  did  he  not  fight  for  her  ?  "  You  see,"  said  he,  *'  it  was  a  big 
Indian  that  took  her  !  I  am  a  little  fellow,  what  could  I  do  1" 
This  hero  met  with  little  countenance  from  us,  and  after  being 
fed  for  two  days,  an  intimation  was  made  to  him  that  he  would 
receive  no  more  rations ;  on  which  he  followed  the  others,  and, 
as  we  afterward  learnt,  soon  procured  another  helpmate. 

The  singular  national  custom  of  the  women  being  the  property 
of  the  strongest,  had  been  acted  upon  a  short  time  previously  at 
the  fishery.  A  blind  man,  who  was  more  assiduous  in  setting 
trout  lines,  and  more  successful  as  a  fisherman  than  most  of  the 
others,  was  deprived  of  his  wife  on  the  general  movement  of  the 
party,  by  an  old  fellow  who  wanted  her  to  drag  his  sledge.  Mr. 
Bell  questioned  the  ancient  Paris  about  the  truth  of  the  report  when 
he  came  to  the  fort,  and  instead  of  denying  the  fact,  or  seeming 
ashamed,  he  gloried  in  the  deed  as  a  manly  action.  A  child,  the  ofi*- 
spring  of  her  former  connection,  followed  the  fortunes  of  the  mother. 

After  Mr.  Bell  and  I  quitted  the  fort  in  May,  the  reindeer 
migrating  toward  the  sea-coast  left  the  Indians  again  in  straitened 
circumstances.  The  active  hunters  moved  toward  the  open  coun- 
try in  quest  of  musk-oxen,  and  the  more  helpless  threw  themselveg 
on  Mr.  Rae's  compassion  at  the  fort.    He  distributed  among  them 


] 
( 
I 
t 
1 

I 

ii 

0 

a 

Ci 

si 

CI 
81 
tl 
Ol 


PROGRESS   OF  THE  SEASONS. 


297 


Lr. 

ig 
Iff- 

51. 

iet 

id 

in- 

[es 
im 


\ 


I 


the  remains  of  the  dried  meat  brought  from  Fort  Simpson,  and  a 
quantity  of  musk-bull  meat,  which  was  too  strong  for  his  own 
men,  but  which  the  natives  relished  greatly.  Thus  furnished 
they  betook  themselves  reluctantly  to  various  fisheries.  Such  is 
the  life  which  these  poor  creatures  lead.  Occasional  feasting  and 
rejoicing,  with  intervening  periods  of  want,  sometimes  of  absolute^ 
famine.  With  proper  management,  the  natural  resources  of  the 
country  would  support  a  population  ten  times  as  great ;  but  as 
long  as  all  the  drones  of  the  community  claim  a  right  to  appro- 
priate to  their  own  wants  the  produce  of  the  exertions  of  an  in- 
dustrious hunter  or  fisherman,  no  certain  provision  for  the  future 
will  be  made.  The  first  step  in  advance  will  be  the  formation 
of  fishing  villages,  and  the  culture  of  barley  and  potatoes ;  and, 
under  the  guidance  of  intelligent  missionaries,  this  might  be  effected 
without  much  difficulty ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  truths  of 
Christianity  might  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  heathenism  and 
moral  defects  of  the  'Tinne  nation. 

The  preceding  details  may  lead  the  teader  to  imagine  that  the 
Dog-ribs  or  Hare  Indians  are  an  unhappy  race ;  but  such  is  not 
the  case.  They  are  timid,  and  assume  the  attitude  and  soUcita- 
tions  of  beggars  in  their  intercourse  with  white  people ;  but  among 
themselves  they  are  lively,  volatile,  and  full  of  fun  and  mirth, 
which  even  an  empty  stomach  can  not  suppress. 

With  regard  to  the  progress  of  the  seasons,  the  **  Indian  sum- 
mer," as  it  is  called,  brought  \xf>  three  weeks  of  fine  weather  after 
our  arrival  in  September.  The  centre  of  Bear  Lake  usually  re- 
mains open  till  late  in  December,  but  by  the  middle  of  October 
the  bays  and  straits  are  frozen  across.  As  the  structure  of  ice 
has  of  late  years  attracted  the  attention  of  speculative  geologists, 
principally  in  connection  with  the  movements  of  glaciers,  I  am 
induced  to  mention  here  a  few  facts  which  intruded  themselves 
on  my  observation  during  my  residences  in  the  fur  countries. 

The  first  step  in  the  freezing  of  rivers  in  this  rigorous  climate, 
after  the  water  has  been  cooled  down  to  32°  by  a  succession  of 
cold  weather,  is  the  formation  of  somewhat  circular  plates  of  ice, 
six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter.  These  drift  for  a  time  with  the 
current,  until  they  have  become  numerous  enough  to  cover  the 
surface  of  the  water,  when  they  are  arrested  in  a  narrow  part  of 
the  river,  or  by  any  slight  obstacle,  and  speedily  adhere  to  each 
other,  after  which  the  interstices  between  the  circles  fill  rapidly 


i     *i! 


4 


« 


>  lii 


298 


ICE   AND  SNOW 


with  crystals  that  bind  all  firmly  together.  The  sheet  of  ice  thus 
produced  is  at  first  nearly  opaque  ;  but  when,  in  the  course  of  a 
day  or  two,  it  has  acquired  the  thickness  of  a  few  inches,  it  becomes 
transparent,  and  remains  so  until  a  fall  of  snow  has  obscured  the 
surface.  In  unsheltered  lakes  the  wind  drifts  the  snow  to  the 
beach,  and  would  perhaps  keep  the  ice  clean  for  great  part  of  the 
winter,  were  it  not  that  in  certain  hygrometric  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere  small  starry  tufts  of  most  beautiful  tabular  and  lat- 
ticed crystals  are  deposited  at  short  intervals  on  the  ice,  and  i'reezo 
firmly  to  it.  In  a  dry  atmosphere  these  crystals  evaporate  again, 
but  should  a  fall  take  place  of  the  fine,  dust-like  snow,  which  is 
the  most  common  kind  in  the  high  latitudes,  they  serve  to  detain 
it  until  it  consolidates,  so  as  to  resist  the  wind.  It  is  rare,  how- 
ever, for  the  snow  to  lie  more  than  a  foot  deep  on  any  of  the  large 
lakes,  unless  where  it  has  drifted  under  the  lee  of  piled>up  slabs 
of  ice,  or  of  rocks,  islands,  or  other  shelter. 

During  winter  the  ice  receives  an  increase  of  thickness  from 
benea.th,  and  at  the  same  time  evaporates  above  ;  the  latter  pro- 
cess going  on  with  a  rapidity  that  would  scarcely  be  credible  to 
one  ignorant  of  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  air  in  an  arctic  winter. 
The  ice  acquires  a  thickness  of  from  four  to  eight  feet,  according 
to  the  severity  of  the  season,  the  depth  of  the  lake,  and  other 
modifying  circumstances ;  and  I  desire  here  to  advert  especially 
to  the  fact,  that  although  it  is  constructed  of  successive  horizontal 
additions  beneath,  when  it  decays  in  spring  it  consists  of  vertical 
prisms,  penetrating  its  whole  thickness,  and  standing  side  by  side 
like  the  columns  of  a  basaltic  cliff;  which,  in  their  mode  of  forma- 
tion, have,  I  imagine,  a  close  analogy.  Dr.  Slagintweit  informed 
me  that  neither  the  ice  nor  the  basalt  forms  exact  prisms,  the 
angles  never  having  the  precise  measurements  of  true  crystals. 
In  this  condition  the  ice  may  be  strong  enough  to  support  a  con- 
siderable weight ;  and  I  have  traveled  over  it  with  a  large  party 
on  several  occasions  when  the  prisms  on  which  the  foot  rested 
were  depressed  at  every  step,  and  a  pointed  stick  could  be  driven 
through  the  whole  thickness  into  the  water  beneath,  with  as  much 
ease  as  into  a  bank  of  snow.  The  ice  then,  in  fact,  presents  the 
physical  characters  of  a  semi-fluid  mass,  as  pointed  out  by  Pro- 
fessor Forbes,  its  parts  being  movable  on  each  other,  not  only 
vertically,  but  as  in  the  case  of  traveling  glaciers,  capable  of 
gliding  past  one  another  horizontally. 


I 


TEMPERATURE. 


S99 


y 
d 

m 
Ih 

y 

k 


In  spring,  when  the  action  of  the  sun-light  is  very  powerful, 
an  incipient  thaw  takes  place  at  mid-day  on  the  surface  of  the 
snow,  which,  on  freezing  again,  acquires  a  glassy  crust.  As  the 
season  advances,  bui  v/hile  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  still,  even 
at  noon,  far  below  the  freezing  point,  the  crust  in  clear  weather 
becomes  penetrated  in  the  direction  in  which  it  is  struck  by  the 
sun's  rays  at  mid-day  by  innumerable  canals,  and  finally  crumbles 
into  a  granular  mass  like  the  Jim  of  the  high  Swiss  glaciers,  that 
crackles  under  the  feet  as  soon  as  the  sun  sinks  toward  the  horizon. 
This  firn  is  not  universal ;  it  is  more  common  within  the  Arctic 
circle,  and  in  situations  where  there  seems  to  have  been  originally 
a  certain  looseness  in  the  texture  of  the  snow,  and  where  its  surface 
is  so  much  inclined  that  the  sun's  rays  do  not  fall  on  it  obliquely 
about  noon.  I  did  not  notice  it  in  any  quantity  on  the  level  sur- 
face of  a  lake. 

The  rapid  evaporation  of  both  snow  and  ice  in  the  winter  and 
spring,  long  before  the  action  of  the  sun  has  produced  the  slightest 
thaw  or  appearance  of  moisture,  is  made  evident  to  residents  in 
the  high  latitudes  by  many  facts  of  daily  occurrence ;  and  I  may 
mention  that  the  drying  of  linen  furnishes  a  familiar  one.  When 
a  shirt,  after  being  washed,  is  exposed  in  the  open  air  to  a  tem- 
perature of  40°  or  50°  below  zero,  it  is  instantly  rigidly  frozen, 
and  may  be  broken  if  violently  bent.  If  agitated  when  in  this 
condition  by  a  strong  wind,  it  makes  a  rustling  noise  like  theatri- 
cal thunder.  In  an  hour  or  two,  however,  or  nearly  as  quickly 
as  it  would  do  if  exposed  to  the  sun  in  the  moist  climate  of  En- 
gland, it  dries  and  becomes  limber. 

Mr.  Rae  mentioned  to  me  another  example  of  the  same  fact 
which  bears  on  the  transportation  of  boulders,  and  may  interest 
geologists.  During  his  memorable  residence  on  the  shores  of 
Repulse  Bay,  he  noticed  several  large  boulders  which  were  par- 
tially exposed  at  low  water.  When  the  sea  froze  they  became 
engaged  in  the  ice,  and  were  lifted  with  it  from  the  bottom  by 
the  flood-tides.  The  ice  gaining  at  each  tide  in  thickness  beneath, 
and  losing  above  by  superficial  evaporation,  the  bouiders  in  pro- 
cess of  time  came  to  rest  in  pits  on  its  surface. 

In  consequence  of  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  in 
winter,  most  articles  of  English  manufacture  made  of  wood,  horn, 
or  ivory,  brought  to  Rupert's  Land,  are  shriveled,  bent,  and 
broken.     The  handles  of  razors  and  knives,  combs,  ivory  scales, 


w  III 
^1:  if 

m 


300 


TEMPERATURE. 


^r 


and  various  other  things  kept  in  the  warm  rooms,  are  damaged 
in  this  way.  The  human  body  also  becomes  visibly  electric  from 
the  dryness  of  the  skin.  One  cold  night  I  rose  from  my  bed,  and, 
having  lighted  a  lantern,  was  going  out  to  observe  the  thermom- 
eter, with  no  other  clothing  than  my  flannel  night-dress,  when, 
on  approaching  my  hand  to  the  iron  latch  of  the  door,  a  distinct 
spark  was  elicited.  Friction  of  the  skin  at  almost  all  times  in 
winter  produced  the  electric  odor. 

In  November  the  snow  was  deep  enough  for  sledges  to  run 
vithout  receiving  much  injury.  On  the  1st  of  December  the 
sun  was  just  visible  for  an  instant  at  noon,  from  an  eminence  be- 
hind the  house.  This  month  was  a  cold  one,  and  the  coldest 
days  in  the  year  were  the  17th  and  18th,  when  the  average  tem- 
perature for  forty-eight  hours  was  55^°  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit. 
The  lowest  observation  made  was  at  seven  in  the  afternoon  of 
the  17th,  at  which  time  the  temperature  was  58-9°  F.  The 
thermometer,  one  of  Adie's  making,  was  hung  by  the  side  of  a 
dozen  by  the  same  artist,  none  of  which  differed  a  degree  from  it. 
When  tested  by  freezing  mercury,  this  one  stood  at  36°,  which 
is  considered  to  be  from  4°  to  6°  too  high ;  so  that,  making  the 
smallest  of  these  corrections,  the  actual  minimum  temperature 
we  observed  was  65°  F.*  This  is  one  of  the  greatest  colds  on 
record,  and  pains  were  taken  to  ascertain  it  correctly.t 

Even  at  mid-winter  we  had  three  hours  and  a  half  of  daylight. 
On  the  20th  of  December  I  required  a  candle  to  write  at  the 
window  at  ten  in  the  morning.  On  the  29th  the  sun,  after  ten 
days'  absence,  rose  at  the  fishery  where  the  horizon  was  open  ; 
and  on  the  8th  of  January,  both  limbs  of  that  luminary  were 
seen  from  a  gentle  eminence  behind  the  fort,  rising  above  the 
centre  of  Fishery  Island.  For  several  days  previously,  however, 
its  place  in  the  heavens  at  noon  had  been  denoted  by  rays  of  light 


*  Mr.  Saunders,  commander  of  the  North  Star,  records  64^°  F.  as 
the  lowest  temperature  observed  in  Wolstenholme  Sound  in  the  winter 
of  1850. 

t  In  two  thermometers,  made  by  a  London  artist,  and  hung  up  beside 
the  others,  the  spirit  retreated  into  the  bulb,  though  the  scales  were  grad- 
uated down  to  73°.  In  freezing  mercury,  these  thermometers  indicated 
65°,  being  about  15°  too  low.  Mr.  Adie's  thermometers  were  construct- 
ed imder  the  superintendence  of  Professor  Forbes  of  Edinburgh.  The  pre- 
cautions used  to  insure  their  correctness  will  be  detailed  when  the  meteor- 
ological observations  at  Fort  Confidence  are  published. 


t 


ARRIVAL   OF  SUMMER  BIRDS. 


801 


shooting  into  the  sky  above  the  woods.  The  lowest  temperature 
ill  January  was  50°  F. 

On  the  1st  of  February  the  sun  rose  to  us  at  9  o'clock  and  set 
at  3,  and  the  days  lengthened  rapidly.  On  the  23d  I  could  write 
in  my  room  without  artificial  light  from  10  a.m.  to  half-past  2 
P.M.,  making  four  hours  and  a  half  of  bright  daylight.  The  moon 
in  the  long  nights  was  a  most  beautiful  object ;  that  satellite  be- 
ing constantly  above  the  horizon  for  nearly  a  fortnight  together 
in  the  middle  of  the  lunar  month.  Venus  also  shone  with  a 
brilliancy  which  is  never  witnessed  in  a  sky  loaded  with  vapors, 
and  unless  in  snowy  weather,  our  nights  were  always  enlivened 
by  the  beams  of  the  Aurora. 

In  February  the  lowest  temperature  was  56°  F.  (or  62°  cor- 
rected), and  in  MarchT  44°  F.  (46°)  was  the  lowest  observed. 
On  the  20th  of  April,  signs  of  the  snow  softening  on  the  south 
side  of  the  house,  contiguous  to  the  walls,  were  perceived.  The 
day  by  this  time  had  lengthened  so  far,  that  I  was  able  to  read 
off  the  degrees  of  the  thermometer  by  daylight  at  nine  in  the 
evening.  Snow-birds  arrived  in  small  flocks,  and  on  the  27th 
the  snow  began  to  melt  in  sheltered  places,  exposed  to  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun.  Ospreys,  ger-falcons,  eagles,  and  gulls  appeared 
on  the  17th  of  May;  and,  from  the  19th  to  the  23d,  melted  snow 
stood  deep  on  the  surface  of  the  ice.  On  the  prior  of  these  two 
dates,  the  first  goose  was  seen.  The  geese  approach  the  high 
latitudes  as  soon  as  the  swamps  are  uncovered,  when  they  feed 
on  the  undeveloped  flowering  stalks  of  the  cotton-grass  and  other 
Cyperacea,  Their  arrival  is  thus  an  indication  of  the  progress 
of  spring,  and  frosty  weather  will  sometimes  drive  them  back  for 
a  week  or  so  to  a  milder  district.  The  impulse,  however,  by 
which  they  are  urged  to  their  breeding  stations  is  so  uncontrolla- 
ble, that  in  backward  seasons  they  are  driven  to  the  sea  coast 
before  the  snow  is  gone,  and  then,  from  want  of  food,  they  are  in 
a  very  lean  condition.  Their  incubation,  the  fledging  of  the 
goslings,  and  the  moulting  of  the  parents,  has  to  take  place  before 
the  end  of  August,  when  old  and  young  pass  southward  to  spend 
the  winter  in  more  genial  climes.  An  indelible  attachment  leads 
them  back  to  their  natal  places,  and  the  ensuing  summer  sees 
them  winging  their  way  northward  in  cuneal  bands,  with  unerr- 
ing instinct.  Their  arrival  in  a  district  enUvens  white  man  and 
Indian :  during  their  passage,  plenty  reigns  in  every  encampment ; 


M 

n  fl 


:»•  V 


Mill 


■StA 


■'If 


i 


8:1 

m 


302 


ARRIVAL  OF  SUMMER  BIRDS. 


ond  the  dingy,  pot-bellied  children  run  about  with  smiling,  greasy 
faces,  brandishing  in  each  hand  the  leg  or  wing  of  a  goose. 

The  Canada  geese  come  in  the  van,  and  remain  breeding  in 
the  woody  country ;  snow  geese  next  arrive,  and  pass  onward  to 
Wollaston's  Land ;  then  the  laughing  geese  come  and  go,  holding 
a  northwest  course ;  and  at  the  same  time  with  the  latter,  the 
Hutchin's  geese  speed  to  the  sea  coast. 

On  the  22d,  pin-tail  ducks  were  seen ;  on  the  24th,  swans ; 
and,  on  the  30th  and  31st,  large  flocks  of  snow  geese  and  brown 
cranes  passed  northward.  On  the  1st  of  June,  bees,  sandpipers, 
long-tailed  ducks  or  cacawees,  eider  and  king  ducks,  and  northern 
divers  were  seen :  the  catkins  of  the  earliest  willows  also  burst 
their  envelopes  on  this  day.  On  the  5th,  teal,  widgeon,  scaup- 
ducks,  shovellers,  and  jagers  arrived  ;  but',  on  the  8th,  the  fur  of 
the  polar  hare  was  still  white. 

The  progress  of  spring  at  Fort  Confidence,  subsequent  to  the 
7th  of  May,  is  recorded  from  Mr.  Rae's  notes,  as  on  that  date 
Mr.  Bell  and  I  commenced  our  journey  southward.  To  contrast 
with  the  above  the  dates  of  the  arrivals  of  the  migratory  birds  at 
Fort  Franklin  in  the  same  season  are  here  added,  the  difTerenee 
of  latitude  between  the  two  places  being  a  degree  and  three 
quarters. 

On  the  11th  of  May,  under  a  hot  sun,  a  pool  of  water  had 
formed  on  the  ice  near  the  bay  of  the  Deer  Pass.  We  bivouacked 
on  the  shore  beside  it,  and  had  not  yet  arranged  our  sleeping- 
places,  when  a  Canada  goose  alighted  in  the  pool.  It  was  scarce- 
ly allowed  to  settle  before  it  was  shot,  and,  with  a  celerity  un- 
known in  civilized  lands,  stripped  of  its  feathers  and  committed  to 
the  cooking-kettle.  This  was  evidently  a  straggler,  and  must 
have  seen  the  small  pond  in  which  it  alighted  from  a  great  dis- 
tance ;  for,  on  our  arrival  at  Fort  Franklin  on  the  following  day, 
we  learnt  that  neither  our  two  fishermen  employed  there,  nor  an 
Indian  residing  near  them,  had  as  yet  seen  any  of  the  spring 
birds.  On  the  14th  the  Indian  saw  gulls;  on  the  18th,  snow 
geese  and  various  small  birds  came,  together  with  tho  pretty  little 
gull  named  Xerna  bonapartii,  which  in  large  flocks  sought  for 
insects  in  the  open  water  now  forming  along  the  shores  of  the 
smaller  lakes.  On  the  22d,  bands  of  snow  geese  passed  to  the 
northwest,  flying  high.  They  evidently  found  the  country  about 
Fort  Franklin  still  too  closely  wrapped  in  its  winter 


garb, 


ARRIVAL  (»F  SUMMER   BIRD:). 


303 


1 


1 


were  winging  their  way  to  the  valley  of  the  Mackenzie,  where 
the  season  is  earlier. 

Geese,  according  to  Mr.  Bell's  information,  arrive  at  Peel 
River  Fort,  upward  of  two  degrees  farther  north,  from  the  12th 
to  the  15th  of  May,  rarely  varying  above  a  day  or  two,  the  15th 
being  the  date  of  their  coming  in  backward  seasons.  At  that 
time  they  find  the  marshy  places  bare  of  snow,  and  can  procure 
the  roots  of  bents  and  other  plants  on  which  they  feed.  There, 
as  elsewhere,  the  Canada  geese  precede  the  mow  geese  a  day  or 
two.  The  Hutchin's  geese  *  come  later,  and  pass  high  overhead 
toward  the  north.  The  Indians  believe  that  a  small  finch  {Plec- 
tropJtanes  lapponica)  avails  itself  of  the  strength  of  wing  of  the 
Hutchin's  goose,  and  nestles  among  its  feathers  during  its  flight. 
When  a  goose  is  shot,  they  often  see  the  small  bird  flying  from 
it.  Neither  Mr.  Rae  nor  I  noticed  such  an  occurrence,  nor  did 
I  obtain  a  confirmation  of  it  from  the  personal  observation  of  any 
of  the  gentlemen  resident  in  the  country,  but  it  is  generally  affirm- 
ed by  the  Indians. 

While  we  were  at  Fort  Franklin,  Mr.  Bell,  who  was  employed 
all  day  in  shooting  geese,  pointed  out  to  me  a  fact  in  the  natural 
history  of  the  snow  and  laughing  geese.  Though  they  migrated 
in  large  flocks,  each  had  already  selected  its  mate ;  and  if  the 
female  was  shot,  the  male  bird  instantly  separated  from  the  rest, 
and  descended  to  look  after  her.  In  this  way,  he  often  fell  a  vic- 
tim to  his  conjugal  fidelity ;  but  if  he  escaped  the  shots  aimed  at 
him,  and  became  shy,  he  would  still  continue  for  hours,  and  even 
days,  searching  the  neighborhood  for  his  lost  mate.  The  case 
was  difierent  if  the  male  bird  fell  first.  The  female,  it  is  true, 
also  lefl  the  flock,  but  she  kept  more  aloof,  and  generally,  after 
making  a  circle  or  two  round  the  spot  where  the  body  of  her 
partner  lay,  went  off  with  the  next  flock  that  came  up. 

The  laughing  geese  passed  Fort  Franklin  a  few  days  later  than 
the  snow  geese,  but  a  single  individual  was  often  seen  some  days 
before  the  arrival  of  the  main  body,  associated  with  a  flock  of 
snow  geese,  and  generally  acting  as  leader  by  assuming  a  sta- 
tion in  the  apex  of  the  angle  in  which  they  fly.  About  the  same 
time,  the  American  robin,  or  migratory  thrush,  came  with  the 
yellow-poll  and  black  and  yellow  warblers  {Sylvia  astiva  et 

*  These  are  commonly  called  "Eskimo  geese"  in  Rupert's  Land. 


:i;.v: 


^1 


304 


ARRIVAL   OP  SUMMER   BIRDS. 


maculosa).  The  latter  fed  on  the  berries  of  the  Alpine  arbutus, 
as  did  likewise  the  golden  plovers,  whose  stomachs  also  contained 
the  juicy  fruit  of  the  Empctrum  nigrum.  The  Eskimo  curlew 
at  this  time  fed  on  large  ants.  It  would  appear  that  these  in- 
sects descend  to  the  stomachs  of  the  curlews  alive,  since  I  found 
that  several,  having  taken  fast  hold  of  the  lining  of  the  gullet 
Avith  their  mandibles,  remained  sticking  there,  and  even  after 
death  required  some  force  to  detach  them.  The  tree  bunting 
{Fringilla  canadensis),  black-finch  {F.  hyemalis),  and  white- 
crowned  finch  {F.  leucophrys)*  were  also  early  visitors,  and  soon 
after  their  arrival  began  to  construct  their  nests.  The  Lapland 
finch  was  also  seen,  but  only  on  its  passage  to  the  coast.  The 
Lestris  richardsonii  flew  about  in  pairs,  and  was  observed  to  have 
the  habit  of  quartering  the  ground  like  the  hen-harrier.  In  the 
stomach  of  one  which  I  killed,  there  were  the  skin  and  some  of 
the  bones  of  a  mouse,  rolled  into  a  ball,  like  the  pellets  that  are 
rejected  from  the  stomach  of  an  owl.  The  purple-throated  diver 
visited  Bear  Lake  River  in  considerable  numbers.  This  species 
is  easily  distinguished  from  the  great  northern  diver  ( C.  glacialis), 
while  flying,  by  its  swollen,  bluish-gray  neck.  Almost  all  the 
summer  birds  arrived  before  we  left  that  neighborhood ;  but  I 
have  enumerated  only  the  earliest  comers,  or  those  which  I  had 
not  previously  seen  in  so  high  a  latitude,  and  whose  range  is, 
therefore,  not  correctly  given  in  the  Fauna  Boreali  Americana.] 

*  I  have  already  mentioned  the  nocturnal  song  of  this  bird,  which  breeds 
throughout  Rupert's  Land.  In  attempting  to  express  its  clear,  loud  notes 
by  syllables,  the  nearest  approach  I  could  make  was  cheet-cheet,  tareet, 
cheet,  cheet.  The  first  two  syllables  are  loud  and  high,  the  next  two  short, 
and  the  two  last  lower  and  softer. 

t  From  Mr.  Murray,  I  have  received  the  following  accoimt  of  the  ar- 
rivals of  the  water-fowl  in  the  Valley  of  the  Yukon.  "  Of  the  two  kinds 
of  swan,  only  the  largest  sort  {Cygnus  buccinator)  are  seen  here ;  they 
pass  on  to  the  northward  of  the  Porcupine  River,  to  breed  among  the  lakes. 
Bustards  (i.  e.  Canada  geese)  are  plentiful,  and  breed  every  where,  from 
Council  Bluffs  on  the  Missouri  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Polar  Sea.  On  the 
ramparts  of  Porcupine  River  they  frequently  build  high  up  among  the  rocks, 
where  one  would  suppose  only  hawks  and  ravens  would  have  their  nests. 
How  they  take  their  young  down  is  unknown  to  me,  but  they  must  be 
carried  somehow.  Ravens  and  large  gulls  are  very  destructive  to  young 
geese.  With  respect  to  the  breeding-quarters  of  the  laughing  geese  {^nser 
albifrons),  I  am  able  to  inform  you  correctly,  having  myself  seen  a  few  of 
their  nests-,  and,  since  the  receipt  of  your  letter,  made  further  inquiry 
among  the  northern  Indians.  Their  nests  are  built  on  the  edges  of  swamps 
and  lakes,  throughout  most  of  the  country  north  of  the  Porcupine,  where 


:^mnmf 


LUAVE  FOKT  CONFIDENCE. 


305 


Great  Bear  Lake  is  navigable  for  its  whole  extent  for  only 
fifty  days  in  the  year.  It  is  frozea  over  later  than  shallower 
pieces  of  water  in  its  vicinity,  but  the  ice  remains  longer  unbrok- 
en, and  drift  ice  continues  on  its  surface  till  the  middle  of  August. 
On  the  7th  of  May,  the  day  on  which  Mr.  Bell  and  I  set  out  to 
travel  to  Fort  Franklin,  the  ice  was  as  firm  as  in  mid-winter; 
and,  though  the  snow  softened  in  fine  weather,  it  still  covered 
the  ground  deeply. 

the  ground  is  marshy.  It  is  only  near  the  most  northerly  bonds  of  that 
river  that  any  are  seen  in  the  breeding  season,  and  these  are  male  birds. 
They  pass  to  their  breeding-places  in  the  beginning  of  June,  and  make  their 
nests  among  long  grass  or  small  bushes,  where  they  are  not  easily  seen. 
They  are  shy  birds  when  hatching ;  and,  when  any  one  comes  near  the 
nest,  manage  to  escape  unperceived,  and  then  show  themselves  at  a  dis- 
tance, and  manoeuvre  like  grouse  to  lead  the  intruder  away  from  the  place. 
Notwithstanding  our  ruthless  habit  of  collecting  eggs  of  all  kinds  to  vary 
our  diet,  I  have  often  felt  for  a  laughing  goose,  whose  anxiety  for  tho 
safety  of  its  eggs  was  frequently  the  means  of  revealing  to  us  the  situation 
of  its  nest.  When  the  bird  was  swimming  some  hundreds  of  yards  off, 
immediately  that  any  person  in  walking  round  the  lake  came  near  its 
treasure,  the  poor  bird  began  to  make  short,  impatient  turns  in  the  water, 
resuming  her  calm  demeanor  if  the  intruder  passed  the  nest  without  see- 
ing it.  As  soon  as  the  eggs  are  taken,  the  goose  rises  out  of  the  water 
and  flies  close  to  the  head  of  the  captor,  uttering  a  frightened  and  pitiful 
cry.  These  geese  are  more  numerous  in  the  Valley  of  the  Yukon  than  any 
other  kind ;  and  the  numbers  that  pass  northward  there  are  perhaps  equal 
to  that  of  all  the  other  species  together.  The  Gens  du  large  {Neyetse- 
kutchin),  who  visit  the  north  coast  regularly  to  traffic  with  the  Eskimos, 
say  that  they  have  never  seen  any  flying  northward  over  the  sea  in  that 
quarter.  White  geese  (snow  geese,  Chen  hyperboreus)  are  also  passengers 
here,  and  there  are  likewise  black  geese,  which  I  presume  you  have  never 
seen.  A  few  of  them  pass  down  Peel's  River,  but  they  are  more  abundant 
on  the  Yukon.  They  are  very  handsome  birds,  considerably  smaller  than 
the  white  geese,  and  have  a  dark  brown  or  brownish  black  color,  with  a 
white  ring  round  the  neck,  tho  head  and  bill  having  the  shape  of  that  of 
the  bustard."  (This  description  applies  pretty  well  to  the  brent  goose 
jinser  bernicla).  The  black  geese  are  the  least  numerous  and  the  latest 
that  arrive  here.  They  fly  in  large  flocks  with  remarkable  velocity,  and 
generally  pass  on  without  remaining,  as  the  others  do,  some  days  to  feed. 
When  they  alight,  it  is  always  in  the  water ;  and,  if  they  wish  to  land, 
they  swim  ashore.  They  are  very  fat,  and  their  flesh  has  an  oily  and 
rather  disagreeable  taste.  Bustards,  laughing  geese,  ducks,  and  large  gulls 
make  their  appearance  here  from  the  27th  to  the  29th  of  April.  Snow 
geese  and  black  geese  about  the  15th  or  16th  of  May,  when  the  other  kinds 
become  plentiful.  They  have  mostly  passed  by  the  end  of  the  month, 
though  some,  especially  the  bustards,  are  seen  in  June.  The  white  geese 
and  black  geese  breed  only  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  They  return 
in  September  and  early  in  October,  flying  high,  and  seldom  halting." 


ii 


it;'-  ■ 


I 


Si 


i  i 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

Mr.  Rao's  Expedition  in  the  Summer  of  1849. — Instructions. — He  crosses  to  the 
Coppermine. — Descends  thiit  River. — Sea  covered  with  Ice. — Surveys  Rae 
River. — Eskimos. — Cape  Kendall. — Cape  Heame. — Basil  Hall  Bay. — Capo 
Krusenstern. — Douglass  Island. — Detention. — Dangerous  Situation. — August 
23,  return. — Author  and  Mr.  Bell  leave  Fort  Confidence. — Cross  Great  Bear 
Lake. — Descend  Bear  Lake  River. — David  Brodio  lost  in  the  Woods. — His 
Adventures. — Fort  Simpson. — Methy  Portage. — Receive  English  Letters. — Nor- 
way House. — Part  from  the  Seamen  and  Sappers  and  Miners. — Continue  the 
Voyage  to  Canada. — Boston. — Land  at  Liverpool. — Summary  of  the  present 
State  of  the  Search  for  Sir  John  Franklin. 

Having  in  the  preceding  chapter  mentioned  such  occurrences 
during  our  winter's  residence  at  Fort  Confidence  as  seemed  most 
worthy  of  notice,  this  is  the  most  appropriate  place  for  introducing 
an  account  of  Mr.  Rae's  endeavors,  in  the  summer,  to  reach 
Wollaston  Land,  and  complete  the  search  in  that  quarter.  Had 
we  succeeded  in  taking  our  boats  up  the  Coppermine,  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  Eskimos,  according  to  our  expectations  when  the 
plan  of  search  was  formed,  the  voyage  might  have  been  resumed 
in  the  summer  of  1849  with  two  or  three  boats;  and,  in  that 
case,  both  Mr.  Rae  and  I  would  have  gone,  that  we  might  aid 
each  other  among  the  ice.  But,  having  been  compelled  to  leave 
our  craft  in  September,  without  the  smallest  hope  of  their  being 
found  again  in  a  seaworthy  condition,  and  having  only  one  boat 
remaining  that  could  be  employed  on  the  service,  it  became  nec- 
essary to  determine  which  of  us  should  take  charge  of  that  vessel 
and  of  the  small  party  it  could  contain.  Setting  all  personal 
considerations  aside,  and  looking  solely  to  the  means  of  providing 
for  the  examination  of  as  large  a  portion  of  the  Arctic  Sea  as 
could  be  accomplished,  I  had  no  hesitation  in  deciding  in  favor 
of  Mr.  Rae.  His  ability  and  zeal  were  unquestionable  ;  he  was 
in  the  prime  of  life,  and  his  personal  activity  and  his  skill  as  a 
hunter  fitted  him  peculiarly  for  such  an  enterprise.  The  arrange- 
ment I  made  for  withdrawing  the  European  party,  and  employing 
volunteers  from  the  men  engaged  in  the  country,  was  a  consider- 
able pecuniary  saving,  which  I  was  bound  to  consider,  as  far  as  I 
could,  witliout  cramping  the  means  of  search. 


' 


■mv.wsk' 


MR.   RAK'B  UXrElirriOiV.  307 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  timt  Mr.  Hae  explored  the 
country  between  Fort  Confidence  and  the  Coppermine  River  in 
winter,  to  select  the  best  route  for  dragging  the  boat  over  in 
spring.  In  April  he  oonveyid  provisions,  boat  stores,  and  other 
necessaries  across  to  twe  Kendall  on  dog-sledges,  and  left  two 
men  at  Flett's  station  in  charge  of  them,  together  with  two  In- 
dian hunters.  Before  the  end  of  the  month  wo  learnt  that  they 
had  obtained  both  musk-ox  and  reindeer  meat,  and  were  drying 
part  of  it  for  summer  use.  The  subsequent  proceedings  are  told 
in  tho  following  official  documents,  which  I  quote  entire,  premis- 
ing that  the  names  of  the  men  composing  his  party  were — 

Boat^a    Crew. 

Neil  M'Leod OrKney  man. 

James  Hope Croo  Indian, 

Thomas  Hope " 

Halcro  Humphrey Oritncy  man. 

Albert  One-eye Eskimo. 

Louis  Olivier Canadian. 

Left  in  charge  of  Fort  Confidence. 

fiaptiste  Paul Canadian. 

Louis  Dubrill " 

(Memorandum) . 
"  Fort  Confidence,  Great  Bear  Lake,  May  1, 1849. 

*'  As  in  the  prosecution  of  the  search  for  traces  of  the  Discovery  Ships 
under  command  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  the  continental  coast  line  between 
the  Mackenzie  and  Coppermine  Rivers  has  been  carefully  examined,  tho 
only  part  of  my  instructions  not  complied  with,  is  the  examination  of  the 
adjoining  shores  of  WoUaston  andVictoria  Lands,  which  the  state  of  the 
ice  in  Dolphin  and  Union  Straits  rendered  inaccessible  last  autumn.  That 
these  two  islands  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  strait  lying  between 
the  111th  and  113th  meridians,  is  rendered  almost  certain  by  a  consider- 
ation of  the  direction  of  the  flood  tide,  which,  on  the  west  side  of  these 
parallels,  sets  to  the  westward  through  Dolphin  and  Union  Straits,  and 
to  the  eastward  of  them,  sets  to  the  eastward  toward  Cape  Alexander ; 
coming,  we  must  conclude,  from  the  northward  between  the  lands  in  ques- 
tion ;  for  the  survey  by  Messrs.  Dease  and  Simpson  has  shown  that  tho 
coast  of  Victoria  Land  is  continuous  up  to  the  111th  parallel ;  and  the 
latter  gentleman  records  his  opinion,  that  much  of  the  heavy  drift  ice  that 
encumbers  Coronation  Gulf  descends  between  these  lands  from  the  north. 

*'  The  exploration  of  the  shores  of  this  strait  is  of  much  importance  in 
the  search  for  the  Discovery  Ships,  for  the  following  reasons :  Sir  John 
Franklin  having  been  directed  to  steer  to  the  southwest  after  he  had  pass- 
ed Barrow's  Straits,  would  be  led  directly  into  it,  and  he  would  hj  deter- 
red from  attempting  a  more  westerly  course  by  the  circumstance  of  Sir  Ed- 
ward Parry  having  found  that  route  impracticable  for  two  successive  sea- 


;  i; 


I 

.it 


308 


MR.  RAE'S  LNSTRUCTIONS. 


sons.  Should  there  be  several  islands  between  Wollaaton  and  Banks's 
Lands,  and  the  channels  between  them  be  intricate,  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
the  ships  may  have  been  shut  up  therein  by  ice.  It  was  the  intention  of 
Sir  James  Ross,  in  the  event  of  his  reaching  Winter  Harbor  last  year,  to 
send  a  party  across  the  ice  this  spring  to  pass  between  Victoria  and  Wol- 
laston  Lands  toward  Cape  Krusenstern  and  the  Coppermine  Aiver.  To 
co-operate  with  that  paity  and  to  aid  it  with  provisions,  or  to  supply  its 
place,  should  circumstances  have  prevented  its  being  sei.t,  it  is  expedient 
that  a  party  should  go  from  hence,  and  as  you  and  a  sulRcient  number  of 
men  have  volunteered  for  this  service,  I  hereby,  in  virtue  of  the  clause  of 
my  instructions  which  authorizes  me  to  detach  you  and  a  party  of  volun- 
teers under  your  command,  appoint  you  to  this  duty.  You  are  therefore 
to  descend  the  Coppermine  River ;  and  as  soon  as  the  sea  opens  in  July, 
are  to  proceed  to  explore  the  strait  in  question,  endeavoring  to  communi- 
cate with  any  parties  of  Eskimos  you  may  meet  with  on  Wollaston  or  the 
neighboring  islands.  Should  you  reach  the  northern  coast  of  Bank's  Land, 
you  are  there  to  erect  a  pile  of  stones,  and  deposit  a  memorandum  of  your 
object  and  proceedings  at  the  distance  of  10  feet  from  its  base,  marking 
that  side  of  the  pile  with  a  broad  arrow  in  red  or  white  paint.  You  are 
also  to  erect  similar  piles,  and  deposit  in  the  same  manner  on  conspicuous 
headlands,  memoranda  for  the  guidance  of  the  party  detached  by  Sir 
James  Ross,  when  you  can  do  so  without  materially  dehiying  your  pro- 
gress. Should  you  discover  any  signal  posts  erected  by  that  party,  and 
learn  from  the  memoranda  deposited  near  them  that  the  strait  has  been 
sufficiently  explored  down  to  that  place,  you  are  to  proceed  no  further  in 
that  direction ;  and  you  are  at  liberty  to  use  your  own  judgment  in  devi- 
ating from  this  route,  if,  from  information  given  by  the  Eskimos,  or  ob- 
tained from  other  sources,  you  are  of  opinion  that  the  ships,  or  part  of 
their  crews,  may  be  found  in  another  quarter. 

"  Having  the  fullest  confidence  in  your  judgment,  experience,  and  pru- 
dence, I  shall  not  name  a  period  to  your  advance,  further  than  by  re- 
questing you  not  to  hazard  the  safety  of  the  party  intrusted  to  your  care, 
by  delaying  your  return  too  long.  The  last  season  furnishes  a  strong  in- 
stance of  the  early  date  at  which  the  winter  occasionally  commences  in 
these  seas.* 

"  Having  performed  this  service,  or  prosecuted  it  as  far  as  practicable, 
with  a  due  regard  to  the  safety  of  your  party,  you  are  to  return  with  all 
speed  to  Fort  Confiden<.'".  and,  embarking  without  delay  the  instruments 
and  stores  remaining  at  a.  ?„t  ^jost,  to  proceed  forthwith  to  Fort  Simpson. 
Such  of  the  stores  as  are  useful  to  the  Company  are  to  be  valued  and 
handed  over  to  them,  and  the  instruments  are  to  be  forwarded  to  England, 
addressed  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Admiralty.  The  men  are  to  be  sent  to 
winter  at  some  fishing  station  sufficiently  to  the  southward  to  insure  their 
early  arrival  at  Norway  House  next  spring ;  and  you  are  to  direct  them 
to  be  furnished  with  nets,  that  they  may  provide  for  their  own  sustenance 
during  the  winter,  with  as  little  expense  to  the  Government  as  possible. 

"  Immediately  on  your  return  from  the  coast,  you  are  to  communicate 
an  account  of  your  proceedings  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Admiralty,  for  the 

*  The  25th  of  August  was  the  date  at  which  I  considered  it  prudent  that  Mr.  Rae 
should  endeavor  to  be  on  the  south  side  or  Dolphin  and  Union  Straits,  and  I  expressed 
this  opinion  in  a  private  note  to  him. 


3n. 
Lnd 
|id, 

to 
leir 

ice 

ite 
the 


MR.  ItAE  ASCENDS  THE  DEASE. 


309 


irifomiation  of  their  Lordships ;  ami  you  are  also  to  transmit  him  a  chart 
of  any  hitherto  unexplored  coasts  or  straits  you  may  discover,  as  soon  as 
you  have  had  leisure  to  construct  it. 

"  Given  under  my  hand,  at  Fort  Confidence,  Ist  May,  1849. 

(Signed)  "  John  Eichardson, 

"  Commanding  Arctic  Searching  Expedition. 
"  John  Rae,  Esq." 

Copy  of  a  Dispatch  from  Mr.  Rae  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Admiralty,  nar' 

rating  the  Proceedings  of  the  Expedition  under  his  Command  to  the  shores 

of  the  Arctic  Sea,  in  the  Summer  of  1849. 

"  Fort  Confidence,  Great  Bear  Lake,  Sept.  1,  1849. 

"  Sir — I  have  the  honor  to  acquaint  you,  for  the  information  of  my 
Lords  Commisioners  of  the  Admiralty,  that  the  expedition  under  my  com- 
mand, which  descended  the  Coppermine  this  summer  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  for 
the  purpose  of  examining  the  shores  of  Wollaston  and  Victoria  Lands,  in 
search  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  party,  returned  to  this  place  to-day,  having 
been  quite  unsuccessful  in  its  object,  and  with  the  loss  of  Albert,  the 
Eskimo  interpreter,  who  was  drowned  at  the  Bloody  Fall,  the  particulars 
of  which  unfortunate  accident  I  shall  mention  hereafter. 

"  Having  made  every  requisite  arrangement  at  Fort  Confidence  for  facil- 
itating our  progress  across  land  to  the  Coppermine,  I  waited  impatiently 
for  the  disruption  of  the  ice  on  Dease  River,  to  which  our  boat  was  hauled 
on  the  7  th  of  June.  Next  day  we  learned  that  the  upper  parts  of  the  river 
were  clear  of  ice ;  and  on  the  following  morning  I  started  in  company  with 
four  men  and  two  Indians,  and  a  couple  of  sledges  on  which  our  baggage 
and  provisions  were  stowed.  The  Dease  was  still  covered  with  strong 
and  solid  ice  for  two  miles  up  its  course,  over  which  we  hauled  the  boat  be- 
fore getting  to  open  water. 

"  Our  ascent  of  the  stream  was  extremely  slow,  owing  to  the  many  bar- 
riers of  ice  (some  of  them  six  or  eight  miles  long)  over  which  we  had  to 
launch  the  boat,  and  it  was  the  15th  before  arrived  at  the  forks  of  the 
river,  where  it  was  my  intention  to  diverge  from  the  route  of  Dease  and 
Simpson.  They  followed  the  north  branch,  while  we  ascended  the  south- 
east one.  This  stream  was  also  much  obstructed  by  ice,  and  so  very  shal- 
low, consequent  on  the  coldness  of  the  weather,  which  prevented  the  snow 
on  the  high  grounds  from  thawing,  that  the  whole  party  were  almost  con- 
tinually up  to  their  knees  among  water  and  snow  engaged  in  launching  the 
boat.  In  ordinary  seasons  it  was  evident,  by  marks  along  the  banks,  that 
there  is  sufficient  water  for  a  boat  drawing  some  inches  more  than  ours 
throughout  its  whole  length,  which  is  little  more  than  15  miles,  including 
its  various  curves.  On  the  17th  we  passed  over  the  ice  on  thij  lake  from 
which  the  stream  flows.  It  contains  many  islands,  and  its  breadth,  where 
we  crossed  it  in  a  nearly  south  direction,  is  3^  miles. 

"  Indian  report  had  led  me  to  believe  that  there  was  a  cveek,  having 
sufficient  depth  of  water  for  the  boat,  flowing  from  this  lake  into  the  south 
branch  of  the  Kendall,  which  we  were  to  descend  to  the  Dismal  Lakes ; 
but  in  this  we  were  disappointed,  and  consequently  had  a  portage  of  six 
geographical  miles  to  make  overland  nearly  due  east.  I  had  examined 
this  place  in  the  winter,  but  the  ground  being  then  covered  with  snow  and 
ice,  I  could  not  form  a  correct  opinion  on  the  subject.     The  west  end  of 


m 


mi 


;v 


t:f?i, 


310 


MR.  RAE  DESCENDS  THE  COPPERMFIVE. 


!     I 

! 


the  portage  is  situated  in  latitude  67°^  40'  48"  N. ;  longitude  by  account* 
117°  18'  W. ;  and  the  variation  of  the  compass  50°  49'  E. 

"  Crossing  the  portage  occupied  us  two  days ;  the  ice  had  not  yet  broken 
up  in  many  places  on  the  river  on  its  east  side,  and  the  water  was  ten 
inches  lower  than  when  Sir  John  Richardson  and  party  forded  it  last 
autiunn ;  we  consequently  found  some  difficulty  in  descending  it.  Its  gen- 
eral course  is  northeast  by  east,  and  the  length  from  where  we  entered  it, 
to  its  influx  at  the  west  end  of  the  most  easterly  of  the  Dismal  Lakes,  17^ 
miles.  On  the  21st  we  arrived  at  the  station  on  the  banks  of  the  Kendall 
River,  to  which  provisions  for  the  sea  voyage  had  been  hauled  on  dog  sleds 
in  April,  and  found  the  two  men  who  had  been  left  in  charge  quite  well. 
We  descended  the  Kendall  next  day  to  the  Coppermine,  which  was  still  cov- 
ered with  ice,  so  firm  and  solid  that  a  person  might  have  crossed  the  river 
without  being  more  than  ankle  deep  in  water. 

"  Buring  five  days  that  we  were  detained  here,  we  were  occupied  repair- 
ing the  injuries  received  by  the  boat,  shooting  deer  to  save  our  pemican, 
and  making  observations  when  the  weather  would  permit.  The  result  of 
three  meridian  observations  of  the  sun  gave  mean  latitude  67°  07'  20"  N., 
and  the  mean  variation  from  five  sets  of  azimuths  on  different  days  (the 
extremes  being  49°  38',  and  51°  55')  was  50°  37'  48"  E.  On  the  28th 
the  dwarf  birch  was  observed  to  be  in  leaf,  and  the  leal  buds  of  the  wil- 
lows began  to  develop.  In  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day  the  river  was 
thought  sufficiently  open  to  permit  us  to  descend  it  for  some  distance 
among  the  driving  ice ;  but  after  proceeding  six  miles,  we  found  the  stream 
again  blocked  up.  We  were  so  often  and  so  long  detained  by  interruptions 
of  this  kind,  that  it  was  the  11th  of  July  before  we  arrived  at  the  Bloody 
Fall,  having  been  fourteen  days  in  doing  the  work  of  one.  Notwithstand- 
standing  the  inefficiency  of  our  steersman  James  Hope  (one  of  Dease  and 
Simpson's  men),  we  ran  all  the  rapids,  including  the  Escape,  without 
hipping  much  water,  and  with  all  the  cargo  in  the  boat. 

"  Hitherto  deer  had  been  so  numerous  that  we  could  easily  have  shot 
enough  for  the  maintenance  of  a  party  double  or  treble  our  numbers.  Here 
they  had  become  more  scarce  and  shy,  which  could  be  only  accounted  for  by 
the  proximity  of  the  Eskimos,  no  recent  traces  of  whom  could,  however,  be 
seen.  From  the  fall  to  the  sea  the  ice  remained  fixed  until  the  13th,  when 
it  cleared  away,  a  circumstance  that  was  very  soon  indicated  by  the  numbers 
of  fish  which  appeared  below  the  fall.  With  the  aid  of  Halkett's  air-boat, 
which  had  been  brought  from  a  hill  some  miles  distant,  where  it  had  been 
left  last  season,  a  net  was  set  in  one  of  the  eddies,  and  before  the  men  had 
finished  arranging  it,  seven  fine  salmon  and  two  white  fish  were  caught, 
and  we  afterward  obtained  a  supply  for  several  days'  consumption. 

"  On  the  14th  we  entered  the  sea,  and  found  a  narrow  and  very  shallow 
channel  along  the  ftaote  of  Richardson  Bay,  tmtil  we  came  to  its  north 
side,  where  the  ice  lay  against  the  rocks.  Here  the  latitude  67°  51'  19"  N. 
was  observed ;  and  two  azimuths  of  the  sun,  the  one  on  the  meridian  and 
the  other  when  on  the  prime  vertical,  gave  variation  57°  04'  and  56°  25' 
E.  While  encamped  at  this  place,  we  were  visited  by  seven  Eskimos,  one 
of  whom  I  at  once  recognized  as  the  active,  intelligent  man  who  had 
afforded  Sur  John  Richardson's  party  such  efficient  assistance  last  season, 

*  The  rates  or  the  chronometers  had  become  so  irre^&r,  or  had  altered  so  mneta.  thM 
they  were  or  no  use  until  rated  anew. 


MR.  RAE  SURVEYS  RAE  RIVER. 


311 


by 
be 


'N. 
and 
25' 
one 
had 
■son, 
thM 


. 


when  crosHing  the  river  at  the  head  of  Back's  Inlet.  On  inquiry  I  learnt 
that  they  had  been  well  supplied  with  provisions  in  the  early  part  of  winter 
and  in  spring ;  but  that  in  the  interval  they  had  nearly  starved,  owing  to  the 
scarcity  of  seals,  having  had  to  subsist  for  some  time  on  the  skins  of  the 
larger  species  of  these  animals,  which  they  had  reserved  for  making  boots. 
In  the  winter  they  had  communicated,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  with 
the  natives  of  Wollaston  Land,  none  of  whom  had  ever  seen  whites,  large 
boats,  or  ships.  They  were  all  made  happy  by  some  small  presents,  and 
a  supply  of  fish,  which  they  ate  raw,  and  appeared  to  relish  much.  They 
left  us  near  midnight,  promising  to  return  next  day  with  some  boots  and 
shoes  for  sale. 

"  On  the  1 6th,  by  making  a  number  of  portages  over  the  ice,  we  rounded 
Point  Mackenzie  and  entered  Back's  Inlet,  which  was  partially  open.  Having 
a  fine  breeze  from  the  east,  we  set  sail  and  soon  ran  to  its  head,  when  we 
entered  Rae  River  (discovered  and  named  by  Sir  John  Richardson  last 
autumn)  ;  and  on  proceeding  three  miles  up  it,  came  to  the  lodges,  six  in 
number,  of  our  Eskimo  visitors,  who  said  that  they  had  been  so  much 
alarmed  at  seeing  the  boat  under  sail  that  they  were  on  the  point  of  run- 
ning away. 

"  As  there  was  no  possibility  of  our  making  much  progress  along  shore 
until  the  ice  wasted  a  little  more,  I  devoted  the  two  following  days  to  an 
examination  of  this  river ;  the  Eskimo  whom  I  have  already  mentioned  as 
our  active  assistant  last  year  willingly  agreeing  to  accompany  us.  At  the 
distance  of  9j  miles  from  the  river's  mouth,  there  is  a  perpendicular  fall 
of  1 0  feet,  which  extends  across  the  stream,  except  a  few  yards  on  the 
north  side,  where  the  rock  slopes  so  much  that,  during  the  spring-floods, 
salmon  and  white  fish  are  able  to  ascend,  affording  the  natives  a  fine  op- 
portunity of  spearing  them.  Here  I  left  the  boat  and  four  of  the  men, 
while,  in  company  with  the  other  two,  and  our  Eskimo  guide,  I  traced  the 
river  19^  geographical  miles  further.  Its  course  is  nearly  due  west,  and 
very  straight ;  about  the  size  of  the  Dease  River,  and  varying  in  breadth 
from  80  to  200  yards,  with  a  very  strong  current,  and  sufficient  depth  of 
water  for  a  boat  drawing  14  or  15  inches.  It  flows  over  a  bed  of  lime- 
stone, and  is  bounded  on  the  north,  at  the  distance  of  half  a  mile  or  less 
from  its  banks,  by  precipices  of  basalt  from  100  to  200  feet  high,  superim- 
posed on  limefitone  of  the  same  kind  as  that  which  forms  the  bed  of  the 
river. 

"At  the  extreme  west  point  of  our  journey,  we  found  a  party  of  ten 
Eskimos  with  their  families,  who  informed  us  that  the  stream  maintained 
the  same  course  and  size  as  far  as  they  had  seen  it,  which  was  somewhat 
more  than  three  days'  march,  or  about  sixty  miles;  how  much  further 
they  knew  not,  as  they  had  never  been  to  its  source.  Two  of  this  party 
returned  with  us  to  the  boat,  where  they  received  presents,  which  I  had 
some  difficulty  in  getting  them  to  accept,  as  they  said  they  had  nothing  to 
give  in  exchange.  On  the  evening  of  the  18th  we  ran  down  stream,  and 
landed  our  guide  among  his  friends,  who  seemed  very  glad  to  see  him  re- 
turn safe.  They  were  now  much  less  timid  than  when  we  first  met  them, 
and  we  pitched  our  tent  close  to  theirs,  without  causing  any  apparent 
alarm,  although  it  was  afterward  observed  that  two  of  the  men  kept  watch 
during  the  night. 

"  Early  on  the  19th  we  took  a  friendly  leave  of  thfse  simple  and  inof- 


m 

m 


n 


« 


Kit' 


-■■■'    I 


m 


312 


MR.  RAE  REACHES  CAPE  KRUSEXSTERN. 


fensive  people,  and  pulled  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  river,  where  I  staid 
imtil  noon,  when  the  latitude  67°  65'  20"  N.  was  observed.  The  cloudy 
state  of  the  weather  during  the  two  preceding  days  had  prevented  any  ob- 
servations being  made.  New  moon  occurring  to-day,  it  was  high  water  a 
few  minutes  bofore  1  p.m.;  the  rise  being  10 inches.  In  the  afternoon, 
when  on  our  way  to  Cape  Kendall,  we  experienced  a  severe  thunder-storm 
from  north-northwest,  which  obliged  us  to  land  for  shelter. 

"  Our  advance  along  the  coast  was  so  slow,  that  we  did  not  arrive  a1 
the  place  where  the  boats  were  left  last  autumn  until  the  24th.  We  found 
that  they  had  been  much  broken  up  by  the  Eskimos  to  obtain  the  ironwork. 
The  tents,  oil-cloths,  and  part  of  the  sails,  still  remained  uninjured,  and 
were  of  much  value  to  us,  as  we  were  ill-provided  with  the  two  first  of 
these  articles.  The  'cache'  of  pemican  and  ammunition  was  also  un- 
touched, having  apparently  escaped  notice  from  being  covered  with  snow. 
The  latitude  68°  10'  44"  N.,  and  variation  56°  8'  E.,  were  observed 
here. 

"  On  the  27th  a  west-northwest  breeze  having  cleared  away  the  ice  for 
a  short  distance  from  the  shore,  we  continued  our  course  toward  Cape 
Hearne,  which  we  reached  before  noon,  and  found  its  extreme  point  to  be 
in  latitude  68°  11'  17"  N.  Basil  Hall  Bay  being  filled  from  side  to  side 
with  unbroken  ice,  we  encamped  here.  Next  forenoon  a  light  south-south- 
east breeze  opened  a  crack  in  the  ice,  wide  enough  for  the  boat  to  cross  to 
an  island  in  the  middle  of  the  bay,  on  the  north  side  of  which  we  found 
some  open  water,  which  enabled  us  to  get  two  miles  beyond  it.  At  3 
P.M.  on  the  30th,  we  arrived  at  Cape  Krusenstern,  and  when  opposite  its 
high  cliffs  a  strong  breeze  sprung  up  from  north-northeast,  which  drove 
the  ice  so  forcibly  against  the  rocks,  that  we  were  obliged  to  luiload  with 
all  haste,  and  haul  the  boat  up  on  a  drift-bank  of  snow  to  save  it  from 
being  squeezed.  Here  for  the  first  time  this  season  we  found  the  ice 
broken  up  in  the  offing,  caused  evidently  by  the  strong  currents  of  the  ebb 
and  flood  tides ;  whereas  on  looking  in  the  direction  from  which  we  had 
come,  all,  except  immediately  along  shore,  was  smooth,  white,  unbroken, 
and  apparently  as  firm  as  in  winter. 

"  We  were  now  at  the  most  convenient  though  not  the  nearest  point  for 
making  the  traverse  to  Wollaston  Land,  passing  close  to  Douglas  Island, 
and  there  was  no  necessity  for  our  proceeding  further  along  the  shore,  even 
had  we  been  able  to  do  so,  which  at  present  was  impossible ;  the  high 
rocks  presenting  an  insurmountable  barrier  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  ice 
by  its  roughness  equally  impassable  on  the  other.  We  pitched  our  tents 
on  the  top  of  the  cliffs,  in  the  ascent  of  which  the  before-mentioned  snow- 
bank served  as  a  ladder,  and  waited  for  the  first  favorable  change  in  the  ice. 
"  A  few  days  afterward,  Albert  (the  Eskimo  interpreter)  and  one  of  the 
men,  when  some  distance  inland  looking  for  deer,  overtook  five  Eskimos, 
traveling  to  the  interior  with  loads  of  salmon,  which  they  had  speared  in 
a  rivulet  that  falls  into  Pasley  Cove.  From  these  the  interpreter  leamt 
that  the  sea  ice  had  commenced  breaking  up  only  one  day  before  our  ar- 
rival, and  that  they  had  been  in  company  with  the  natives  of  Wollaston 
Land  during  the  winter,  none  of  whom  had  ever  seen  Europeans,  large 
ships,  or  boats. 

"  During  our  long  and  tedious  detention  here,  several  gales  of  wind  oc- 
curred, principally  from  the  northward,  but  the  space  of  open  water  was 


■T" 


SEA   COVERCD   WITH    ICE. 


313 


< 


so  small  that  they  produced  little  effect  upon  the  ice.  Our  situation  was 
most  tantalizing  to  all  the  party  :  occasionally  at  turn  of  iide  a  pool  of 
tvater,  a  mile  or  more  in  extent,  would  appear  near  us,  and  every  thing 
would  be  prepared  for  embarkation  at  a  minute's  notice,  in  expectation  of 
the  opening  increasing  and  permitting  us  to  cross  to  Douglas  Island,  but 
our  hopes  were  always  disappointed.  A  number  of  observations  were  ob- 
tained, which  placed  our  encampment  in  latitude  68°  24'  35"  N.,  the 
longitude  I.'  g  very  nearly  tlie  same  as  that  assigned  to  it  by  Sir  John 
Richardson  and  Mr.  Kendall.  The  mean  variation  of  the  compass,  from 
eight  sets  of  azimuths,  on  different  days,  and  at  different  hours,  was  59'^ 
8'  08"  E.,  the  extremes  being  57°  42'  and  61°  25'. 

"  The  ice  continued  driving  to  and  fro  with  the  tides,  without  separating 
sufRciently  to  allow  of  the  practicability  of  passing  among  it  'mtil  the  19th 
August,  when  there  was  more  open  water  to  seaward  tht.  i  we  had  yet 
observed,  caused  by  a  moderate  southerly  breeze  that  had  been  blowing 
for  the  last  two  days.  After  waiting  some  hours  for  a  favoralde  oppor- 
tunity of  forcing  our  way  through  a  close-packed  stream  of  ice  that  was 
grinding  along  the  rocks  as  it  drove  to  the  northward,  we  at  last  pushed 
off,  and  after  more  than  once  narrowly  escaping  being  squeezed,  we  reached 
comparatively  open  water,  where  we  had  room  to  use  our  oars.  We  had 
pulled  more  than  seven  miles  and  were  still  three  miles  from  the  island 
(Douglas),  when  we  came  to  a  stream  of  ice,  so  close  packed  and  so  rough 
that  we  could  neither  pass  over  nor  through  it ;  a  thick  fog  had  come  on, 
and  the  ebb  tide  was  carrying  us  fast  to  the  southeast.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances I  thought  it  advisable  to  return  toward  the  main  shore,  on 
which  we  landed  early  on  the  morning  of  the  20th,  a  short  distance  to  the 
south  of  the  place  from  whence  we  had  started.  A  northwest  breeze  came 
on  some  hours  after  landing,  and  cleared  away  the  ice  a  few  yards'  distance 
from  the  beach,  of  which  we  took  advantage  to  shift  our  quarters,  which 
being  under  some  crumbling  cliffs,  were  neither  safe  nor  convenient.  We 
poled  along  shore  for  three  miles  or  more  toward  Point  Lockyer  (the  only 
direction  in  which  we  could  go),  and  then  took  shelter  in  a  small  bay,  into 
which  we  had  scarcely  entered  when  the  wind  changed  to  east-northeast, 
and  in  a  very  short  time  left  not  a  spot  of  open  water  visil)lo,  either  near 
shore  or  at  a  distance. 

"  The  wind  continued  to  blow  from  east  and  northeast  for  the  two  fol- 
lowing days,  during  which,  when  the  tide  was  in,  we  advanced  a  few  miles 
to  the  south,  principally  by  launching  the  boat  over  the  ice.  On  the  even- 
ing of  the  22d  I  ascended  a  hill  near  the  shore,  from  which  a  fine  view 
was  obtained.  As  far  as  I  could  see  with  the  telescope  in  the  direction  of 
WoUaston  Land,  nothing  but  the  white  ice  forced  up  into  heaps  was  visi- 
ble, while  to  the  east  and  southeast  there  was  a  large  space  of  open  water, 
between  which  and  the  shore  a  stream  of  ice,  some  miles  in  breadth,  was 
driving  with  great  rapidity  toward  Cape  Hearne  and  its  vicinity. 

"  As  the  fine  weather  had  now  evidently  broken  up,  and  as  there  was 
every  appearance  of  an  early  winter,  I  thought  it  would  be  a  useless  waste 
of  time  to  wait  any  longer  in  hopes  of  being  able  to  cross  to  Wollaston 
Land;  I  therefore  gave  orders  for  our  return  toward  the  Coppermine,  at 
which  I  did  not  expect  to  arrive  in  less  than  a  week,  as  the  ice  wore  as 
unfavorable  an  aspect  as  it  did  last  year. 

"  At  an  early  hour  on  the  23d  the  men  commenced  carrying  the  baggage 

0 


Mf 


:M 


^"    J' 


nu 


FATAL  ACCIDEXT. 


to  Point  Lockyer,  still  more  than  a  league  distant,  and  afterward  hauled 
the  boat  to  the  same  phice ;  doing  this  gave  all  the  party  ten  hours'  hard 
•work ;  but  our  fatigues  were  soon  forgotten  on  finding  some  open  water  on 
the  south  side  of  the  point,  in  which  we  were  speedily  afloat  and  sailing 
before  the  fast-decroasing  breeze.  It  fell  calm  in  half  an  hour ;  but  we 
plied  our  oars  to  such  good  purpose,  that  we  pitched  our  tents  late  at  night 
on  Cape  Hearne.  Here  I  had  expected  to  fmd  the  ice  close  packed  on  the 
shore,  and  quite  impassable,  but  I  was  agreeably  surprised  to  discover  as 
we  advanced,  that  there  was  a  lane  of  open  water  between  the  beach  and 
the  pack,  wide  enough  for  us  to  pass  through.  The  only  way  that  I  can 
account  for  this  ia,  by  supposing  that  the  gale  of  wind  that  had  been  blow- 
ing from  northeast  and  east-northeast  had  shifted  to  the  north  and  north- 
west as  it  approached  the  land,  and  carried  the  ice  along  with  it. 

"  By  working  seventeen  hours  next  day  we  came  to  the  mouth  of  tho 
river,  and  on  the  following  morning  ascended  to  the  Bloody  Fall.  Here  fish 
were  still  very  numerous,  and  while  some  of  the  party  were  cooking,  others 
set  a  couple  of  nets  to  obtain  a  supply  for  some  days.  I  may  here  mention 
that  wher  on  the  coast,  we  obtained  as  many  salmon  and  herring  as  we 
could  coniiume,  wherever  there  was  a  piece  of  open  water  large  enough  foi 
setting  a  net  to  be  found. 

"  Dease  and  Simpson,  after  hauling  their  boats  over  the  rocks  opposite 
the  lower  and  strongest  part  of  the  fall,  had  them  towed  up  the  remainder 
by  water ;  and  as  our  boat  was  now  much  weakened  by  the  rough  usage 
it  had  unavoidably  been  exposed  to,  for  the  purpose  of  saving  time,  and 
the  tear  and  wear  that  would  be  caused  by  having  it  dragged  over  the 
portage,  I  was  desirous  of  doing  the  same.  I  was  the  more  led  to  do  this, 
as  the  men  were  of  opinion  that  it  might  be  effected  with  safety.  All 
that  appeared  in  any  way  difficult  was  easily  done,  and  there  was  only 
one  short  place  to  be  ascended,  which  was  so  smooth  that  a  loaded  boat 
might  have  passed  it ;  here,  however,  from  some  unaccountable  cause,  the 
steersman  was  seized  with  a  sudden  panic,  and  called  to  those  towing  the 
boat  to  slack  the  line.  This  was  no  sooner  done  sufficiently  to  allow  him 
to  get  firm  footing,  than  he  leaped  on  shore,  followed  by  the  bowman,  and 
allowed  the  boat  to  sheer  out  into  the  current,  where  the  line  broke,  and 
the  boat  soon  oversetting,  was  carried  into  one  of  the  eddies  some  distance 
down  stream;  to  which  Albert  and  I  ran,  and  stationed  ourselves  at  two 
points  of  rock  near  which  the  wreck  would  pass.  It  drove  to  where  Albert 
was,  and  he  hooked  it  by  the  keel  with  an  oar  until  I  came  to  his  aid, 
when  I  fixed  a  pole  in  a  broken  plank  and  called  my  companion  to  assist 
me  in  holding  on ;  he  either  did  not  hear  me  correctly,  or  thinking  that  he 
would  be  of  more  use  on  the  bottom  of  the  boat,  sprung  to  it,  and  before  I 
had  time  to  call  him  off,  or  even  think  of  his  danger,  they  were  carried  by 
a  turn  of  the  current  into  a  small  bay,  where  I  believed  both  were  sale ; 
not  so,  however,  for  the  next  minute  they  were  swept  out  again,  and  the 
last  I  saw  of  our  excellent  interpreter  was  his  making  a  leap  toward  the 
the  rocks ;  he  missed  them  and  disappeared,  nor  did  he  rise  again  to  the 
surface. 

"This  melancholy  accident  grieved  me  much,  as  tuo  l>:ave  lad  was  uni- 
versally liked  for  his  activity,  lively  and  amiable  disposition,  and  extreme 
good-nature.  On  James  Hope,  the  steersman,  rests  all  the  blame  of  the 
loss  of  the  boat ;  his  carelessness  in  using  a  small  towing-line  when  there 


CL03E   OF  MR.   RAE'S  EXPEDITION. 


313 


> 
lie 


was  a  much  stronger  one  in  the  boat,  and  his  cowardice  when  there  was 
no  danger,  can  admit  of  no  excuse. 

"  On  taking  up  our  nets  (which  we  laid  carefully  on  the  rocks  for  the 
Eskimos),  they  were  found  full  of  herring-salmon,  in  fine  condition.  We 
commenced  our  journey,  across  land,  toward  Great  Bear  Lake,  on  the  26th, 
each  of  the  men  carrying  about  90  lbs.,  and  my  own  bundle  being  nearly 
30  lbs.  Three  days'  easy  march  brought  us  to  that  part  of  the  Copper- 
mine (lat.  67°  12'  N.),  from  which  it  was  my  intention  to  make  a  straiglxt 
course  to  Fort  Confidence.  Here  we  expected  to  meet  with  some  Indians, 
but  we  did  not  fall  in  with  them  until  the  following  evening,  when  our 
loads  were  much  lightened,  and  we  arrived  here  early  this  afternoon  (being 
our  seventh  day  from  the  Bloody  Fall),  accompanied  by  upward  of  thirty 
of  the  natives,  who  had  joined  us  at  dilferent  parts  of  the  route. 

"  The  two  men  who  had  passed  the  summer  at  Fort  Confidence  were 
well ;  and  having  all  the  stores  ready  packed,  I  shall  leave  this  to-morrow, 
after  supplying  the  Indians  with  ammunition,  to  enable  them  to  hunt  their 
way  to  the  trading-posts.  I  have,  &c., 

(Signed)  "John  Rae. 

"Fort  Simpson,  September  26,  1849. 
"P.S. — I  arrived  here  this  afternoon,  and  intend  sending  oil'  the  expedi- 
tion men  to  Big  Island,  Slave  Lake,  on  the  28th,  with  an  ample  supply 
i{  nets  and  twine,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  procure  sufficient  fish  for  their 
winter  provisions,  without  being  any  additional  expense  to  Government. 

(Signed)  "J.  Eae." 

Mr.  Rae's  failure  in  crossing  to  Wollaston  Land  is  to  be  at- 
tributed solely  to  the  strait  being  filled  with  impracticable  ice.  I 
know  from  his  private  letters  that  the  mortification  he  experienced 
in  the  result  is  much  more  severe  than  he  has  thought  proper  to 
express  in  his  ofl[icial  dispatch.  The  presence  of  ice  in  Dolphin 
and  Union  Straits  and  in  Coronation  Gulf  for  two  or  more  suc- 
cessive seasons,  where  the  experience  of  former  years  had  led  us 
to  expect  a  comparatively  open  sea,  is  suggestive  of  the  maimer 
in  which  a  party  may  be  shut  up  in  these  regions,  and  leads  to 
many  melancholy  reflections. 

Every  reader  of  my  narrative  of  the  proceedings  of  the  expedi- 
tion, will  be  aware  of  how  much  I  was  indebted  to  Mr.  Rae's 
activity  and  intelligence  throughout  its  progress  ;  and  this  seems 
to  be  the  appropriate  place  for  me  to  express  formally  my  sense 
of  obligation  to  him  for  his  sound  advice  and  co-operation  on  every 
emergency.  His  society  cheered  the  long  hours  of  an  Arctic  win- 
ter's absence  from  my  wife  and  family,  and  it  was  in  a  great 
measure  owing  to  his  skill  and  assiduity  in  observing,  that  our  ex- 
periments on  magnetism,  during  our  stay  at  Fort  Confidence,  were 
carried  on  so  as  to  be  productive  of  scientific  results. 


1^ 


V'Ml 


'ii 


M-' 


iS,-l 


316 


LEITERS  TO  AND  FROM   MR.  RAE. 


In  consequence  of  intelligence  obtained  from  newspapers  on  my 
journvy  home,  1  addressed  the  following  letter  to  Mr.  Rao : 

"  Lake  Winipeg,  August  10, 1849. 
"My  Dear  Rae, 

"As  I  learn  from  the  newspapers  which  I  have  just  read,  and  shall  for- 
ward for  your  perusal,  that  Sir  James  C.  Ross  did  not  reach  Barrow's  Strait 
till  after  the  28th  of  August,  and  that  it  is  probable  that  he  may  have 
been  arrested  short  of  his  intended  wintering  quarters  at  Melville  Island  or 
Banks's  Land,  .and  could  not,  consequently,  send  off  his  proposed  spring 
party  to  the  Coppermine  River  this  season,  I  consider  it  likely  that  he  may 
determine  on  sending  that  party  next  spring ;  and  if  so,  by  the  present 
arrangements  they  will,  on  their  arrival  at  Great  Bear  Lake,  find  Fort 
Confidence  deserted. 

"  I  therefore  think  it  important  that  you  should  engage  either  the  chief 
of  some  band,  or  two  expert  hunters,  to  pass  the  months  of  June  and  July, 
1 850,'  on  the  portage  between  Bear  Lake  and  the  Coppermine  River,  prom- 
ising them  a  handsome  reward  if  they  render  any  assistance  to  the  expect- 
ed white  party,  and  paying  them  such  moderate  sums,  in  addition  to  a  full 
supply  of  ammunition,  as  may  content  them  for  spending  the  summer  on 
such  excellent  hunting-grounds. 

"You  will  have  no  difficulty  in  engaging  either  Martin  Lake  or  Bear 
Lake  Indians  for  this  service ;  and  there  is  abundance  of  time,  after  the . 
arrival  of  the  March  packet,  by  which  you  will  receive  this  letter,  for  them 
to  reach  Fort  Confidence  long  before  the  snow  begins  to  melt.  I  will  thank 
you  to  furnish  them  with  five  or  six  memoranda  in  waterproof  cases,  with 
directions  to  plant  them  in  conspicuous  places  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kendall, 
Flett's  Station,  Fort  Confidence,  and  elsewhere. 

"  These  precautions  may  prove  to  be  imnecessary,  as  Ross's  party  will 
most  likely,  early  in  their  march,  discover  some  of  your  landmarks,  and 
learn,  by  the  notes  you  have  left,  your  intention  of  quitting  Fort  Confi- 
dence this  season,  and  thereupon  turn  back  to  the  ship.  But,  at  a  small 
expense,  if  the  Indians  carry  their  instructions  out  fully,  they  will  save  the 
party,  should  it  come  on,  from  having  to  make  the  long  journey  round  Bear 
Lake  without  assistance. 

"  I  remain,  &c., 
(Signed)  "  John  Richardson. 

"  P.S. — Mr.  M'Pherson  recommends  Tecon-ne-betah  for  this  service." 

Extract  of  a  Letter  from  Mr.  Rae  to  Sir  John  Richardson. 

"  Portage  La  Loche  (Metliy  P.),  July  30,  1850. 
"  When  the  winter  packet  arrived  and  I  received  your  instructions  re- 
specting the  establishment  of  an  Indian  party  on  the  Coppermine,  the  Mar- 
tin Lake  Chief  Tecon-ne-betah  was  at  Fort  Simpson,  and  I  had  no  diffi- 
culty in  engaging  him  to  pass  the  summer  at  certain  stations  on  the  route 
between  the  Kendall  and  Bear  Lake.  He  received  three  notes  which  were 
to  be  delivered  to  any  Europeans  he  might  meet,  in  which  the  strangers 
were  requested  to  put  themselves  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  Indians,  who 
would  guide  them  by  the  best  road,  and  feed  them  by  the  way.  In  the 
event  of  his  not  seeing  any  parties,  other  notes,  with  a  rough  chart  of  the 


:r:'M^' 


JOURNEY  HOME. 


317 


i 


best  route,  were  supplied,  well  wrapped  in  oil  clotlis,  which  were  to  be 
placed  on  a  pole  in  conspicuous  stations. 

(Signed)  "J.  Rae." 

Having  by  the  preceding  quotations  brought  the  narrative  of 
the  search  made  by  the  expedition  to  a  close,  I  now  revert  to  the 
period  at  which  Mr.  Bell  and  I  left  Fort  Confidence.  A  party 
of  men  preceded  us  by  a  week,  taking  with  them  the  baggage, 
which  they  were  directed  to  carry  on  to  Fort  Norman,  along  with 
some  pemican  and  stores,  left  at  Fort  Franklin.  This  was  in- 
tended as  a  precautionary  measure  to  avoid  the  delay  that  might 
be  caused  by  Bear  Lake  River  being  late  in  breaking  up. 

On  the  7th  of  May  we  took  leave  of  Mr.  Rae,  and  left  the 
fort.  Bruce,  Mitchell,  Brodie,  M'Leod,  and  Mastegon  accompa- 
nied us  in  our  journey  over  the  ice,  which  was  completed  on  the 
12th,  having  occupied  five  days  and  a  half  On  the  northern 
shores  of  the  lake,  the  snow  had  lost  little  of  its  depth,  and  we 
had  to  clear  it  away  to  the  thickness  of  five  feet  in  making  our 
encampment  on  Cape  M'Donald ;  but  on  the  southern  shores  we 
found  some  exposed  sandy  spots  of  ground  bare,  and  pools  of  water 
forming  at  mid-day.  Mastegon  shot  the  first  goose  of  the  season 
on  the  10th,  a  straggler  that  was  tempted  to  cross  our  pathway 
by  a  pool  of  water,  produced  under  the  influence  of  a  powerful 
sun  (p.  302).  Cloudy  weather  followed,  and  five  or  six  days 
elapsed  before  the  geese  began  to  arrive  in  earnest. 

The  men  who  preceded  us  were  at  the  fishing  hut,  near  the 
site  of  Fort  Franklin,  when  we  arrived  there.  They  had  trans- 
ported three  sledge  loads  of  pemican  about  seventeen  miles  down 
Bear  Lake  River  to  the  usual  winter  crossing-place,  but,  finding 
the  stream  open,  they  had  put  them  in  en  cache  on  the  right 
bank,  and  returned  to  wait  further  orders.  According  to  their 
report  the  rivulets  were  swollen  with  melting  snow,  and  travel- 
ing by  land  with  dog-sledges  was  at  an  end  for  this  season. 

On  the  14th,  being  Sunday,  we  assembled  to  read  prayers ; 
and,  early  on  the  following  morning,  Bruce  set  out  for  Fort  Nor- 
man, taking  with  him  Dore,  Cousins,  Thomas  Hope,  Mastegon, 
Plante,  and  M'Leod.  They  traveled  light,  carrying  with  them 
merely  their  blankets  and  provisions.  By  the  arrangement  I  had 
made  with  Mr.  M'Pherson  they  were  to  find  at  Fort  Norman 
a  small  barge,  which  Bruce  was  directed  to  bring  up  to  us  as 
quickly  as  he  could.     The  only  difl[iculty  we  anticipated  was  at 


lyi, 


feu;l 


:l 


i 

ii  >' 


318 


FORT  FRANKLIN. 


the  rapid  lu  Bear  Lake  River,  where  lofty  walls  of  ice  remain 
to  a  late  date,  covering  the  tracking-ground.  Hope  and  M'Leod, 
being  part  of  Mr.  Rae's  boat's  crew,  were  to  return  overland  im- 
mediately with  some  articles  from  the  store  at  Fort  Norman. 
They  did  come  back  nine  days  afterward,  and  passed  onward  to 
Fort  Confidence ;  and  we  learnt  in  the  sequel  that  the  Macken- 
zie did  not  break  up  at  Fort  Simpson  till  the  23d  of  May,  being 
fifteen  days  later  than  Mr.  M'Pherson  had  known  it  to  do  during 
twenty  years'  residence  on  its  banks. 

We  remained  waiting  nearly  a  month  for  the  barge,  having 
with  us  Mitchell  and  Brodie,  with  the  two  Fort  Franklin  fish- 
ermen. Hector  Morrison  and  Narcisse  Tremble.  Our  diet  con- 
sisted of  trout,  white-fish,  Bear-lake  herring  and  geese,  the  latter 
being  Mr.  Bell's  contribution  to  the  common  stock.  Of  Fort 
Franklin  the  only  vestige  remaining  was  the  foundation  of  a 
chimney  stack;  and  the  fishing  hut  not  being  large  enough  to 
hold  us  all,  we  bivouacked  under  the  shelter  of  a  boat's  sail,  as 
a  substitute  for  a  tent.  When  the  water  had  run  o^  the  surface 
of  the  ice  on  the  lake,  so  that  we  could  transport  our  efiects  across 
it  without  wetting  them,  we  moved  to  the  banks  of  Bear  Lake 
River  ;  being  glad  to  quit  the  vicinity  of  the  hut,  which,  like  all 
fishing  quarters,  became  extremely  disagreeable  as  soon  as  the 
accumulated  impurities  of  the  winter  were  revealed  to  view  by 
the  wasting  of  the  snow.  The  marshy  ^>laces  or  dry  sandy  banks 
first  became  bare,  but  many  wreaths  of  drifted  snow  continued 
unmelted  till  the  end  of  the  month.  We  stayed  at  the  encamp- 
ment on  Bear  Lake  River  till  the  8th  of  June,  much  surprised 
that  the  boat  did  not  arrive,  and  forming  various  conjectures  to 
account  for  the  delay.  On  that  day,  Bruce  and  Mastegon  came 
to  us  on  foo^  bringing  information  of  the  lower  part  of  the  river 
being  still  covered  with  ice,  and  that  they  had  left  the  barge  a 
few  miles  within  its  mouth.  They  had  been  four  days  on  the 
march,  one  of  which  was  occupied  in  examining  the  ice,  which 
they  stated  formed  a  bridge  at  the  rapid  many  feet  in  thickness. 
On  receiving  this  intelligence,  I  resolved  on  descending  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  on  foot,  and  after  going  in  the  barge  to  Fort 
Norman,  where  I  could  join  Mr.  M'Pherson,  to  send  her  back 
for  the  stores.  These  were  accordingly  placed  in  a  secure  cache, 
and  left  under  the  charge  of  Narcisse,  to  whom  we  transferred 
our  surplus  stock  of  fish  and  geese,  being  sufificient  to  maintain 


T 


BLAH    I.AKli       IVI.A. 


319 


jr 


n 


him  eight  or  ten  days  without  touching  the  ^)emican   of  which 
there  was  a  largo  resei've.     The  snow  drifts  formed  «'\     iient  iot^ 
cellars  for  preserving  fresh  provisions,  the  only  preca     lou  neccN* 
iary  being  to  protect  them  from  the  dogs  by  branchei<  A'  trees 

On  the  9th,  Mr.  Bell,  Bruce,  and  Mastegon,  embarked  willi 
me  in  the  fishing  coble,  and  Morrison,  Mitchell,  and  Brodie,  were 
directed  to  walk  along  the  bank  of  the  river,  each  of  them  carry- 
ing his  own  bedding  and  clothing.  I  cautioned  them  against 
going  inland,  and  promised  that  wo  would  wait  from  time  to 
time  at  particular  points  for  their  coming  up.  Half  an  hour 
after  setting  out,  finding  the  river  smoother  than  we  expected, 
and  Bruce  being  of  opinion  that  we  could  embark  all  the  party, 
we  put  ashore,  and  in  a  short  time  Morrison  and  Mitchell  joined 
us,  but  David  Brodie,  having  struck  into  the  woods  with  tho 
view  of  making  a  straighter  course,  did  not  arrive  in  the  hour 
that  we  remained  waiting  for  him.  Supposing  then  that  he  had 
gone  past,  we  resumed  our  voyage,  taking  into  the  coble  Morri- 
son and  Mitchell. 

The  rate  of  our  descent  of  the  stream  rather  exceeded  fouv 
miles  an  hour,  and  at  half-past  six  a.m.  we  reached  the  cache 
situated  fourteen  miles  from  the  lake.  Brodie  not  arriving  in  the 
course  of  the  day,  I  became  convinced  that  he  had  lost  himself 
in  the  woods,  and  therefore  sent  Morrison  and  Mitchell  back  to 
the  lake  to  acquaint  Narcisse  with  what  had  happened,  and  to 
endeavor  to  engage  an  Indian  who  was  residing  at  the  fishery  to 
go  in  quest  of  Brodie.  In  the  mean  time  we  fired  our  fowling- 
pieces  at  intervals,  and  set  fire  to  some  trees  that  the  smoke 
might  be  seen  from  a  distance. 

Mastegon,  who  knew  that  part  of  the  country,  informed  me, 
that  ten  or  twelve  miles  back  from  the  river,  there  was  an  ex- 
tensive swamp,  from  which  there  flowed  one  stream  that  fell  into 
the  Mackenzie,  and  another,  named  the  Black  River,  which  join- 
ed Bear  Lake  River  about  four  miles  below  the  cache.  The  lat- 
ter stream  was  so  rapid,  he  said,  that  Brodie  would  be  unable  to 
cross  it  on  a  raft,  and  it  was  not  fordable  ;  he  would  therefore, 
by  following  it,  be  certainly  led  to  Bear  Lake  River. 

Next  day  our  two  men  came  back  from  the  lake,  having  them- 
selves gone  astray  for  some  hours  in  the  attempt  to  make  a  short 
cut  across  a  neck  of  land.  After  placing  written  directions  for 
Brodie  in  the  cache,  we  all  embarked  again,  and  in  a  short  time 


Mi 


^P' 


320 


DAVID  URODIE   LOST. 


i. 


came  to  the  influx  ol'  the  Black  River,  which  was  evidently  flood- 
ed.    Here  I  left  another  paper  of  instructions  for  Brodie,  direct- 
ing him  to  the  cache  for  provisions,  and  to  remain  with  Narcisse 
until  the  barge  came  for  them.     The  incident  of  Brodie's  stray- 
ing gave  me  much  uneasiness,  as  I  feared  he  would  experience 
some  suflering,  though  I  did  not  apprehend  that  ho  would  lose 
his  life.     He  was  a  man  of  much  personal  activity  and  consider- 
able intelligence,  and  though  his  judgment  would  be  probably  at 
fault  when  he  first  became  conscious  that  he  was  lost,  I  knew 
that  as  soon  as  he  was  in  a  condition  coolly  to  consider  his  posi- 
tion, he  would  be  enabled  to  shape  a  course  for  the  river  by  the 
sun,  and  following  its  bank  to  return  to  the  lake.     And  so  it 
eventually  happened.     When  he  discovered  that  he  was  walking 
in  a  wrong  direction,  he  began  to  mend  his  pace  and  to  run  as  is 
usual  in  such  cases,  but  took  an  inland  course,  and  at  length 
came  to  the  borders  of  the  swamp  above  mentioned.     Here  the 
woods  being  more  open  he  obtained  a  distant  view  of  the  "  Hill 
at  the  Rapid,"  which  he  recognized  from  having  seen  it  on  his 
former  journey  to  the  cache,  and  as  he  knew  that  we  must  pass 
it  in  descending  the  river,  he  resolved  on  walking  straight  for  it 
in  the  hope  of  arriving  there  before  us.     After  this  he  came  to 
the  Black  River,  and  being  a  fearless  swimmer,  swam  across  it, 
carrying  his  clothes  on  his  head.     The  stream,  being  very  tor- 
tuous, came  again  in  his  way,  when  he  crossed  it  a  second  and  a 
third  time  in  the  same  manner,  but  on  the  last  occasion,  his  bun- 
dle slipping  off  floated  away,  and  he  regained  the  bank  with  dif- 
ficulty in  a  state  of  perfect  nudity.     After  a  moment's  reflection, 
he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  without  clothes  he  must  perish, 
and  that  he  might  as  well  be  drowned  in  trying  to  recover  them 
as  to  attempt  proceeding  naked.    On  which  he  plunged  in  again, 
and  fortunately  landed  this  time  safely  with  his  habiliments. 
He  now  refreshed  himself  with  part  of  a  small  piece  of  dried 
meat,  which,  in  his  anxiety  he  had  hitherto  left  untouched,  and 
forthwith  decided  on  finding  the  cache,  and  returning  from  thence 
to  the  lake.     On  the  third  day  (11th  of  June),  he  found  my  note 
together  with  some  provisions  which  we  had  suspended  to  a  pole 
for  his  use,  but  ho  had  so  husbanded  his  own  small  supply  that 
he  had  still  a  morsel  of  dried  meat  remaining.     He  had  no  diffi- 
culty afterward  in  joining  Narcisse,  by  keeping  sight  of  the  river 
the  whole  way. 


7 


1 

7 


FORT  SIMIMON. 


391 


a 


) 

# 


This  adventure  is  recorded  as  an  example  of  what  happened  to 
all  the  seamen  and  sappers  and  miners  of  the  expedition,  each  in 
their  turn.  Four  of  them  were  lost  in  the  winter  of  18 18-49,  for 
three  days,  having  mistaken  their  way  to  the  boat  encampment 
in  Cedar  Lake.  The  straggling  of  the  others  was  of  less  account, 
but  none  of  them  could  be  taught  that  they  were  liable  to  such 
accidents,  until  they  learned  it  by  experience.  One  man  who 
strayed  in  the  winter  on  Cedar  Lake,  when  found,  was  content- 
edly steering  for  the  moon,  which,  being  near  the  horizon  and 
gleaming  red  through  the  forest,  was  mistaken  by  him  for  the  fire 
of  the  men's  bivouac.  The  snow  which  covered  the  ground  at 
the  time  fortunately  enabled  the  Indian  who  went  in  pur  uit  of 
him,  to  trace  his  steps  before  he  had  gone  many  miles. 

About  twelve  miles  below  the  mouth  of  Blackwater  River,  we 
came  to  the  commencement  of  the  rapid,  and  hauling  the  coble  on 
the  beach  there,  proceeded  on  foot  to  the  "Hill,"  immediately  be- 
low "  the  Pvapid,"  where  we  encamped.  While  on  our  march  we 
perceived  that  the  bridge  of  ice  was  giving  way,  and  the  river  di- 
rectly fell  some  feet.  Early  next  morning  Bruce  went  back  with 
the  men  for  the  coble,  and  brought  it  down  by  the  time  that  Mr. 
Bell  and  I  had  prepared  breakfast  for  :he  party.  After  conclud- 
ing that  meal,  we  crossed  the  river  in  her  obliquely,  among  high 
walls  of  ice  ;  and  a  mile  or  two  below  came  to  the  barge  which 
the  crew  had  brought  up  so  far  two  days  previously.  A  short 
time  sufficed  to  launch  her,  embark  the  tents  kindly  provided  for 
us  by  Mr.  M'Pherson,  and  descend  to  the  mouth  of  Bear  Lake 
River,  where  wo  passed  the  night.  Next  day  we  went  on  to 
Fort  Norman,  where  I  purposed  to  wait  for  Mr.  M'Pherson,  who 
had  gone  to  Fort  Good  Hope,  to  bring  up  the  year's  returns  of 
furs  from  that  post,  and  from  the  Peel  and  Porcupine  Rivers. 

On  his  arrival  on  the  14th,  I  sent  back  the  small  barge,  to 
bring  down  Narcisse,  Brodie,  and  the  stores,  and  embarking  with 
Messrs.  Bell  and  M'Pherson,  proceeded  to  Fort  Simpson.  The 
rest  of  the  journey  homeward,  being  by  the  same  route  as  the  out- 
ward voyage,  need  not  be  mentioned  in  detail. 

On  the  25th  we  left  Fort  Simpson,  having  previously  been 
joined  by  the  men  who  wintered  at  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  also 
by  the  small  barge,  bringing  Brodie  and  Narcisse  Tremble,  from 
Bear  Lake.  We  were  detained  by  drift  ice  at  the  west  end  of 
Great  Slave  Lake  till  the  6th  of  July,  and  did  not  reach  Fort 


•1 


m 


n 


:    t 


-^^l 


*■« 


■H 


I 


3'2-2 


MLT[iy  rORTAGE.-NORWAY   HOUSE. 


f 


Resolution  till  the  1 1th.  On  the  19lh  we  arrived  at  Fort  Che- 
pewyan,  and  on  the  2Gth  at  Methy  Portage,  which  we  crossed  on 
the  27th  with  all  our  baggage,  on  horses  hired  from  the  Indians. 
From  L'Esperance,  who  was  encamped  with  his  brigade  on 
Methy  Lake,  I  had  the  pleasure  of  receiving  English  letters, 
brought  up  from  Canada  by  the  governor's  light  canoe,  which 
leaves  La  Chine  in  May.  Mr.  Bell  at  the  same  time  received 
instructions  to  return  to  Mackenzie's  River,  to  conduct  the  Com- 
pany's affairs  there.  This  was  unpleasant  tidings  to  him,  since, 
having  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  that  northern  region, 
he  had  been  soliciting  a  change,  but  the  mortification  was  soft- 
ened by  the  society  of  his  two  daughters  who  had  been  sent  from 
Isle  a  la  Crosse  to  meet  him.  In  taking  leave  of  this  gentleman, 
I  must  express  my  obligations  to  him  for  his  assiduous  endeavors 
to  forward  the  interests  of  the  expedition,  and  my  high  sense  of 
his  excellent  management  of  the  Indians  at  Fort  Confidence,  to 
which  we  owed  a  winter  of  abundance,  and  the  excellent  condi- 
tion in  which  the  store  was  left  in  spring.  I  had  enjoyed  much 
pleasure  in  his  society,  and  parted  from  him  with  regret. 

The  remainder  of  the  voyage  down  was  performed  in  company 
with  Mr.  M'Pherson,  who  was  going  down  to  Canada  on  furlough 
with  his  family.  At  Norway  House,  where  we  arrived  on  the 
13th  of  August,  the  men  of  my  party  who  had  been  engaged 
there  in  1847  were  discharged,  and  the  Europeans  were  sent 
down  to  York  Factory  to  go  to  England  in  the  Company's  ship. 
During  the  time  these  men  were  under  my  command  not  a  sin- 
gle act  of  disobedience  occurred.  Crews  better  fitted  for  heavy 
portage  work,  and  for  the  ordinary  duties  of  a  winter's  residence 
in  the  north,  might  doubtless  have  been  selected  in  the  country, 
but  none  that  I  could  have  depended  upon  with  so  much  confi- 
dence in  adverse  circumstances.  Dore  and  Cousins,  the  two 
younger  seamen,  who  were  extremely  serviceable  from  their  act- 
ivity, intelligence,  and  willingness  to  perform  any  duty  that  was 
required,  have  gone  again  on  the  same  errand  to  Beering's  Straits. 

From  Norway  House  I  proceeded  to  Canada  in  a  brigade  of 
three  light  canoes,  manned  by  voyagers  who  were  returning 
thither  at  the  close  of  their  engagements  in  the  country.  On  the 
14t'u  of  September  we  came  to  Fort  William,  and  on  the  25th  to 
Saut  Ste.  Marie.  From  thence  we  went  in  a  steam-vessel  to  the 
lower  end  of  Lake  Huron,  and  taking  a  stage  coach  there  for 


r 


isA^ 


LA.ND   AT    LIVLRPOOL. 


323 


Orillia,  crossed  Lake  Siincoc  in  a  steamboat.  Then  we  traveled 
by  coach  through  Young  Street  to  Toronto,  a  distance  of  about 
forty  miles,  and  there  embarked  in  one  of  the  steam-packels  that 
ply  daily  between  that  port  and  Montreal. 

After  a  few  days  passed  at  La  Chine  with  Sir  George  Simp- 
son in  revising  the  outstanding  accounts  between  the  Company 
and  the  Expedition,  I  went  to  Boston,  and  embarking  in  the 
British  mail  steam-packet,  crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  landed  at 
Liverpool  on  the  6th  of  November,  1849,  after  an  absence  of 
nineteen  months,  twelve  of  them  passed  in  incessant  traveling. 

Without  delay  I  presented  myself  at  the  Admiralty,  and,  hav- 
ing laid  before  their  Lordships  a  narrative  of  my  proceedings,  had 
the  honor  soon  afti^rward  to  receive  a  letter  announcing  their  ap- 
probation of  ray  conduct. 

Here  the  journal  of  the  transactions  of  the  expedition  ends,  but 
a  summary  of  the  present  condition  of  the  search  may  not  be  un- 
acceptable to  the  many  who  take  an  interest  in  the  fate  of  our 
absent  countrymen. 

Sir  James  C.  Ross,  with  the  "  Enterprise"  and  "Investigator," 
reached  the  three  Islands  of  Baffin  in  lat.  74°  N.,  on  the  2Gth 
of  July,  1848,  but  was  not  able  to  cross  the  "  middle  ice"  till  the 
20 ih  of  August,  on  which  day  he  attained  open  water  in  lat. 
75i°  N.,  and  long.  68°  W.  He  then  steered  for  Pond's  Bay, 
and  examined  the  coast  carefully  from  thence  to  Possession  Bay, 
in  which  he  landed  on  the  26th.  There  he  found  a  memorandum 
left  by  Sir  Edward  Parry  in  1819,  but  no  trace  of  Sir  John 
Franklin.  On  the  1st  of  September,  the  ships  arrived  ofi^  Cape 
York,  where  a  conspicuous  land-mark  was  erected.  Sir  James 
next  examined  Maxwell  Bay,  and  some  smaller  indentations  of 
the  north  coast  of  Barrow's  Strait,  but  was  prevented  by  a  firm 
barrier  of  ice  from  approaching  Cape  Riley  at  the  entrance  of 
Wellington  Channel.  Neither  could  he  get  near  Cape  Rennell, 
because  of  compact,  heavy  ice  extending  from  Wellington  Chan- 
nel to  Leopold  Island.  Not  being  able  to  penetrate  to  the  west, 
the  ships  were  run  into  Port  Leopold  on  the  11th,  and  on  the 
following  morning  the  main  pack  of  ice  closed  in  with  the  land 
and  shut  them  in  for  the  season.  .On  the  12th  of  October  the 
ships  were  hove  into  their  winter  quarters.  During  the  winter 
many  white  foxes  were  taken  in  traps ;  and  copper  collars,  on 
which  were  inscribed  notices  of  the  situation  of  the  vessels,  and 


Mil!-':, 


|i:i 


; '  )| 


m 


, '  $'  I 


l\ 


'J-  * 

mi 

111 


m 

if 

|i 


3!>4 


PRESENT  STATE  OF   THE  SEARCH. 


li 


of  the  depots  of  provision,  having  been  secured  round  their  necks, 
they  were  set  at  liberty  again. 

In  May,  1849,  Sir  James  Ross  and  Lieutenant  M'Clintock 
thoroughly  explored  on  foot  the  west  coast  of  North  Somerset 
down  to  lat.  72"  38',  N.,  and  long.  9oa°  W.,  where  a  very  nar- 
row isthmus  separates  Brentford  Bay  of  the  Western  Sea,  from 
Cresswell  Bay  of  Prince  Regent's  Inlet.  They  returned  to  the 
ship  on  the  23d  of  June. 

In  the  mean  time,  Lieutenant  Robinson  examined  the  western 
side  of  Regent's  Inlet  down  to  Fury  Beach,  and  several  miles 
beyond  it.  Lieutenant  Brown  had  crossed  the  inlet  to  Port 
Bowen,  and  Lieutenant  Barnard  had  traversed  Barrow's  Strait 
to  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Hurd,  but  was  unable  to  reach  Cape 
Riley  on  account  of  the  hummocky  state  of  the  ice.  By  these 
excursions,  taken  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Rae's  expedition  in  the 
spring  of  1847,  the  whole  of  Prince  Regent's  Inlet  and  the  Gulf 
of  Boothia  was  examined,  with  the  exception  of  one  hundred  and 
sixty  miles  between  Fury  Beach  and  Lord  Mayor's  Bay ;  and 
as  there  were  no  indications  of  the  ships  having  touched  on  any 
part  of  the  coast  so  narrowly  traced,  it  is  certain  that  they  had 
not  attempted  to  find  a  passage  in  that  direction.  Sir  James 
caused  a  house  to  be  built  at  Port  Leopold,  and  covered  with 
housing  cloths,  in  which  he  left  provisions  and  fuel  for  twelve 
months,  together  with  the  Invpsligator's  launch  and  steam-engine. 
He  then  proceeded  to  cut  a  way  out  for  the  ships  through  the  ice, 
which  was  not  effected  until  the  28th  of  August,  1849.  On  leav- 
ing the  harbor  he  crossed  over  toward  Wellington  Channel,  where 
he  found  the  land-ice  still  fast  and  preventing  his  approach. 
While  contending  with  the  loose  packs,  and  struggling  to  advance 
to  the  westward,  a  strong  gale  of  wind  on  the  1st  of  September 
suddenly  closed  the  ice  around  the  ships,  wherein  they  remained 
helplessly  beset  until  the  25th,  by  which  time  they  had  drifted 
out  of  Lancaster  Strait,  and  were  off  Pond's  Bay.  As  the  season 
was  now  far  advanced,  further  search  that  year  was  thus  frus- 
trated by  an  accident,  often  experienced  in  the  navigation  of  the 
Arctic  Seas  ;  and  all  harbors  in  that  vicinity  being  closed  for  the 
winter.  Sir  James  reluctantly  gave  the  signal  to  bear  up  for 
England. 

While  Sir  James  C.  Ross  was  still  engaged  in  the  ice  on  the 
west  side  of  Baffin's  Bay,  Mr.  James  Saunders,  Master  and  Com- 


.• 


tor 


he 


NORTH   STAR.-HERALD. 


325 


mander  of  the  "  North  Star,"  having  been  sent  out  with  supplies 
in  the  spring  of  1849,  was  working  up  on  the  east  side,  with  im- 
minent danger  to  his  ship.  Owing  to  the  unusual  quantity  of  ice 
in  the  bay  that  summer,  and  the  frosts  which  glued  the  floes  into 
one  impenetrable  mass,  he  was  unable  to  cross  over  to  Lancaster 
Sound,  and  his  ship  becoming  involved  in  the  ice  about  the  same 
date  that  the  "  Enterprise"  and  "  Investigator"  were  caught  in 
the  pack,  drifted  with  it  the  whole  of  September,  until  on  the 
last  day  of  that  month  she  was  providentially  driven  into  Wol- 
stenholme  Sound,  where  there  being  a  pool  of  open  water  she  was 
at  length  extricated.  There  the  ship  wintered  in  lat.  76°  33'  N., 
long.  68°  561'  "W".,  being  the  most  northerly  position  in  which 
any  vessel  has  been  known  to  have  been  laid  up.  February  was 
the  coldest  month,  and  the  thermometer  on  two  occasions  marked 
631°,  and  once  64^°,  of  Fahrenheit  below  zero. 

On  the  1st  of  August,  1850,  the  "North  Star"  was  hauled 
out  of  the  cove  in  which  she  had  remained  ten  months,  and  on 
the  8th  she  had  crossed  over  to  Possession  Bay,  which  was  ex- 
amined. Mr.  Saunders  next  proceeded  to  Whaler  Point,  Port 
Bowen,  Jackson's  Inlet,  and  Port  Neill ;  but  being  prevented 
from  landing  his  provisions  at  any  of  these  places  by  the  heavy 
land-floes  of  old  ice,  he  bore  up  for  Pond's  Bay,  and  succeeded  in 
depositing  his  cargo  on  WoUaston  Island. 

Meanwhile  the  search  was  proceeding  from  the  quarter  of 
Beering's  Straits.  Captain  Kellett  in  the  "  Herald,"  on  July 
25th,  1849,  after  examining  Wainwright's  Inlet,  dispatched  Lieu- 
tenant Pullen  to  the  Mackenzie ;  and  afterward,  in  standing  along 
the  margin  of  the  ice,  discovered  a  group  of  high  islands  on  the 
Asiatic  coast  in  lat.  71°  20'  N. ;  long.  175°  16'  W.,  with  exten- 
sive and  very  high  land  to  the  north  of  them  deeply  seated  in  the 
ice.*  Commander  Moore,  also,  in  the  "  Plover,"  made  several 
attempts  to  penetrate  to  the  eastward  at  this  time,  and  not  suc- 
ceeding, returned  first  to  Kotzebue  Sound,  and  subsequently  to 
Norton  Sound,  where  he  wintered. 

Lieutenant  (now  Commander)  Pullen,  accompanied  by  Mr. 
Hooper,  mate,  and  twelve  men  performed  the  coasting  voyage  to 
the  Mackenzie  in  two  27-foot  whale-boats.     He  was  convoyed  past 

*  Captain  Smyth  suggests  that  this  land  may  be  that  reached  by  Ser- 
geant Andreyer  in  1762,  which  ho  reported  to  be  inhabited  by  a  people 
named  Kra'ihai. 


■Mi 

!■  -J 


326 


OTHER  SEARCIli.NG    VESSELS. 


I! 


Point  Barrow  by  the  "  Herald's"  pinnace  named  the  "  Owen," 
and  the  Royal  Thames  Yacht-Club  schooner,  the  "  Nancy  Daw- 
son." The  latter  was  owned  and  commanded  by  Mr.  Shedden, 
a  mate  of  the  Royal  Navy,  who  had  come  thus  far  with  his  small 
craft,  solely  at  his  own  expense,  to  prosecute  his  search  for  the 
discovery  ships,  and  who,  though  he  was  in  the  last  stage  of  con- 
sumption, was  not  prevented  by  the  languor  of  the  disease,  which 
carried  him  off  two  months  afterward,  from  giving  most  eiRcient 
aid  to  Lieutenant  PuUen. 

On  Sir  James  C.  Ross's  return  to  England  in  1849,  the  Ad- 
miralty resolved  that  a  still  more  vigorous  search  should  be  organ- 
zed,  and  accordingly  the  "  Enterprise"  and  "  Investigator"  were 
again  fitted  out  and  dispatched  to  Beering's  Straits,  the  former 
under  the  command  of  Captain  CoUinson,  C.  B.,  and  the  latter 
of  Commander  McClure.  These  ships  having  jeparated  in  the 
Pacific,  the  "  Investigator,"  which  was  the  dullest  sailer,  through 
a  fortunate  choice  of  route,  reached  the  Straits  first,  succeeded  in 
passing  Point  Barrow,  and  was  last  seen  on  the  4th  of  August, 
1850.  The  "Enterprise,"  having  been  unable  to  penetrate  the 
barrier  of  ice,  •went  to  Hong  Kong  to  refit  in  the  winter,  and  is  to 
make  another  attempt  this  summer  of  1851. 

The  preparations  for  the  search  on  the  side  of  Lancaster  Sound 
were  on  a  large  scale.  The  "  Resolute"  was  commissioned  by 
Captain  Horatio  T.  Austin,  and  the  "  Assistance,"  Captain  Eras- 
mus Ommaney,  was  put  under  his  orders,  together  with  the 
"  Pioneer"  ^nd  "  Intrepid,"  steam  tenders  to  the  two  vessels. 
Captain  William  Penny,  an  experienced  whale-fisher,  was  also 
engaged  for  the  search,  and  placed  in  command  of  the  "  Lady 
Franklin"  and  "  Sophia."  In  0jddition  to  these  expeditions  fitted 
out  by  the  Admiralty,  others  furnished  from  private  sources 
showed  the  interest  that  was  widely  and  deeply  lelt  in  the 
cause.  Captain  Sir  John  Ross,  notwithstanding  his  advanced 
years,  sailed  in  the  "  Felix"  schooner ;  and  by  the  munific  nee 
of  Mr.  Henry  Grinnell,  a  New  York  merchant,  the  United  States 
sent  forth  the  "  Advance"  and  "  Rescue"  on  the  same  humane 
quest,  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant  De  Haven,  U.  S.N., 
and  Mr  S.  P.  GriflEin.  Lady  Franklin  likewise,  with  that  un- 
tiring energy  and  conjugal  devotion  which  has  marked  her  con- 
duct throughout,  dispatched  the  "  Prince  Albert"  under  the  orders 
of  Commander  Forsyth  of  the  Royal  Navy. 


< 
/ 


In- 
In- 

Irs 


T 


FRAGMENTS    DISCOVERED. 


327 


This  squadron  was  assembled  in  Lancaster  Sound  in  the  month 
of  August,  1850,  at  which  time  the  "  North  Star"  was  also  there, 
Ibrming  in  all  a  fleet  of  ten  vessels.     On  the  return  of  the  last- 
named  ship  and  of  the  "  Prince  Albert,"  we  received  intelligence 
from  Barrow's  Straits  as  late  as  the  25th  of  August,  1850.     By 
that  time  both  sides  of  Lancaster  Sound  had  been  thoroughly 
searched  as  far  as  Cape  Riley  on  the  north  side,  and  Port  Leopold 
on  the  south,  also  Prince  Regent's  Inlet  down  to  Port  Neill  and 
Fury  Beach.     On  the  above-mentioned  date,  Mr.  Snow,  of  the 
"  Prince  Albert,"  went  ashore  at  Point  Riley  to  examine  a  flag-post 
which  had  been  erected  by  Captain  Omraaney ;  and  found  a  note 
from  that  officer,  stating  that  he  had  landed  with  the  officers  of 
the  "Assistance"  and  "  Intrepid"  on  the  cape  on  the  23d,  had 
found  found  traces  of  mi  encampment  and  collected  the  remains 
of  materials,  ivJiich  evidently  proved  that  some  party  belonging 
to  her  Majesty's  ships  had  been  detained  there.     Traces  of  the 
same  party  were  found  on  Beechey  Isla7td.     The  note  concludes 
by  the  announcement  that  Captain  Ommaney  proceeds  to  Capes 
Hotham  and  Walker,  in  search  of  further  traces  cf  Sir  John 
FrankUn's  Expedition.    No  mention  is  made  of  the  nature  of  the 
materials  collected ;  but  the  tenor  of  Captain  Ommaney's  note 
indicates  that  he  had  no  doubt  of  Captain  Franklin  having  been  off 
Cape  Riley.     Lieutenant  De  Haven,  of  the  "  Advance,"  landed 
on  the  cape  on  the  morning  of  the  25th,  and  erected  a  second 
signal  post,  but  seems  to  have  carried  nothing  away.     Mr.  Snow 
gathered  and  brought  off  five  pieces  of  beef,  mutton,  and  pork 
bones,  together  with  a  bit  of  rope,  a  small  rag  of  canvas,  and  a 
chip  of  wood  cut  by  an  ax.     From  a  careful  examination  of  the 
beef  bones,  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they  had  belonged  to 
pieces  of  salt-beef  ordinarily  supplied  to  the  Navy,  and  that  prob- 
ably they  and  the  other  bones  had  been  exposed  to  *'     atmosphere 
and  to  friction  in  rivulets  of  melted  snow  for  four  or  five  sum- 
The  rope  was  proved  by  the  ropemaker  who  examined  it 


mers. 


to  have  been  made  at  Chatham,  of  Hungarian  hemp,  subsequent 
to  1841.  The  fragment  of  canvas  which  seemed  to  have  been 
part  of  a  boat's  swab,  had  the  Queen's  broad  arrow  painted  on 
it ;  and  the  chip  of  wood  was  of  ash,  a  tree  which  does  not  grow 
on  the  banks  of  any  river  that  falls  into  the  Arctic  Sea.  It  had, 
however,  been  long  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  was  likely  to 
have  been  cut  from  a  piece  of  drift-timber  found  lying  on  the 


.;; 


;  .■  t 


328 


TRACES  OF  THE  "EREBUS"  AND  "TERROR/ 


i 


spot,  as  the  mark  of  the  ax  was  recent  compared  to  the  surface 
of  the  wood,  which  might  have  been  exposed  to  the  weather  for 
a  century.*  Mr.  Snow  counted  five  rings  of  stones  with  two  or 
three  slabs  in  the  centre  of  each  circle,  which  he  took  for  fire- 
places, but  on  which  there  were  no  traces  of  smoke  nor  any  re- 
mains of  burnt  wood.  As  tent-pegs  could  not  be  driven  into  the 
shingly  beach,  the  stones  had  been  evidently  used  in  the  erection 
of  as  many  tents  as  there  were  circles,  and  the  slabs  in  the  centre 
were  likely  to  have  served  as  stands  for  magnetic  instruments.  , 
Colonel  Sabine  remarked  that  four  tents  would  be  needed  in  using 
the  instruments  supplied  to  Sir  John  Franklin's  expedition,  and 
a  fifth  for  the  protection  of  the  observers.  If  the  ships  were  stop- 
ped in  that  locality  about  the  time  of  the  monthly  term-day,  the 
officers  would  almost  certainly  make  the  term  observations,  which 
last  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  in  that  case  each  ship  would  select 
a  separate  place  of  observation.  The  term-day  in  August,  1845, 
was  the  29th ;  and  we  may  conclude,  from  the  information  which 
we  at  present  possess,  that  on  that  day,  or  about  a  month  after 
they  were  last  seen,  the  discovery  ships  were  off  Cape  Riley.  It 
is  ascertained  that  the  bones  and  rope  were  not  left  by  any  party 
from  other  ships  of  the  Royal  Navy  that  have  visited  Barrow's 
Straits  ;  and  had  the  "  Erebus"  and  "  Terror"  wintered  there,  a 
cairn,  with  memoranda,  and  many  other  evidences  of  that  fact, 
would  undoubtedly  have  been  found.  The  ships  must  have  been 
temporarily  arrested  by  a  barrier  of  ice  ;  and  Sir  John  Franklin, 
having  good  anchorage  between  Beechey  Island  and  Cape  Riley, 
turned  the  delay  to  the  best  account  by  making  the  term  ob- 
servations. With  the  prospect  of  soon  passing  the  Straits,  he 
evidently  had  not  thought  it  necessary  to  erect  a  cairn,  or  signal- 
post,  at  the  threshold,  as  it  were,  of  the  enterprise. 

These  first  traces  of  the  Expedition  are  exceedingly  interesting, 
and  they  lead  directly  to  the  inference  that  it  pursued  its  course 
to  Cape  Walker.  Had  Sir  John,  finding  the  Strait  barred,  gone 
up  Wellington  Inlet,  he  would  undoubtedly  have  left  a  memo- 
randum at  Cape  Riley,  assigning  reasons  for  departing  from  his 
instructions. 

On  the  25th  of  August,  1850,  the  "  Assistance"  and  "  Intrepid" 

*  The  grounds  of  these  conclusions  were  fully  stated  in  a  report  made 
to  the  Admiralty  by  Sir  W.  Edward  Parry,  myself,  and  other  officers,  which 
has  been  published  with  other  parliamentary  returns. 


f 


s 


^Mmmn 


EXPECTED   RETURN   OF   SIR  JOll.N    ROSS. 


329 


were  well  over  toward  Cornwallis  Island,  and  a  little  to  the  north 
of  Cape  Hotham.  Captain  Penny  with  his  consort  was  standing 
up  the  west  side  of  Wellington  Channel,  Sir  John  Ross  was 
making  for  Cape  Hotham,  the  "  Rescue"  was  near  the  head  of 
Wellington  Sound  on  the  east  side,  land  being  visible  from  Cape 
Riley,  crossing  the  Sound  just  beyond  her,  and  the  "  Advance" 
was  lying  under  Beechey  Island,  having  grounded  on  a  shoal ; 
but  Lieutenant  De  Haven,  expecting  to  get  his  vessel  off  without 
difficulty,  declined  the  assistance  from  the  "  Albert"  which  was 
offered.  Captain  Austin,  with  the  "  Resolute"  and  "  Pioneer," 
was  at  that  time  examining  the  south  side  of  Barrow's  Straits. 
He  had  visited  Possession  Bay  on  the  18th,  and  then  intended  to 
look  into  Pond's  Bay.  He  has  not  been  seen  since,  and  it  is 
probable  that  he  passed  the  "  North  Star"  and  "  Albert"  with- 
out being  descried,  in  the  thick  weather  that  prevailed  when  they 
were  coming  out  of  Lancaster  Sound. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  search  in  August,  1850.  As  Sir 
John  Ross  intended  to  return  in  1851,  after  landing  his  stores  on 
Melville  Island,*  we  may  expect  that  he  at  least  will  bring 
further  intelligence  in  October  or  November  next. 

*  Sir  John  Ross  took  with  him  four  carrier  pigeons  belonging  to  a  lady 
residing  in.  Ayrshire,  intending  to  liberate  two  of  them  when  the  state  of 
the  ice  rendered  it  necessary  for  him  to  lay  his  vessel  up  for  the  winter, 
and  the  other  two  when  he  discovered  Sir  John  Franklin.  A  pigeon  made 
its  appearance  at  the  dovecot  in  Ayrshire,  on  the  13  th  of  October,  which 
the  lady  recognized  by  marks  and  circumstances  that  left  no  doubt  on  her 
mind  of  its  being  one  of  the  younger  pair  presented  by  her  to  Sir  John.  It 
carried  no  billet ;  but  there  were  indications,  in  the  loss  of  feathers  on  the 
breast,  of  one  having  been  torn  from  under  its  wing.  Though  it  is  known 
that  the  speed  of  pigeons  is  equal  to  one  hundred  miles  an  hour,  the  dis- 
tance from  Melville  Island  to  Ayrshire  bein'j  in  a  direct  line  about  2400 
miles  is  so  great,  that  evidence  of  the  bird  having  been  sent  off  about  the 
10th  of  October  must  be  had,  before  that  we  can  well  believe  that  no  mis- 
take was  made  in  the  identification  of  the  individual  that  came  to  the  dove- 
cot. Sir  John's  letters  from  Lancaster  Sound  mention  that  when  he  wrote 
he  had  the  pigeons  on  board. 


n, 


■  i  1 


'::    !l 


■  I  11 


I. )' 


POSTSCRIPT. 


Since  tho  preceding  sheets  were  printed,  we  have  received  in- 
formation of  the  result  of  the  last  year's  search  for  the  lost  Expe- 
dition. The  first  traces  of  the  missing  ships,  discovered  on  the 
south  side  of  Beechey  Island  and  on  Cape  Kiley,  as  mentioned  in 
p.  327,  were  followed  up  by  the  discovery  of  seven  hundred  empty 
meat-tins,  and  other  remains,  which  furnish  undoubted  proof  of 
Franklin's  ships  having  wintered,  in  1845-6,  on  the  inside  of  the 
above-named  Island.  The  tombs  of  three  men,  with  head-boards 
bearing  their  names  and  the  dates  of  their  deaths,  were  erected  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Island,  not  far  from  the  site  of  the  armorer's 
forge,  an  observatory  or  storehouse,  and  other  inclosures  opposite 
to  the  anchorage.  One  of  these  men  belonged  to  the  "  Terror," 
and  two  to  the  "  Erebus,"  which  is  sufficient  evidence  of  the 
presence  of  both  ships  ;  and  the  latest  death  supplies  us  with  the 
date  of  3d  April,  1846.  The  mortality  does  not  exceed  that  of 
previous  expeditions;  and  we  may  therefore  conclude,  that  the 
Expedition  was  in  highly  effective  order  when  it  left  that  anchor- 
age, witVi  only  a  moderate  inroad  into  its  stock  of  preserved  meats, 
the  seven  hundred  empty  tins  found  on  the  island  forming  but  a 
small  proportion  of  the  24,000  canisters  with  which  the  ships  were 
supplied. 

Captain  Penny  and  his  officers,  who  examined  Beechey  Island 
and  the  neighborhood  very  carefully  and  minutely,  believe  that  the 
Expedition  did  not  quit  its  winter  anchorage  till  the  end  of  August 
or  beginning  of  September,  1846,  founding  their  opinion  mainly  on 
the  lateness  at  which  the  ice  breaks  up;  that  much  of  the  summer 
was  passed  there,  they  consider  as  proved  by  the  deep  sledge  ruts 
in  the  shingle,  which  must  have  been  made  after  the  snow  had 
partially  disappeared,  and  by  small  patches  of  garden  ground  bor- 
dered with  purple  saxifrage,  and  planted  in  compartments  with 
the  native  plants. 

It  is  also  the  opinion  of  several  officers  of  the  scorching  party 
that  Franklin's  ships  left  their  wintering  station  suddenly.  The 
reasons  assigned  for  this  belief  are,  that  several  articles  which 
might  have  been  useful  were  left  behind,  and  that  at  a  look-out  or 
fowling  station,  on  Cape  Spencer,  a  long  day's  journey  from  the 
nnchorage,  the  lines  for  securing  the  covering  of  a  circular  inclos- 


I'U.^itiUUIl'T. 


331 


ure,  formed  by  a  low  wnll  of  stones,  had  been  cut,  instead  of  having 
been  deliberately  untied,  when  the  covering  was  renioveil,  leaving 
the  ends  of  line  attached  to  the  stones.  The  absence  also  of  any 
mernurandum  of  past  efforts  or  future  intentions,  either  at  the  stone 
cairn  erected  on  the  south  side  of  Beechey  Island,  at  the  pile  of 
canisters,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  kitchen,  forge,  and  other 
marked  localities  opposite  the  anchorage,  is  thought  by  some  to  bo 
an  indication  of  the  sudden  departure  of  the  Expedition.  The  value 
of  the  articles  left  behind  is  too  trifling  to  support  such  an  infer- 
ence,* and  the  absence  of  the  diligently  searched-for  memorandum 
does  not  seem  to  be  sufficiently  accounted  for  by  such  a  supposition. 
The  time  required  for  calling  in  the  parties  frotn  Cape  Spencer, 
Caswall's  Tower  in  Radstock  Bay,  and  other  points  where  they 
have  been  traced,  and  for  embarking  the  instruments  and  utensils 
from  the  observatories  and  kitchen,  might  have  sufficed  for  the 
planting  of  a  copper  cylinder  or  bottle,  with  a  memorandum. — 
That  the  ships  drifted  out  unexpectedly  in  a  floe  of  ice  is  not  con- 
sidered by  the  nautical  men  who  have  examined  the  anchorage  to 
be  possible.  The  north  point  of  Beechey  Island  being  connected 
to  North  Devon  by  a  shingle  beach,  covered  by  only  two  or  three 
feet  of  water,  no  pressure  of  ice  can  operate  on  the  harbor  from 
that  direction  so  as  to  drive  out  vessels  by  the  southeastern  and 
only  navigable  entrance,  and  it  is  almost  certain  that  Franklin's  ships 
must  have  made  their  exit  by  the  tedious  and  laborious  operation  of 
sawing  out. 

The  absence  of  a  memorandum  at  the  wintering  station  is  re- 
markable, and,  in  my  opinion,  wholly  unexplained  by  any  suggestion 
that  has  hitherto  been  given  by  the  many  writers  who  have  made 

*  These  were  an  armorer's  wooden  stand,  vised  when  laid  on  its  side  for 
the  support  of  an  anvil,  and  when  standing  on  its  end  for  the  insertion  of 
a  vice  ;  several  coal  Daga,  two  of  them  containing  coal  dust  mixed  with  a 
small  proportion  of  small  cinders  and  ashes,  some  pieces  of  rope,  and  scraps 
of  old  canvas,  and  a  small  piece  of  oaken  fire-wood,  besides  many  frag- 
ments of  worn  clothing  utterly  worthless.  An  iron  stove  that  had  been 
made  on  board  ship  was  also  found  at  a  fowling  station  near  the  east 
corner  of  the  island,  but,  it  is  stated  to  have  been  not  worth  carrying  on 
board.  The  birds'  bones  remaining  in  the  vicinity  of  the  stone  inclosure 
on  Cape  Spencer  show  that  the  sportsmen  encamped  there  had  been  toler- 
ably successful ;  and  much  small  shot  was  found  scattered  among  the 
stones  with  which  the  inclosure  was  paved.  In  the  interstices  of  the 
stone  wall  there  were  many  pieces  of  newspapers,  also  two  bits  of  paper 
of  much  interest  to  the  friends  of  two  of  the  missing  officers — one  being 
inscribed  with  the  name  of  Mr.  M'Donald  the  surgeon  ;  the  other  contain- 
ing part  of  a  memorandum  in  the  handwriting  of  Captain  Fitzjames,  giv- 
ing directions  as  to  the  times  of  recording  certain  meteorological  observa- 
tions. 


111 


ill 


?'.'■' 


t',' 

t 

'  'I 
'I4| 


.tit: 


r 


1 


332 


I'OHTscRirr. 


their  opinions  known,  through  the  medium  of  the  periodical  press. 
From  Sir  John  Franklin's  well-known  anxiety  to  act  up  to  the  ten- 
or of  his  instructiuns,  combined  with  the  expressed  desire  of  the 
Admiralty,  that  he  should  embrace  every  opportunity  of  forwarding 
accounts  of  the  progress  of  the  Expedition  to  England,  I  should 
have  thought  that  he  would  certainly  have  left  a  record  of  his  do- 
ings at  a  winter  station,  which  he  knew  to  be  within  reach  of  the 
whalers,  before  he  commenced  his  voyage  of  the  second  season,  in 
the  hope  of  penetrating  either  to  the  southwest  or  northward,  where 
he  knew  there  would  be  little  or  no  chance  of  finding  a  channel  of 
communication,  unless  he  succeeded  in  overcoming  all  obstacles, 
and  pushing  his  way  through  that  archipelago,  which  has  hitherto 
proved  a  barrier  to  successive  expeditions.  And  should  he,  as 
some  suppose,  but  contrary  as  I  think  to  all  likelihood,  have  cut  his 
way  out  of  Beechey  Harbor  merely  to  turn  his  face  to  England, 
still  I  think  he  would  have  left  some  authentic  record  on  the  spot, 
mentioning  his  labors,  and  the  cause  of  his  return. 

As  there  are  no  natives  on  the  north  side  of  Lancaster  Strait  to 
disturb  any  memorial  or  flag-post  that  may  be  erected.  Sir  John 
Franklin  would  probably  not  think  it  necessary  to  bury  the  copper 
cylinder  cr  bottle  containing  his  memorandum,  but  would  rather 
suspend  it  in  the  most  conspicuous  way  he  could  devise.  Now,  I 
have  learnt,  by  experience,  that  the  wolverene*  will  ascend  trees 
to  cut  down  a  package  hung  to  a  branch ;  and  that  bears  have  sim- 
ilar habits  was  fully  ascertained  by  Captain  Austin's  sledge  parties. 
A  depot  formed  by  Lieutenant  M'Clintock  on  Griffith  Island  was 
entirely  eaten  by  bears,  the  tin  cases  proving  to  be  but  a  poor  de- 
fense against  the  tusks  of  these  omnivorous  animals,  who  expressed 
their  approval  of  preserved  potatoes  by  the  way  in  which  they 
cleared  out  the  canisters.  That  they  would  relish  the  pemican, 
which  was  part  of  their  spoil,  might  have  been  predicted.  They 
did  not  respect  even  the  sign-post,  but  overthrew  it,  and  bit  oft'  the 
end  of  the  metal  cylinder  containing  the  record. 

The  want  of  this  memorial  leaves  us  totally  in  the  dark  as  to 
Franklin's  intended  course,  which  would  in  all  probability  have 
been  decided  upon  before  he  left  the  harbor;  for,  from  his  position, 
he  had  the  means  of  ascertaining  the  state  of  the  ice  both  in  Bar- 
row's Strait  and  in  Wellington  Channel.  If  the  former  was  open, 
his  course  would  be  to  Cape  Walker  and  the  southwest,  agreeable  to 
his  instructions;  but  if  Barrow's  Strait  was  closed,  as  he  had  found 
it  to  be  the  preceding  year,  and  Wellington  Channel  open,  then  he 
would  gladly  follow  the  latter,  which  one  at  least  of  his  intelligent 
officers  considered  to  be  the  most  promising  route  of  all,  and  which 

*  The  volverene  inhabits  the  islands  north  of  Lancaster  Strait,  and  its 
recent  footmarks  were  often  seen  by  Lieutenant  M'Clintock. 


posJTf;cRirT. 


333 


to 
Ive 

)0, 

ir- 
jn, 

to 
Ind 
Ibe 

)nt 
kh 

its 


the  spirit  of  his  instructions  permittod  him  to  tiiko,  if  shut  out  from 
the  west  or  southwest. 

Tlie  well-planned  and  thoroughly  orgnnizod  traveling  parties  of 
tho  searching  squadron,  though  they  traced  with  extraordinary 
perseverance  extensive  portions  of  insular  coast,  failed  in  detecting 
any  further  decisive  vestiges  of  Franklin's  course.  Captain  Aus- 
tin's two  ships,  with  their  tenders,  wintered  at  the  southwest  end 
of  Cornwallis  Island,  under  the  shelter  of  Griflith  Island.  From 
thence  Lieutenant  M'Clintock,  who  made  tlie  longest  journey  of  all 
the  pedestrian  parties,  setting  out  in  spring,  rounded  the  west  end 
of  Melville  Island  in  longitude  114^  W.,  and,  passing  over  the  ex- 
treme discoveries  of  Sir  W.  Edward  Parry,  saw  distant  land  extend- 
ing beyond  tho  llGth  meridian.  The  intermediate  passages  and 
bays  wore  explored  by  Lieutenant  Aldrich,  Mr.  Bradford,  and  Mr. 
M'Dougall.  On  the  south  side  of  Barrow's  Strait,  Cape  Walker, 
and  the  adjoining  coasts,  were  traced  by  Captain  Ommaney  and 
Lieutenants  Osborne,  Meecham,  and  Browne ;  Lieutenant  Osborne 
having  carried  his  researches  nearly  to  the  72d  parallel  on  the  104th 
meridian.  This  was  the  most  southerly  point  attained.  It  lies 
within  180  miles  of  the  south  shore  of  Victoria  Lond,  and  is  perhaps 
part  of  the  same  island.  Throughout  the  whole  of  the  great  ex- 
tent of  coast-hne  closely  examined  by  these  officers,  on  both  sides 
of  the  strait,  no  traces  whatever  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  ships  were 
discovered,  though  Lieutenant  M'Clintock  found  the  wheels  of  a 
cart  used  by  Sir  W.  E.  Parry  in  1820,  and  other  traces  of  that  offi- 
cer's traveling  parties.  The  signal-posts  planted  by  the  latter  were 
thrown  down  by  wind  or  animals. 

Captains  Penny  and  Stewart  in  the  Lady  Franklin  and  Sophia, 
wintered  in  Assistance  Harbor,  in  company  with  Rear-Admiral  Sir 
John  Ross,  of  the  Felix.  The  spring  journeys  of  the  two  former, 
and  of  their  officers,  were  directed  to  the  examination  of  Welling- 
ton Sound.  Captain  Stewart  and  Dr.  Sutherland  explored  the 
west  and  north  sides  of  this  inlet,  their  most  northern  points  being 
in  latitude  76°  24'  N.  Messrs.  Goodsir  and  Marshall  traced  its 
south  and  west  sides  to  the  99th  meridian ;  and  both  parties,  from 
their  most  westerly  stations,  saw  a  navigable  sea  extending  north- 
ward and  westward,  to  the  utmost  limits  of  their  vision.  Welling- 
ton Strait,  closed  to  the  eastwai'd  and  northward,  opens  into  this 
westerly  passage  by  three  channels,  separated  from  one  another  by 
Baillie  Hamilton's  and  Deans  Dundas  Islands.  Baring's  Island  lies 
more  to  the  westward,  opposite  the  middle  channel.  Its  shores, 
and  those  of  the  two  other  principal  islands,  were  examined  by 
Captain  Penny,  who  crossed  over  to  the  point  of  Sir  Robert  Inglis 
Bay  on  the  northern  shore,  which  has  been  named  Albert.  Land ; 
and  frojn  whence  ho   had  the  melancholy  prospect  of  boundless 


1^.; 


';:  ,?l 


334 


POSTSCRIPT. 


open  wntcr,  which  he  hnd  not  the  rnonna  of  nnvi^ttting.  A  hont 
wns  transpuitPi]  over  the  ice  toward  it  witli  iniidi  labor;  hut,  the 
provisions  of  the  crew  running  short,  it  was  abandoned.  Mr.  Good- 
sir  found  n  spnr  of  American  spruce,  untrinimed,  with  its  bark  worn 
off,  and  broken  at  both  ends,  twelve  feet  long,  and  as  thick  as  a 
inan*s  ankle, on  the  shore  facing  the  open  water;  also  many  small- 
er pieces  of  the  same  kind  of  drift-wood,  while  none  was  picked  up 
b}'  Captain  Stewart  in  Wellington  Sound.  From  this  fact  these 
officers  inferred,  that  the  drift-wood  iiad  come  from  the  westward. 
The  currents  or  tides  among  the  islands  at  the  western  outlet  of 
Wellington  Strait,  were  at  times,  according  to  Captain  Penny's 
judgment,  not  less  than  four  knots;  and  the  general  opinion  of  his 
officers  was  that  the  principal  set  of  the  stream  came  from  the 
westward,  and  the  prevailing  winds  from  the  northwest. 

Animal  life  was  abundant  in  the  open  water,  and  on  its  coasts. 
Walruses  wore  seen  repeatedly  in  the  several  channels,  north  and 
south  of  Baillie  Hamilton's  Island;  and  polar  bears  were  numerous 
and  bold,  so  as  to  be  dangerous  to  parties  not  well  armed.  Seve.r- 
nl  of  the  bears  were  killed,  and  one  of  them  contained  an  entire 
9eal  in  its  stomach,  the  practice  of  these  voracious  animals  being 
to  swallow  their  prey  without  mastication  when  it  is  not  too  large 
to  pass  their  gullets.  The  walrus  can  not  exist  except  when  it 
has  access  to  open  water ;  nor  is  the  polar  bear  usually  found  at  n 
distance  from  it,  except  in  its  passage  from  one  sheet  of  water  to  an- 
other. The  travelers  also  saw  polar  hares,  wolves,  foxes,  herds  of 
reindeer,  vast  flocks  of  king  and  eider  ducks,  brent  geese,  and 
many  gulls  and  other  water-fowl  of  less  utility  to  man.  Musk  oxen 
were  seen  only  on  Melville  Island,  where  Lieutenant  M'Clintock 
killed  four,  and  might  have  procured  more  had  he  wished  to  do  so. 

On  the  5th  of  September,  1850,  a  floe  of  ice  nt  least  two  years 
old,  and  upward  thirty  miles  in  width,  filled  the  lower  part  of  Wel- 
lington Strait,  and  remained  fast,  though  diminished  in  breath,  when 
last  visited  on  the  24th  of  July,  1851.  Captain  Penny  is  of  opinion 
that  open  water  existed  beyond  it  all  the  winter. 

With  respect  to  traces  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  Expedition,  beyond 
Cape  Spencer  none  whatever  were  observed  by  Captain  Penny's 
traveling  parties,  except  a  small  piece  of  drift-wood,  which  had  been 
recently  charred,  and  had  been  exposed  to  little  or  no  friction  sul)se- 
quent  to  the  operation  of  fire.*  This  was  found  by  Mr.  Goodsir  in  Dis- 
appointment Bay,  in  latitude  75"  36'  N.,  longitude  96°  W. ;  and  I  con- 

*  A  piece  of  elm  board  that  had  been  originally  coated  on  one  side 
with  mineral  pitch  or  tar,  and  after  long  exposure  to  the  weather  split  by 
an  ax,  was  too  much  weathered  even  on  the  most  recent  surface  to  come 
within  the  date  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  Expedition.  It  was  found  on  Bail- 
lie  Hamilton's  Island,  and  must  have  drifted  a  very  long  way. 


. 


< 


rOSTSCRll'T. 


330 


'9 

m 
le- 

BS- 

In- 


Riiler  it  to  lie  ctM'tninly  n  relic  uf  Sir  John  Fraukliirs  Kxpodition,  as 
tlieHO  cunsta  are  not  now  vibitnil  l>y  uatives,  and  lliis  piece  of  charroil 
wood  could  not  liave  been  wuter-borno  from  any  great  distance.  It 
must  have  traveled  however,  some  short  way  subsequent  to  its  having 
been  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire;  for  if  ii,  Iiad  been  the  remains  of 
n  fire  kindled  on  the  spot,  other  fragments  of  charcoal  would  have 
been  found  lying  beside  it.  Franklin  would,  undoubtedly,  during 
the  spring  passed  in  Beechey  Bay,  send  out  a  party  up  Wellington 
Sound  as  he  never  never  would  let  the  opportunity  escape  of  ex- 
amining, as  far  ns  he  was  able  to  do,  a  route  that  niight  influence 
his  future  movements;  and  as  the  course  to  the  westward  within 
the  reach  of  pedestrian  parties  was  known,  the  resources  of  the  two 
ships  would  be  turned  to  the  undiscovered  way,  commencing  in 
their  vicinity.  That  such  exploring  party  went  beyond  tlie  limits 
of  Captain  Penny's  researches,  I  infer  from  neitlier  post  nor  cairn 
marking  the  limit  of  its  journey  having  been  seen.  If  the  same  ex- 
panse of  open  water  was  visible,  in  1846,  from  Baillie  Hamilton's 
Island,  which  Captain  Penny  saw  in  1851,  we  may  readily  conceive 
the  ellbrts  that  would  be  made  to  corry  the  Erebus  and  Terror  into 
it  by  any  practicable  extent  of  ice  sawing,  particularly  if  Barrow's 
Strait  remained  closed.  The  age  of  a  floe  of  ice  filling  a  strait  does 
not  indicate  with  certainty  the  length  of  time  that  the  strait  has  been 
blocked  up,  for  drift  ice,  loaded  with  the  remains  of  several  years' 
snow,  ma}"^  be  carried  into  a  narrow  passage,  so  as  to  shut  it  up,  and 
as  suddenly  removed  again  on  a  favorable  concurrence  of  winds 
and  tides.  One  navigator,  therefore,  may  be  able  to  sail,  as  Sir  W. 
£.  Parry  did,  nearly  quite  through  that  northern  archipelago  in  one 
season,  while  his  successors  may  find  impassable  barriers  thrown 
across  the  path  which  he  pursued,  and  new  avenues  opened.  It 
would  be  unsafe,  therefore,  to  argue  that  Wellington  Strait  is  always 
closed,  because  it  was  choked  by  a  floe  of  some  age  in  1850  and  1851. 

By  the  efforts  of  the  searching  parties,  which  have  just  return- 
ed, combined  with  those  of  preceding  years,  all  the  accessible  parts 
of  the  continental  coast  of  America  have  been  explored,  and  both 
sides  of  Barrow's  Strait,  to  the  further  side  of  Melville  Island,  and 
the  land  beyond  Cape  Walker.  Land  has  also  been  traced,  though 
only  by  distant  view,  round  the  bottom  of  Jones's  Sound.  This  has 
narrowed  the  lines  of  search  to  two  distinct  points — that  is,  ',o  the 
southwest  of  Cape  Walker,  which,  from  its  being  the  direction  in 
which  Sir  John  was  instructed  to  go,  seemed  to  be  especially  the 
one  in  which  he  was  to  be  sought;  and  the  newly-found  channel 
opening  out  to  the  westward  from  Wellington  Strait.  It  is  greatly 
to  be  desired  that  this  one  may  be  pursued  by  new  efforts. 

Mr.  Rao,  in  April  last,  was  on  the  eve  of  setting  out  from  Great 
Bear  Luke,  in  the  hope  of  crossing  on  the  ire  to  Victoria  Land, 


m 


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336 


POSTSCRIPT. 


W     t 


and  of  continuing  his  setirch  in  a  boat  as  soon  as  the  navigation 
opened.  Though  he  may  not  actually  attain  Lieutenant  Osborn's 
furthest,  he  may,  under  favorable  circumstances,  approach  so  near 
to  the  scene  of  that  officer's  search,  or  of  Lieutenant  M'Clintock's, 
as  to  prove,  should  he  find  no  traces  of  the  ships,  that  the  interven- 
ing space  is  too  confined  for  the  seclusion  of  living  men.  Captain 
M'Clure,  who  passed  to  the  eastward  of  Point  Barrow  last  season, 
if  he  found  the  sea  as  open  as  the  more  sanguine  believe  it  to  be, 
may  have  reached  the  west  side  of  Parry's  Archipelago,  and  have 
spent  the  winter  not  far  from  the  supposed  outlet  of  Victoria  Chan- 
nel; and  this  season  Captain  Collinson  may  be  sailing  eastward  in 
the  same  direction.  It  is  from  Beering's  Straits,  then,  that  we  are 
next  to  look  for  tidings  of  great  interest  to  the  civilized  world,  which 
sympathizes  so  universally  with  the  efforts  made  to  trace  and  re- 
lieve so  many  gallant  victims  to  science.* 

20l!A  October,  1851. 

♦  With  reference  to  Sir  John  Ross's  pigeons,  mentioned  in  a  note  on 
page  329,  it  appears  that  he  dispatched  the  youngest  pair  on  the  6th  or  7th 
of  October,  1850,  in  a  basket  suspended  to  a  balloon,  during  a  W.  N.W. 
gale.  By  the  contrivance  of  a  slow-match  the  birds  were  to  be  liberated 
at  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours. 


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APPENDIX. 

No.  I. 
PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

General  View. — Rocky  Mountains. — Their  Length. — Their  Height. — Glaciers. 
— Parallelism  to  the  Pacific  Coast. — Continental  Slopes. — Russian  America. — 
Eastern  Slope. — Prairies. — Mississippi  Valley. — Its  Slope. — Fundamental 
Rocks  of  the  Basin. — Silurian  Strata. — Carboniferous  Series. — Tertiary  Beds. — 
Lignite  Formations. — Series  of  Lake  Basins. — Transverse  Valleys. — Interme- 
diate Belt  of  Primitive,  Hypogenous,  or  Metamorphic  Rocks. — Its  Rivers  mere 
Chains  ot  Lakes. — Its  Breadth. — Altitude. — Sources  of  three  great  River  Sys- 
tems.— Great  Fish  River. — The  Yukon  or  Kwichpack. — Basins  of  Excavation. — 
Glacial  Action. — Active  Volcanoes. 

Valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence. — Altitudes  of  the  Lakes  above  the  Sea. — Lake 
Superior. — Lake  Michigan. — Lake  Huron. — Lake  Erie. — Lake  Ontario. — Lake 
Champlain. — Northern  Brim  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Basin. — Its  Geological  Struc- 
ture.— North  Shore  of  Lake  Superior. — Structure  of  the  Country  at  the  Sources 
of  the  Mississippi. 

WiNiPEG  OR  Saskatchewan  Valley. — Height  of  Lake  Winipec — Sea  River. 
— Katchewan  River. — Thousand  Lakes, — Portages. — River  Winipeg. — Red 
River. — Saskatchewan  River. 

MissiNiPi  Valley. — Its  Lakes. — Frog  Portage. 

Mackenzie  River  Valley. — Methy  Portage.— Athabasca,  Elk,  or  Red-deer 
River. — Lesser  Slave  Lake. — Peace  River. — Slave  River. — River  of  the  Mount- 
ains.— Noh'hanne  Bute. — Great  Bear  Lake. 

Yukon  Valley. — Yukon  or  Kwichpack. — Volcanic  Chain  of  Alaska. — Coal. — 
Fossil  Bones. 

In  drawing  up  tlie  following  Appendix,  my  object  has  been  to 
record  facts  in  the  light  in  which  they  appeared  to  me.  When 
treating  of  districts  which  I  did  not  visit,  I  have  borrowed  from 
every  work  concerning  them  to  which  I  had  access.  The  most  im- 
portant sources  of  information  are  generally  named  or  expressly 
alluded  to ;  but  I  thought  that  it  would  give  too  much  formality  to 
so  slight  a  sketch  were  I  to  parade  every  authority  for  the  state- 
ments it  contains.  Where  practiced  geologists  have  examined  the 
country,  their  report  has  been  chosen  in  preference  to  my  own  ob- 
servations ;  and  this  is  the  case  on  the  route  of  the  expedition  up 
10  the  49th  parallel.     Beyond  Lake  Winipeg  no  geologist  has  yet 

P 


Mi 


I  ;V; 


'll 


,     I 


338 


niYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


ponetrntod,  niid  the  dpscriptions  of  tlie  rocks  occurring  within 
tho  spnco  of  twenty  (U«;;roo8  of  Intitudo  that  lio  to  the  north  of  thnt, 
sheet  of  wator  are,  with  nil  their  iniperfections,  entirely  iny  own. 
It  would  bo  true  economy  in  the  Imperial  Ciovernment,  or  in  tho 
Hudson's  Hay  Company,  who  are  tho  virtual  sovereigns  of  the  vast 
territory  which  spreads  northward  from  Lake  Superior,  to  ascer- 
tain without  delay  the  mineral  treasures  it  contains.  I  have  little 
doubt  of  many  of  the  accessible  districts  abounding  in  metallic  wealth 
of  far  greater  value  than  all  tho  returns  which  the  fur  trade  can 
ever  yield. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  chain,  which  is  the  northern  prolongation 
of  the  Andes,  has  a  general  course  of  north  26°  W.  for  2700  geo- 
graphical miles,  from  the  30th  parallel  of  latitude  up  to  the  shores 
of  the  Arctic  Sea.  Its  higher  peaks  rise  from  12,000  to  15,000  feet 
above  the  ocean,  and  enter  tho  region  of  perpetual  snow ;  but  the 
northern  part  of  the  chain,  which  touches  on  the  Mackenzie,  is  so 
mucli  lower,  that  even  its  summits*  are  denuded  during  the  short 
summer  of  that  district,  and  perennial  patclies  of  snow  exist  there 
only  in  shady  crevices  which  have  n  northern  aspect.  I  have  not 
been  able  to  discover,  after  many  inquiries,  that  glaciers  which  flow 
through  mountain  gorges  into  the  lower  country  are  formed  in  any 
l)art  of  North  America,  though  travelers  who  have  crossed  to  Cali- 
fornia, Oregon,  and  New  Caledonia,  speak  of  hills  clothed  with 
perpetual  snow;  and  the  Copper  River,  which  joins  the  sea  oppo- 
site to  the  peninsula  of  Alaska,  is  said  by  Bfter,  on  the  authority  of 
Klimowskij,  to  issue  from  a  solid  mass  of  ice.  Several  passes  which 
traverse  tho  chain  do  not  rise  more  than  6000  feet  above  the  sea 
level,  and  being  free  from  snow  in  summer  may  be  crossed  in  that 
season  by  pack-horses  and  even  by  wagons.  The  more  northern 
of  these  passes  have  long  been  known  to  the  fur-traders ;  the 
southern  ones  have  lately  been  explored  and  used  by  the  multitudes 
who  have  hurried  from  the  United  States  to  California  in  search 
of  gold. 

Up  to  the  60th  degree  of  latitude  tho  chain  runs  nearly  parallel 
to  the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  and  not  far  distant  from  it;  the  descent 
to  the  level  of  the  sea  is  consequently  rapid  on  the  west — a  con- 
figuration which  M.  Guyotf  has  noted  as  peculiar  to  the  New 
World,  while  in  the  Old  Continent  the  siiort  slopes  are  turned  to 
the  south,  and  the  long  ones  toward  the  north.  A  large  triangular 
corner,  which  belongs  to  the  Empire  of  Russia,  and  extends  west- 
ward to  Beering's  Straits,  has  a  different  physical  character,  in  the 
existence  of  a  transverse  series  of  active  volcanoes,  as  we  shall 

*  Supposed  to  be  at  least  3000  feet  high,  in  the  62d  parallel, 
t  Phys.  Geogr.,  p.  50. 


noCKY    MOUNTAINS. 


DHfJ 


hereafter  hnvo  occnHion  to  notice ;  nt  presonl  my  remarks  will  l)0 
confined  to  the  continent  lying  enstwnrd  of  the  mountiiinH. 

The  width  of  the  chnin  is  stiitod  iit  from  forty  to  one  hundred 
miles,  and  the  central  parts  nnd  puaks  are  said  to  consist  of  granite 
and  other  igneous  rocks. 

The  eastern  slope  toward  the  Atlantic  commences  by  n  belt, 
formed  mostly  of  sandstone,  150  miles  in  width,  which  rests  on 
the  shoulder  of  the  chain,  with  an  inclination  of  about  37  feet  in 
the  mile,  in  its  descent  from  8000  feet  aliovo  the  soa,  to  2500.  The 
more  gradual  slope  of  the  great  prairies,  beginning  at  the  last-named 
elevation,  has  a  breadth  of  700  or  800  miles,  and  retains  in  its 
descent  the  prairie  character  of  a  treeless,  sandy,  and  moderately 
undulated,  or,  as  it  is  locally  named,  ''rolling"  plain. 

Most  of  the  streams  which  cross  the  prairie  flow  through  deep 
furrows,  sunk  abruptly  below  the  general  level ;  nevertheless  the 
Mississippi,  Missouri,  and  some  of  their  larger  tributaries  have 
wider  valleys,  skirted  by  successive  terraces  and  alluvial  deposits. 
On  the  banks  of  all  the  rivers  there  are  belts  of  woodland,  and 
clumps  of  trees  that  encroach  on  the  prairie,  intercepting  grassy 
lawns,  and  producing  remarkably  fine  park  scenery,  which  is  often 
enlivened  by  small  lakes.  In  the  interior  of  the  prairie,  however, 
water  is  scarce,  and  there  is  such  a  total  want  of  wood,  that  for 
days  together  the  traveler  can  find  no  other  fuel  than  the  dung  of 
the  bison.  Near  the  mountains  the  soil  is  coarsely  sandy,  strewn 
with  boulders,  and  sterile ;  further  eastward  the  sand  is  finer,  and 
the  boulders  disappear,  but  they  recur  in  numbers  on  the  lower 
border  of  the  prairie :  they  are  also  scarce  or  wholly  absent  over 
very  extensive  tracts  of  the  rich  alluvial  deposits  of  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi,  south  of  the  Ohio. 

The  Mississippi  drains  the  entire  space  between  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Alleghanies  or  Apalachian  chain,  embracing 
thirty  degrees  of  longitude.  The  whole  of  this  vast  water-shed 
may  be  considered  as  one  valley,  whose  bottom,  indicated  by  the 
channel  of  the  river,  has  a  southerly  course,  inclining  slightly  to 
the  eastward.  The  length  of  the  river,  from  its  source  in  Itasca 
Lake,  at  an  altitude  of  1490  feet  above  the  sea,  to  Balixe,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  has  been  estimated  by  Schoolcraft  at  3160  statute 
miles,  following  its  windings,  and  may  be  stated  in  round  numbers 
at  2400  geographical  miles  in  a  straight  line.  The  moderate  hills 
and  eminences  of  the  country  in  which  the  river  has  its  origin  do 
not  rise  above  the  plane  of  the  general  eastern  slope  of  the  conti- 
nent in  the  same  parallel ;  and  the  general  longitudinal  descent  of  the 
great  valley  from  Lake  Itasca  is  at  the  rate  of  10  inches  in  the  mile 
for  the  upper  half  of  the  river,  and  for  the  other  half  of  the  way,  or 
from  St.  Louis  downward,  of  only  two  inches  and  a  half  per  mile. 


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340 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


As  St.  Louis  is  500  feet  above  the  sen,  and  about  600  geograph- 
ical miles  distant  transversely  from  the  western  summit  of  the 
prairie  slope  (which  has  been  taken  at  2500  feet  above  the  sen), 
the  lateral  descent  of  the  valley  to  the  channel  of  the  river  in  that 
parallel  is  40  inches  in  the  mile ;  but  the  sinuosities  of  the  Missouri, 
a  mightier  stream  than  the  one  in  which  it  loses  its  name,  and  of 
the  other  grand  affluents  of  the  Mississippi  that  drain  the  prairies, 
give  a  gentler  inclination  to  their  beds.  The  Illinois,  Ohio,  and 
the  minor  streams  which  come  in  from  the  other  side  of  the  val- 
ley, flow  at  a  lower  level  than  the  western  feeders;  their  upper 
branches  being  subordinate  to  the  general  slope,  which  has  there 
descended  considerably.*  •'  *  - 

From  the  Apnlachian  chain  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  funda- 
mental rocks  would  appear  to  be  silurianf  overlaid  in  large  tracts 

*  The  following  facts,  ascertained  at  the  Navy  Yard  of  Memphis,  in 
Tennessee,  by  R.  A.  Marr,  Esq.,  are  interesting  points  in  the  history  of 
the  Mississippi.  The  quantity  of  water  passing  through  the  channel  of 
the  river  at  that  place  in  1849  was  sufficient  to  cover  an  area  of  100,000 
square  miles  to  the  depth  of  seven  feet  and  a  half,  and  the  quantity  of  silt 
it  carried  down  would  make  a  bed  of  earth  one  mile  square  and  seventy- 
six  feet  deep.  The  current  in  the  central  area  of  the  river  generally  ex- 
ceeded three  miles  an  hour,  and  was  less  toward  the  sides. — Proceed. 
Amer.  Assoc,  p.  340. 

t  As  the  Silurian  rocks  are  most  extensively  developed  in  North  America, 
and  are  of  constant  recurrence  throughout  the  route  of  the  Expedition,  I 
shall  introduce  here,  for  reference,  a  tabular  enumeration  in  the  order  of 
their  superposition,  as  ascertained  by  the  United  States  geologists,  begin- 
ning with  the  lowest. 

A.  CiTAMPLAiN  Division  ;  supposed  to  underlie  three-fourths  of  the  territory 
of  the  United  States,  and  to  occupy  the  surface  of  one  half. 

1.  Potsdam  sandstone ;  a  quartzose  rock,  generally  gray,  often  striped, 
sometimes  partially  or  wholly  red  :  is  supposed  to  be  the  lowest  sedi- 
mentary fossiliferous  rock.  The  Taconic  rocks  of  Dr.  Emmons,  con- 
sisting of  lamellar  white  limestone,  with  specular  iron  ore,  are  sup- 
posed to  be  the  earliest  deposits  of  this  period,  modified  by  meta- 
morphic  agency.  Footmarks  of  reptiles  have  been  found  by  Mr.  Hunt 
in  this  sandstone. 

2.  Calciferous  sandrock;  a  deposit  of  calcareous  and  earthy  matter  vari- 
ously mixed. 

3.  Black  river  or  Chazy  and  Birds-eye  limestone;  a  brittle  limestone, 
having  a  smooth,  flat-conchoid al  fracture.  This  limestone,  character- 
ized by  its  peculiar  fossils,  is  of  frequent  recurrenc  ■■  northward,  up  to 
the  islands  of  the  Arctic  Sea. 

4.  Trenton  limestone;  a  dark-colored  limestone,  interlaminated  with 
dark  shaly  matter.     Often  metalliferous. 

5.  Utica  slats ;  dark-colored  carbonaceous  slates,  which  readily  dis* 
integrate. 

6.  Hudson  River  group,   Loraine  shales,  Frankfort  slate,  and  Rubblt' 


I 


I 


SILURIAN   STRATA. 


341 


riped, 

sedi- 

con- 

sup- 

leta- 

iHunt 

vari- 


with 

dis- 

iubblt- 


, 


by  the  old  red  sandstone  and  the  carboniferous  series.  The  sand* 
stone,  which  rises  on  the  flanits  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the 
height  of  8000  feet  above  the  sea,  is  referred  by  some  geologists 

8tone ;  mostly  dark   dlates    and  shales,   and  gray  thick-bedded  grit 
stones. 

B.  Ontario  Division,  includes  a  series  of  limestones,  shales,  and  sand- 

stones, which  pass  insensibly  into  each  other. 

7.  Gray  sandstone  of  Oswego. 

8.  Medina  sandstone  ;  red  or  slightly  variegated,  and  of  every  degree  of 
coherence.     Originates  many  brine  springs. 

9.  Oneida  conglomerate ;  a  variable   intermixture  of  sand  and  quartz 
pebbles. 

10.  Clinton  Group;  consisting  of  deposits  of  various  characters,  such  as 
thin  shaly  sandstones,  shales,  conglomerates,  thin-bedded  impure 
limestones,  with  iron  ores. 

11.  Niagara  group  ;  consisting  of  dark-bluish  shale  and  dark  limestone, 
and  taking  its  name  from  the  cataract,  where  a  section  of  both  its 
members  is  exposed. 

C.  Helderberg  Division. 

12.  Onondaga  salt  group^  is  an  immense  development  of  argillaceous 
shales  and  maris  with  shaly  limestones,  veins  and  beds  of  gypsum, 
giving  origin  to  copious  and  very  rich  salt  springs.  This  formation 
re-appears  near  Slave  River,  on  the  60th  parallel  of  latitude,  and  also, 
I  believe,  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea. 

13.  Water-lime  group,  consists  generally  of  two  layers  of  drab-colored 
water-limestone,  with  an  intervening  layer  of  blue  lime-rock. 

14.  Pentamerus  limestone  ;  named  from  its  characteristic  fossil,  and  rarely 
a  pure  limestone,  being  more  or  less  mixed  with  black  shale. 

15.  Delthyris  or  Catskill  shaly  limestone;  composed  of  beds  of  sub- 
crystalline  gray  limestone,  slaty  limestone,  and  slaty  argillaceo- 
siliceous  limestone. 

16.  Oriskany  sandstone  ;  a  whitish  sandstone,  composed  of  sand  derived 
from  granitic  rocks  or  mica  schist. 

17.  Caudagalli  grit ;  named  from  the  feathery  forms  in  which  it  abounds. 
It  is  a  drab. colored  or  brownish  calcareous  and  argillaceous  sandstone. 

18.  Schoharie  grit;  a  fine-grained  calcareous  sandstone,  from  which  the 
calcareous  matter  may  be  washed  away  by  long  exposure,  leaving  the 
siliceous  skeleton  of  the  rock. 

19.  Onondaga  limestone;  recognizable  by  its  crystalline  structure,  tough- 
ness, and  numerous  organic  remains. 

20.  Corniferous  limestone  ;  a  fine-grained  (Jbmpact  limestone,  which  is 
very  durable,  and  produces  cascades  where  the  smaller  streams 
traverse  it.  It  is  the  uppermost  of  the  important  limestone  beds  of 
the  New  York  or  silurian  system,  being  succeeded  by  shales  in  which 
the  limestone  fossils  give  place  to  others  of  a  different  character. 

D.  Erie  Division,  referred  by  most  English  geologists  to  the  Devonian 
or  to  the  carboniferous  series. 

21.  Marcellus  shales  ;  black,  slaty  'bituminous  shales,  containing  septaria, 
with  occasional  thin  bands  of  limestone.  Similar  in  lithological  char- 
acters  to  Genesee  slate. 


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342 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


I 


of  the  United  States  to  the  tt'iassic  system;  but  its  exact  geologicnl 
position  is  not  yet  satisfactorily  determined.  Cretaceous  beds, 
known  by  their  organic  remains  (but  not  containing  white  chall( 
with  flints),  occur  extensively  along  the  Missouri,  and  spread  widely 
on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi,  below  the  influx  of  the  Ohio. 
They  exist  also  near  the  Rocky  Mountains,  high  above  the  sea,  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  sources  of  the  Arkansas,   Platte,  and  Gila;* 

22.  Hamilton  group  ;  an  immense  deposit  of  dull-olive  calcareous  shales, 
which  change  to  light  ash-gray  in  weathering.     It  contains  septaria. 

23.  Tully  limestone  ;  usually  thick-bedded,  blue,  or  nearly  black,  lime- 
stone, often  divided  by  seams  into  irregular  fragments. 

24.  Genesee  slate;  is  a  great  mass  of  argillaceous,  black,  fissile  slate, 
which  rapidly  exfoliates  and  falls  down.  Fluid  bitumen  is  of  com- 
mon occurrence.  Either  this  deposit  or  No.  21  exists  on  the  north 
side  of  Methy  Portage,  on  the  Elk  or  Athabasca  River. 

25.  Portage  group  ;  a  vast  deposit  of  shale,  flag-stones,  and  thick-bedded 
sandstone,  rising  with  a  slope  or  abruptly  from  the  shales  on  which  it 
reposes. 

26.  Chemung  or  Ithaca  group  ;  a  highly  fossiliferous  series  of  shales  and 
thin-bedded  sandstones. 

To  the  last  succeed  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  and  the  Coal  Measures. 

The  lower  part  of  the  Champlain  division  has  been  considered  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  Cambrian  system,  the  Utita  slate  being  parallel  to  the 
Landeito  Jlags  ;  the  Hudson  River  group  and  Ontario  division,  up  to  the 
Niagara  group,  is  thought  to  be  equivalent  to  the  Caradoc  sandstone  ;  the 
Niagrra  group  and  the  whole  Helderberg  division  is  supposed  to  be  co- 
equal with  the  Wenlock  rocks  ;  and  the  Erie  division  as  equivalent  to  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Ludlow  rorks,  including  the  Devonian  system  of  Phillips. 
— Vide  Hall,  Geol.  Report  of  New  York,  p.  518. 

*  "  The  cretaceous  formations  terminate  in  the  Atlantic  regions  of 
New  York,  before  they  have  reached  the  city  of  New  York,  so  that  their 
limit  scarcely  touches  the  40th  degree  of  latitude,  or  16°  lower  than  in 
Europe.  In  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  it  remains  below  37°,  but  it  is  very 
different  far  up  the  Missouri ;  this  great  river  flows  uninterruptedly  from 
the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  for  1400  miles  through  strata  of  chalk,  at 
least  as  far  as  the  Sioux  River.  This  is  the  result  of  the  researches'  of  the 
Prince  of  Neuwied,  and  of  the  reports  of  the  celebrated  astronomer,  Nicollet. 
In  these  western  parts  of  America  the  chalk  rises  to  50°  of  latitude. 
There,  also,  it  shows  a  continuous  extension,  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  formation  on  the  globe.  Captain  Fremont  saw  chalk  strata  and 
fields  covered  with  Inoceramus  crispii,  on  the  River  Platte;  Lieutenant 
Abert  found  them  on  the  Arkansas,  and  Dr.  Wizlizenus  also  beyond  the 
Rio  del  Norte,  near  Monterey  and  Laredo.  The  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
their  continuation  Beyond  Santa  Fe,  have  entirely  cut  off  this  cretaceous 
sea.  No  trace  of  chalk  was  discovered  either  by  Captain  Fremont  on  the 
Columbia  River  or  on  the  Humboldt,  in  that  wonderfully  great  basin  which 
dips  to  the  Pacific ;  or  yet  by  the  observant  Captains  Cooke  and  Johnstone 
along  the  River  Gila,  in  Sonora,  or  California."  "  The  whole  of  this  vastly 
extended  chalk  formation  consists  only  of  the  upper  beds.     After  very 


n  in 
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,  at 
the 
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and 
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very 


TERTIARY    BEDS. 


343 


, 


while  toward  tlie  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  there  are  very  extensive 
recent  tertiary  and  aliuvial  deposits,  which,  skirting  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  run  into  Texas  on  the  one  side,  and  along  the  Florida 
coast  on  the  other. 

Tertiary  coal,  containing  dicotyledonous  leaves,  exists  in  the 
Raton  Pass,  between  the  sources  of  the  Red  River  and  the  Arkan- 
sas, at  an  elevation  of  4600  feet.  Cual  of  the  same  description, 
associated  with  similar  leaves,  occurs  on  the  Mackenzie  in  latitude 
65°  N. ;  and  at  various  intermediate  parts  on  the  flanks  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  beds  of  lignite  are  known  to  exist,  which  are 
probably  also  of  the  tertiary  era.* 

In  the  whole  width  of  the  Mississippi  basin,  from  the  falls  of  St. 
Anthony  downward,  no  primitive  (or  hypogenous)  rocks  appeal*, 
except  in  the  low  ridges  of  the  Ozark  Mountains,  which  have  a 
hilly  prominence,  owing  to  the  excavation  of  the  valley;  but  their 
summits  scarcely  rise  above  the  plane  of  the  general  slope,  sup- 
posing that  it  were  extended  with  an  even  descent  to  the  Atlantic. 
They  range  from  Red  River  to  St.  Louis,  parallel  to  the  Allegha- 
nies,  and  consequently  make  an  angle  with  the  Rocky  Mountain 
chain.     Coal  measures  crop  out  on  their  flanks. 

Of  the  forty  degrees  of  latitude  which  intervene  between  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Arctic  Sea,  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi 
occupies,  as  we  have  seen,  about  one  half;  and  the  whole  drainage 
of  that  portion  west  of  the  Alleghanies  is  accumulated  in  one  great 
channel,  which  is  directed  southward  and  a  little  eastward.  From 
the  head  of  Lake  Superior  northward,  there  is  a  series  of  great 
transverse  excavations,  occurring  in  succession,  on  to  Great  Bear 
Lake,  which  lies  under  the  Arctic  circle ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that 
nearly  all  the  lake  basins  f  of  these  valleys  commence  in  the  Silurian 
strata,  and  are  continued  into  or  entirely  across  a  belt  of  primitive, 
or  hypogenous,  and  metamorphic  rocks, t  which  extends  from  Lake 

careful  and  accurate  investigation,  Sir  Charles  Lyell  decided,  that  in  the 
whole  of  North  America,  chalk  strata,  from  the  Maestri^'^t  beds  down  to 
the  gault,  alone  occurred ;  and  Mr.  Ferdinand  Romer,  as  ae  result  of  his 
highly  valuable  and  accurate  researches  in  Texas,  goes  the  length  of  con- 
sidering all  the  strata  in  that  region,  already  so  far  removed  from  the 
Atlantic  coast,  as  entirely  of  the  upper  division,  and  not  even  touching  on 
the  gault.  This  peculiarity  is,  however,  singularly  enough,  limited  to 
North  America  alone.  Even  in  Mexico  deeper  chalk  beds  occur ;  and 
Darwin  saw  cretaceous  shells  in  abundance  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  near 
Port  Famine,  in  53°  south  latitude." — SiUifnan''s  Journal,  Sept.  1850. 

*  Vide  Journ.  p.  194. 

t  This  grand  series  of  lakes  forms  the  line  of  canoe  navigation  from 
Canada  northward ,  and  the  fact  of  its  position  in  the  fracture  between  lime- 
stone and  granite,  was  perceived  and  recorded  by  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie. 

t  My  imperfect  acquaintance  with  the  science  of  geology  renders  me  in- 


fi 


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344 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Superior  to  the  shores  and  iulnnds  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  western 
limit  or  strike  of  this  formation,  which  I  have  traced  for  more  than 
1400  geographical  miles,  has  a  general  course  of  north  30°  W.,  its 
rhumb  lino,  consequently,  inclines  slightly  toward  the  axis  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  intercepted  space  grows  narrower  to- 
ward the  north. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Apalachian  chain,  running  parallel  to  the 
Atlantic  coast  for  a  thousand  miles  up  to  its  termination  in  the 
Shickshock  and  Notre  Dame  Mountains  of  the  promontory  of 
Gaspe,  and  having  a  direction  of  north  46°  £.,  diverges  from  the 
Rocky  Mountain  axis  at  an  angle  of  72°.  These  are  the  three 
chief  pyrogenous  systems  of  North  America,  the  Ozark  Hills  being 
of  lesser  account,  and  coinciding,  as  has  been  said  above,  in  direc- 
tion with  the  Alleghanies. 

The  middle  belt  of  primitive  rocks  mny,  both  from  its  position 
and  diagonal  direction,  be  distinguished  as  the  intermediate  primi- 
tive or  hypogenous  formation.  Its  altitude  nowhere  entitles  it  to 
the  appellation  of  a  mountain  chain.  Its  hypogenous  rocks,  which 
are  chiefly  granite  and  gneiss  associated  with  trap,  scarcely  rise 
above  the  mean  eastern  slope,  and  do  nut  present  acute  peaks  or 
continuous  elevated  ridges.  They  exhibit  generally  rounded  or 
dome-shaped  summits,  or  form  oblong  eminences,  which  are  sepa* 
rated  from  one  another  by  narrow  inclined  valleys.  Most  of  these 
valleys,  and  the  larger  ones  without  exception,  are  occupied  by 
lakes,  which  are  often  deep;  and  the  proportion  of  water  in  the 
district  is  very  great,  probably  considerably  exceeding  that  of  the 
dry  land. 

The  rivers  that  traverse  the  intermediate  primitive  belt  (and  for 
ten  degrees  of  latitude  all  the  rivers  that  originate  high  on  the 
prairie  slope  do  so)  form,  on  entering  it,  lake-like  expansions,  which 
are  studded  with  rocky  islets,  and  send  long  winding  arms  into  all 
the  neighboring  valleys.  These  dilatations  have  little  or  no  cur- 
rent, but  they  are  connected  with  each  other  by  one  or  more 
straits,  in  which  the  stream  is  turbulent  and  rapid,  and  the  overfall 
frequently  great  enough  to  produce  a  cascade.  The  tortuous  arms 
of  such  expansions  often  wind  for  many  miles  through  the  country; 
and  the  Indian,  by  making  short  portages  from  one  string  of  lakes 
to  another,  may  travel  with  his  canoe  in  every  direction,  as  far  as 
the  formation  extends.     Sometimes  a  river  forks  in  this  rocky  dis- 

competent  fully  to  appreciate  the  worth  of  the  several  systems  that  profess 
to  explain  the  mode  in  which  the  beds  forming  the  crust  of  the  earth  have 
been  formed;  neither  have  I  exclusively  adopted  any  of  the  current  opin- 
ions :  I  would  therefore  be  understood  to  use  the  terms  "  primitive," 
"hypogenous,"  and  "metamorphic,"  as  designations  of  the  rocks  so  called 
by  geologists,  and  not  as  pxponents  of  theories. 


..^m^'^^'i^ 


PRIMITIVE  ROCKS. 


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trict,  nnd  its  brnnches  running  far  npnrt,  just  ns  they  would  in  nn 
alluvinl  delta,  unite  again,  intercepting  a  considerable  tract  of  coun- 
try of  the  prevailing  character,  that  is,  having  a  predominance  of 
water  surface.  Examples  of  this  peculiarity  occur  in  the  River 
Winipeg,  which  conveys  the  waters  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to 
Lake  Winipeg;  also  in  the  discharge  of  the  latter  sheet  of  water 
by  Nelson  River  and  Play-Green  Lake ;  as  well  as  in  some  of  the 
expansions  of  the  Missinipi  or  Churchill  River.  Instances  also  of 
lakes  having  more  than  one  outlet  are  not  rare  in  this  formation ; 
and  now  and  then,  though  comparativel}'  very  seldom,  these  out- 
lets lead  to  distinct  river  systems. 

On  the  east  side  of  Lake  Winipeg  the  width  of  the  primitive) 
belt  is  about  two  hundred  geographical  miles;  and  from  the  sum- 
mit of  an  eminence  which  rises  only  a  few  hundred  feet  above  the 
general  level,  but  yet  is  sufficiently  conspicuous  to  have  obtained 
the  distinctive  appellation  of  «the  Hill,"  thirty-six  lakes  may  bo 
counted.  In  many  localities,  where  the  knolls  are  denuded  of  soil, 
the  surfaces  of  the  rocks  are  evenly  ground  down,  and  are  some- 
times smooth,  polished,  and  striated. 

By  a  rough  measurement,  the  centre  of  this  formation  on  the 
53d  parallel  of  latitude  is  found  to  be  between  700  and  800  geo- 
graphical miles  from  the  Rocky  Mountains;  the  Great  Canndian 
lake  district  is  of  equal  width ;  and  Labrador  on  to  Newfoundland 
and  the  eastern  shores  of  Nova  Scotia  occupy  a  similar  space  in  the 
map.  Now  assuming,  as  we  have  done,  and  as  the  observations 
of  the  topographical  surveyors  of  the  United  States  entitle  us  to 
do,  that  the  height  at  which  the  gentle  eastern  slope  of  the  conti- 
nent commences  is  2500  feet,  and  supposing  the  descent  to  be 
equable,  we  should  have  an  altitude  above  the  sea  in  the  country 
from  whence  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi  proper,  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  the  Red  River  of  Lake  Winipeg  issue,  of  1800  feet. 
The  actual  elevation  of  that  district  is  between  1400  nnd  1500 
feet,*  and  the  only  marked  hilly  eminence  in  the  district,  which 
is  named  the  hauteur  des  terres,  and  is  said  to  consist  of  drift-sand 
and  boulders,  does  not  appear,  from  the  descriptions  we  have  of 
it,  to  rise  more  than  300  feet  beyond  the  general  level.  The  sum- 
mits, therefore,  of  this  tract  of  land,  distinguished  though  it  be  by 

*  Schoolcraft  estimates  the  height  of  Itasca  Lake,  from  which  the  Mis- 
sissippi issues,  at  1490  feet  above  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Major  Long,  who 
ascended  the  St.  Peter's,  a  head  branch  of  the  Mississippi,  reckons  the 
altitude  of  the  short  portage,  which  separates  its  sources  from  those  of 
Red  River,  at  1400  feet;  and  my  own  barometrical  observations  and 
estimates  place  the  summit  of  the  water  route  between  Lakes  Superior 
and  Winipeg,  traversed  by  the  Expedition,  at  1460  feet  above  the  tide 
level  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 

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niYSICAL  GEUGRAPIIY. 


filiedding  its  waters  into  three  separate  river  systems  and  as  many 
different  seas,  are  also  subordinate  to  the  general  eastern  slope  of 
the  continent. 

Before  naming  more  particularly  the  transverse  basins  which 
cross  the  intermediate  belt  of  primitive  rocks,  I  may  state  that  the 
Mackenzie,  inferior  indeed  to  the  Mississippi,  but  yet  a  river  of 
the  first  class,  running  in  an  opposite  direction,  drains  seventeen 
degrees  of  latitude  into  the  Arctic  Sea,  taking  its  course  through  a 
valley  which  differs  in  its  character  from  that  of  the  Mississippi, 
as  the  details  of  progress  of  the  exp^^dition  through  it  have  already 
shown.  In  this  place  it  will  be  suKicient  to  recall  to  mind  that 
from  Methy  Portage  {Portage  la  Loche)  to  the  seo,  a  distance  of 
1400  geographical  miles,  the  fall  is  about  900  feet,  the  successive 
portions  of  the  river  being  designated  the  Washacummow,  Elk  or 
Athabasca,  Slave,  and  Mackenzie  rivers. 

Two  other  rivers  of  magnitude  cross  the  Arctic  circle,  viz..  Buck's 
Great  Fish  River,  which,  originating  near  Great  Slave  Lake  at  an 
altitude  of  150  feet  above  itf  surface,  runs  east- northeast  into  the 
Arctic  Sea,  draining  the  northeastern  corner  of  the  continent;  and 
the  Yukon,  which,  rising  to  the  westward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
not  far  from  the  union  of  the  Francis  and  Lewis,  which  form  the 
Pelly,  flows  first  to  the  north,  and  after  receiving  a  large  tributary 
named  the  Porcupine,  to  the  westward,  falling  into  Beering's 
Sea,  where  it  is  known  to  the  Russians  by  the  name  of  the  Kwich- 
pack. 

A  glance  at  the  map  will  show,  that  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
continent  the  water  basins  generally  maintain  the  northeasterly 
inclination  of  the  Alleghanies,  while  further  to  the  westward  the 
basins  of  the  two  great  rivers  assume  a  parallelism  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  and  that  the  influence  of  the  intermediate  hypogenous 
formation  has  been  of  a  different  character,  the  rivers  winding 
their  way  across  it,  sometimes  with  a  southerly,  sometimes  with  a 
northerly  inclination,  seemingly  indicating  the  obstruction  offered 
by  the  harder  rocks  to  the  ogent  by  which  the  river  channels  were 
excavated.  On  emerging  from  the  belt,  the  lower  parts  of  the 
rivers  generally  incline  toward  the  northeast,  with  a  considerable 
degree  of  parallelism  to  each  other  before  they  fall  into  Hudson's 
Boy.* 

*  A  study  of  the  map  will  show,  that  the  lake  basins  north  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  have  generally  their  long  axes  across  the  river  courses  to  which 
they  respectively  belong,  and  that  many  assume  a  greater  or  less  degree 
of  parallelism  to  the  intermediate  primitive  belt.  Perhaps  movements  of 
elevation  or  depression  had  occasioned  an  extensive  disruption  of  strata 
along  the  western  border  of  the  hypogene  rocks,  previous  to  the  removal 
of  the  Silurian  beds  on  the  excavation  of  the  lake  valleys. 


BOLRCE4J  OF  THRKK  CHEAT  KIVKR  HVSTKMri. 


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The  peculiar  coiifigunilion  uf  the  continent  which  I  hnvo  en- 
deavored to  sketch  must  be  duly  considered  by  any  one  who  en- 
deavors to  detect  the  agency  by  which  the  river  valleys  and  lake 
basins  were  excavated.  It  is  not,  however,  my  purpose  to  enter 
upon  the  discussion  of  this  question,  or  to  speak  of  the  partial  and 
often  repeated  elevations  and  depressions  by  which  the  lacustrine 
and  fluviatile  terraces  have  been  accounted  fur;  nor  would  a  sum- 
mary of  this  kind  admit  of  the  necessary  elucidations.  I  shall 
merely  say  that,  adopting  the  opinion  of  the  United  States'  geolo- 
gists, tnat  they  are  basins  of  excavation,  I  consider  them  all  to  be 
of  the  same  epoch,  and  that  the  currents  or  waves  of  translation, 
if  such  they  were,  must  have  had  an  easterly  direction  in  the  mid- 
dle latitudes,  and  gained  strength  as  they  rolled  toward  the  Atlan- 
tic, when  they  svi'ept  away  wholly  or  partially  the  fossiliferous  de- 
posits that  once  covered  the  primitive  rocks  of  Hudson's  Bay, 
Canada,  and  the  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States ;  the  former 
extent  of  the  newer  rocks  being  indicated  by  the  patches  which 
remain.  By  a  singular  coincidence  of  a  political  with  a  natural 
limit,  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States,  or  the  49th  par- 
allel, marks  the  line  on  the  great  prairie  slope,  where  the  current 
took  a  southerly  direction,  to  excavate  the  wide  and  magnificent 
valley  of  the  Mississippi.  A  similar  diversion  of  the  excavating 
force  northwards  would  producd  the  basin  of  the  Mackenzie,  com- 
mencing on  the  53d  parallel,  but  in  a  district  narrowed  and  dis- 
turbed by  the  approximation  of  the  intermediate  primitive  rocks  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Supposing  the  continent  to  have  retained  its  present  form  since 
the  era  of  these  excavations,  it  seems  scarcely  possible  to  reconcile 
the  existence  of  extensive  glacial  action  with  any  modification  of 
climate ;  yet  the  smoothened  surfaces,  streaks,  and  furrows  re- 
ferred to  that  action,  whether  in  the  form  of  glaciers  or  of  drift 
ice,  are  of  no  rare  occurrence,  wherever  durable  rocks  show  them- 
selves, between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Arctic  Sea. 

In  connection  with  the  excavations  of  the  North  American 
continent,  the  fact  may  be  mentioned  of  the  great  indentations  of 
the  coast  line,  including  Hudson's  Bay,  the  Gulfs  of  St.  Lawrence 
and  Mexico,  and  the  Caribbean  Sea  being  on  the  east  side ;  while 
breaks  of  the  west  shore,  to  the  south  of  the  peninsula  of  Alaska, 
are  comparatively  small,  and  both  coasts  of  South  America  are 
nearly  entire. 

The  geologists  of  the  New  York  Survey  consider  that  the  pres- 
ent continent  of  North  America  was  constructed  from  the  debris 
of  land  lying  more  to  the  eastward.  Mr.  Hull,  speaking  of  the 
strata  exposed  between  the  Hudson  and  the  Mississippi,  states 
that  they  contain  organisms  which  must  have  lived  in  the  bed  of 


:  «' 


I 

i 


1 1% 


I 


^»^ 


348 


PHY8ICAI,  r.i:OGU.\I>liV. 


tho  ocfltin,  nnd  that  the  chief  source  of  tlie  sediinentHry  depopits 
lay  to  the  east  nnd  southeHst.     To  the  westward,  the  sedimentary 
rocks  are  of  a  finer  grain,  nnd  at  the  same  time  diminish  in  quantity, 
while  the  carbonate  of  lime  increases,  indicating,  in  conjunction 
with  the  contained  fossils,  the  bottom  of  an  ocean  of  greater  depth 
and  more  quiet  condition.     The  cretaceous  and  tertiary  deposits 
of  the  western  prairies  show,  according  to  the  geologist  just  quoted, 
that  the  eastern  part  of  the  continent  was  first  elevated,  and  thnt 
the  older  rocks  in  the  west  were  subsequently  overlaid  by  the  new 
deposits.      However  that  may  be,   the  occurrence  of  the   chalk 
fossils  and  tertiary  deposits  in  their  present  position  and  altitude 
clearly  indicates  that  the  elevation  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain 
was  one  of  the  latest  of  the  grent  movements  that  have  occurred 
in  this  continent.     It  is  to  the  westward  of  these  mountains  only, 
along  the  Pacific  const,  and  in  the  peninsula  of  Alaska,*  nnd  the 
Aleutian  chain  of  islands,  that  recent  volcanic  action  can  be  traced. 
The  existence  of  coal  measures,  containing  ferns  and  other  plants 
of  a  tropical  character,  in  Jameson's  Land  and  Melville  Island,  in 
the  high  latitudes  of  71°  nnd  75°,  is  n  curious  fact,  to  be  accounted 
for  by  those  who  theorize  on  the  ancient  condition  of  the  surface 
of  the  earth ;  and  the  vast  accumulations  formed  at  a  later  epoch  in 
the  Siberian  Sea  and  Kotzebue's  Sound,  of  fossil  bones  of  mam- 
moths, rhinoceri,  and  other  animals,  which  do  not  exist  in  Arctic 
regions  at  the  present  day,  and  the  preservation  to  this  date  of 
some  of  their  undecomposed  carcases,  are  equally  interesting  facts, 
which  need  explanation. 

VALLEY    OF    THE    ST.    LAWRENCE. 

The  first  in  order  of  the  great  transverse  excavations,  and  the 
grandest,  is  the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  which  has  a  length 
equal  to  the  whole  course  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  contains  by  fai 
the  greatest  accumulation  of  fresh  water  in  the  world.  It  has  no 
connection  with  the  drainage  of  the  prairie  slopes  in  the  same 
parallels,  which  is  performed  b}'  the  Missouri  and  its  numerous 
affluents  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  by  the  Saskatchewan  and 
its  tributaries,  aided  by  the  upper  feeders  of  the  Mackenzie.  It 
differs  from  the  three  great  lacustrine  basins  which  succeed  it,  in 
its  head  lying  within  or  to  the  eastward  of  the  termination  or  elbow 
of  the  »>  intermediate  primitive  rocks."  The  position  of  this  head, 
or  as  it  is  well  named  from  its  elevation  above  the  other  members 
of  the  basin,  Superior  Lake,  is  midway  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  its  water-surface  is  641  feet  above  the  level 


f 


*  Spelt  thus,  and  also  Alashka  in  Cook's  Third  Voyage, 
and  Russian  authors  wiile  the  word  AUaxrhka. 


The  French 


« 


LAKES   MICHIGAN,    IIIJRrtN,    AMI   I-IRIR. 


3i0 


\ 


of  the  tide.*  The  other  grent  Inkes  descend  Buccessively  in  the 
following  order  of  their  heights  nbove  the  sen:  Lakes  Huron  and 
Michigan,  600  feet:  Erie,  5G5  feet;  Ontnrio,  492  feet;  and  Lake 
Champlain,  93  feet. 

At  the  west  end  of  Lake  Superior,  and  on  its  northern  shores, 
several  promontories,  having  an  altitude  of  from  800  to  1000  feet 
above  the  water,  give  a  mountainous  character  to  the  const  when 
seen  from  the  surface  of  the  lak'j,  but  which  it  is  far  from  possess- 
ing when  viewed  in  relation  to  the  country  lying  behind  it.  It  is 
such  as  would  result  from  tl.e  excavation  of  the  bnsin  by  the  re. 
moval  of  the  softer  rocl«'s  which  have  covered  the  granites,  por< 
phyries,  and  trfijH  of  these  eminences.  The  silurian  beds,  not 
having  been  so  extensively  broken  up  to  the  westward  of  the  Fon 
du  lac.  envelop  the  pyrogene  nucleus  po  as,  in  conjunction  with 
recent  arenaceous  depo.~it8  and  drift,  to  <^over  it  on  that  flank  al- 
most to  the  summit.  Fr-im  ti  is  locality,  which  is  rather  a  plateau 
than  a  mountainous  district,  issue  tht-  feeding  streams  of  the  three 
several  river  systems — of  the  Missiejippi,  St.  Lawrence,  and  Sas- 
katchewan— as  has  been  m^^ntioneri  in  a  preredin  ,;  page. 

If  we  trace  the  south  side  of  the  St.  L  .'vrenco  basin  from  this 
quarter,  we  find  that  already  on  the  upp>  i  .'me  it  assumes  a  diO'er- 
ent  aspect,  being  composed  chiefly  of  sandstone,  md  having  less 
elevation  than  the  north  bank.  L  ke  Michigan  .uns  far  to  the 
southward  among  the  silurian  st  ata,  dntering  as  it  were  into  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi.  So  small  is  the  elevation  of  thc>  .uund 
between  the  Fox  River  which  falls  into  Green  Bay  on  the  west 
side  of  that  lake,  and  the  Wisconsin,  a  tributary  of  the  Upper  Mis- 
sissippi, that  in  times  of  flood  a  barge  may  float  readily  from  one 
stream  into  the  other.f  A  very  moderate  elevation  in  like  manner 
separates  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michigan  from  the  Illinois,  an- 
other affluent  of  the  Mississippi,  so  that  a  depression  of  600  feet 
would  produce  a  communication  between  the  waters  of  the  Gulf 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  those  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  through  the 
Illinois  valley. t     Th''  basin  of  Lake  Huron  is  excavated  in  the 

*  Some  discrepancy  ..«  la  between  the  heights  assigned  to  this  lake  by 
different  authors.  We  have  taken  that  deduced  by  Captain  Lefroy  from 
barometrical  measurements  made  in  connection  with  the  observatory  at 
Toronto.  Dr.  Hoi:,(i;hton,  the  Michigan  geological  surveyor,  estimates  ita 
height  at  641  {e  y.  ■  but  he  makes  the  descent  from  it  to  Lake  Huron  45 
feet,  while  Professor  Henry  reckons  this  descent  at  only  18  feet,  which 
must  be  under-estimated.  Mr.  Logan,  in  1847,  sets  down  the  height  of 
Lake  Superior  as  597  feet,  having  adopted  for  the  height  of  Lake  Michigan 
578  feet,  from  Professor  Henry.  In  the  height  of  Erie  and  the  inferior 
lakes  authors  are  generally  agreed. 

t  Featherstonhaugh. 

X  A  depression  of  thrice  that  amount  would  carry  the  ocean  to  the  west- 


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PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Bilui'ian  strata,  and  the  great  promontory  which  divides  it  from  Lake 
Michigan  is  said  to  be  a  deposit  of  old  red  sandstone  inclosing  the 
extensive  coal  measures  of  Saginaw.  The  lake  shores  are  bold, 
but  not  mountainous. 

Lake  Erie  has  lower  shores,  and  is  the  shallowest  of  the  series. 
Its  bed  and  much  of  its  northern  margin  is  formed  of  the  cornifer- 
ous  limestone,  one  of  the  upper  members  of  the  Silurian  rocks. 
Mr.  Hull  remarks  that,  had  the  eroding  agency  removed  this  bed, 
and  penetrated  to  the  soft  strata  of  the  Onondaga  salt-group,  Erie 
would  probably  have  been  the  deepest  of  the  lakes.*  The  southern 
brim  of  its  basin  is  so  low,  that  an  easy  canal  communication  has 
been  opened  to  the  Ohio,  a  tributary  of  the  Mississippi ;  and  other 
water  connections  might  be  made  with  facility.  Lake  Ontario  oc- 
cupies a  hollow  in  the  silurian  rocks  inferior  to  those  of  the  Erie 
basin ;  f  and  the  country  which  lies  to  the  south  of  it  has  in  general 
a  level  character,  though  the  Clinton  and  Niagara  groups  of  rocks 
rise  in  places  in  high  escarpments. 

For  a  full  account  of  the  heights  of  the  southern  border,  the 
whole  valley  of  the  great  lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  for  de- 
tailed descriptions  of  the  rock  formations,  the  reader  may  consult 
the  several  geological  surveys  published  under  the  authority  of  the 
legislatures  of  New  York,  Michigan,  and  Ohio  :  the  preceding  brief 
notices  have  been  extracted  therefrom  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
the  general  character  of  the  country,  and  the  lowness  of  the  bar- 
rier which  separates  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Law- 
rence. I  may  add,  as  a  further  exemplification  of  the  passes  on 
the  south  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  that  a  subsidence  of  400  feet 
would  cause  the  waters  of  Lake  Ontario  to  flow  through  the  val- 
leys of  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson  into  the  Atlantic,  and  at  the  same 
time  convert  Lake  Champlain  into  a  maritime  strait,  thereby  form- 
ing islands  of  the  State  of  New  York,  the  New  England  States, 
and  of  the  British  colonies  of  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia. 

Before  we  proceed  to  trace  the  northern  bank  of  the  valley  of 
the  >Jt.  Lawrence,  it  will  be  convenient  to  notice  more  particularly 
Lake  Champlain,  since  it  is  there  that  we  have  an  approximation 
of  the  Apaiachian  chain  to  the  primitive  rocks  which  form  the 

em  border  of  the  prairie  islands,  leaving,  as  insular  ranges,  the  summits 
of  the  Alleghanies  and  their  continuation  in  Vermont,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Gaspe,  with  a  few  peaks  in  the  hilly  region  of  New  York,  which  lies 
between  Lakes  Ontario  and  Champlain  ;  while  the  primitive  masNCH  on  the 
north  of  Lake  Superior  would  be  mere  reefs,  over  the  highest  of  which  du 
agitated  sea  would  dash  its  spray. 

*  Hall,  p.  408. 

t  In  the  Medina  sandstone,  gray  sandstone,  the  Hudson  River  group  of 
■hales,  and,  toward  its  eastern  extremity,  in  the  Trenton  limestone. — Hall- 


I'll 


LAKE   CHAAIPLAIX. 


3£1 


northern  brim  of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin,  and  unite  with  the  in- 
termedinte  belt  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior. 

Dr.  Emmons*  estimates  the  length  of  the  valley  of  Lake  Chnm- 
plain  at  180  miles,  and  its  average  width  at  about  twenty.  Its  bed 
is  most  depressed  between  West  Point,  Burlington,  and  Port  Kent, 
where  its  soundings  reach  600  feet,  or  500  below  the  surface  of 
the  ocean. f  It  is  in  fact  a  deep  chasm  with  a  very  abrupt  slope  on 
the  western  side,  and  a  more  gradual  one  on  the  eastern  bank. 
The  direction  of  the  lake  is  north  and  south ;  it  opens  into  the  St. 
Lawrence  basin  on  the  north,  and  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk  crosses 
its  axis  at  some  distance  on  the  south.  The  summit  level  of  the 
canal  which  connects  it  to  the  Hudson  is  only  147  feet  above  the 
tide ;  and  a  depression  to  that  amount  would  cause  the  waters  of 
the  ocean  to  flow  through  it  from  New  York  Sound  into  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence. 

The  New  York  highlands,  bounded  by  Lake  Champlain,  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  Lake  Ontario,  are  formed  of  primitive  granite, 
hypersthene,  and  limestone  rocks,  which  constitute  many  striking 
and  picturesque  groups  of  conical  peaks.  Among  these  Mount 
Marcy  rises  6467  feet  above  the  tide;  Meunt  M'Intyre,  5183; 
Mount  Seward,  5100;  Mounts  Martin  and  Santanoni,  each  5000  ; 
and  Whiteface,  Taylor's  Mountain,  and  Nipple-top  are  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  lower.  These  highlands  extend  into  Canada,  where 
they  form  a  mountain  belt  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  wide,  along 
the  sources  of  the  Chaudiere  and  St.  Francis.|  They  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  neighboring  districts  of  the  State  of  New  York  by 
the  river  and  lake  valleys  named  above  ;  and,  being  impassable  for 
an  army.  Lake  Champlain  was  the  only  route  by  which  the  Atlantic 
States  could  be  assailed  from  Canada  East,  or  vice  versa ;  hence  the 


*  New  York  Geol.  Survey. 

t  The  lake  lies,  as  has  been  stated  in  a  preceding  page,  93  feet  above 
th-»  tidal  waters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  :  hence  the  fall  of  the  St.  John  or 
Richelieu  River,  which  discharges  its  waters  just  above  the  tidal  level,  may 
be  estimated  at  1 0  inches  in  the  mile ;  and  the  descent  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence from  Lake  Ontario,  excluding  the  comparatively  currentless  expan- 
sions of  the  Thousand  Islands'  Lake  and  Lake  St.  Francis,  is  nearly  in  the 
same  ratio.  These  facts  may  aid  in  the  calculation  of  the  inclination  of 
the  beds  of  sitnilar  rivers.  With  the  same  view,  I  may  add  that  the  fall 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  between  Kingston,  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario,  and 
Montreal  is  220  feet,  in  a  distance  of  160  geographical  miles  in  a  straight 
line,  of  v.'hich  a  considerable  part  is  lake-way,  which  gives  an  averag*j  of 
16  inches  in  the  mile. 

t  Orford  and  Sutton  Mountains  are  each  reckoned  at  more  than  4000 
feet  high.  The  latter  is  the  summit  of  a  wide  hilly  tract,  composed  of 
ohloritic  and  micaceous  schists  and  gneiss. — Hunt. 


;■!, 


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r-r.-y  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHy. 

celebrity  of  its  defiles  in  the  annals  of  colonial  and  revolutionary 
warfare. 

The  valley  of  the  lake  is  excavated  in  the  lowest  group  of  the 
Silurian  rocks.  The  Potsdam  sandstone,  together  with  a  greenish- 
white  marble,  and  a  trap-rock,  are  quarried  extensively  at  White- 
hall, situated  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  lake,  for  the  double 
purpose  of  clearing  sites  for  houses,  and  procuring  building  stones. 
In  various  parts  of  the  lake  shores,  the  silurian  rocks  are  covered 
with  beds  of  clay  and  sand,  in  which  there  have  been  detected 
about  twenty  species  of  marine  shells,  which  exist  in  a  living  state 
on  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  at  the  present  time.  The  general 
character  of  the  scenery,  and  especially  of  the  upper  half  of  the 
lake,  is  bold,  hilly,  and  picturesque,  often  rocky,  but  occasionally 
cliffs  of  clay  and  sand  100  feet  high  border  on  the  water.  The 
shores  are  low  and  shelving  only  in  the  bays,  which  are  formed  by 
short  lateral  valleys. 

The  State  of  Vermont  lies  along  the  east  side  of  the  Champlain 
Valley;  and  the  country,  as  it  recedes  from  the  lake,  rises  grad- 
ually into  the  acclivities  of  the  Green  Mountains,  whhh  are  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Allegbanies,  and  are  prolonged  into  the  Shick- Shock 
and  Notre  Dame  Mountains  of  the  promontory  of  Gaspe  on  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence.* 

*  Mr.  Hunt,  of  the  Canada  geological  survey,  says  that  "  the  vv^holo  of 
the  Green  Mountain  Rocks  belong  to  the  Hudson  River  group,  with  the 
possible  addition  of  a  part  of  the  Shawagunk  conglomerates.  The  fossil- 
iferous  rocks  of  the  St.  Francis  valley  are  referrible  to  the  Niagara  lime- 
stones of  the  upper  silurian  beds  :  a  similar  formation  exiuts  at  Gaspe,  and 
has  been  traced  1.50  miles  southwest  (in  the  direction  of  the  Green  Mount- 
ains) ;  and  from  the  similarity  of  Notre  Dame  (Gaspe)  to  the  Green  Mount- 
nins,  and  the  fact  that  the  Hudson  River  rocks  flank  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
the  Cape  Rosiere  (Gaspe),  we  may  conclude  that  the  upper  silurian  rocks 
will  be  found  to  be  nearly  continuous  throughout.  Resting  upon  this 
formation,  in  Gaspe,  is  a  body  of  arenaceous  rocks,  7000  feet  thick,  which 
apparently  correspond  to  the  Chenumg  and  Portage  group  of  New  York, 
with  the  old  red  sandstones.  A:<  this  formation  is  found  extending  quite 
to  the  Mississippi,  it  is  probable  that  it  will  accompany  t^e  silurian  rocks 
through  New  England,  surrounding  the  coal-fields  of  New  Brunswick,  and 
of  eastern  Massachusetts,  and  Rhode  Island.  To  this  may  be  referred,  in 
part,  the  rocks  of  the  White  Mountains,  which  may  sweep  around  the 
western  border  of  Massachusetts'  anthracite  formation,  until  lost  under  the 
Huper-carboniferous  rocks  of  the  Connecticut  River.  The  limestones  of 
western  New  England  seem  to  be  no  other  than  the  metamorphic  Trenton 
limestones  of  Phillipsburg ;  while  the  chlorito-epidotic  rocks  and  serpentines 
of  Sutton  valley  appear  again  in  the  rocks  of  southern  Connecticut,  betveen 
these  limestones  and  the  new  red  sandstone;  With  such  a  kfy  to  the 
structure  of  the  metamorphic  rocks  of  New  England,  and  of  the  great 
Apalacbian  chain  of  which  these  form  h  part,  wc  may  regard  the  ditricultie^j 


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ST.  LAVVRENX'E   BASIN. 


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The  predominating  rocks  on  this  slope  are  an  alternation  of  argil- 
laceous slates,  with  slnty  and  fine  grained  sandstones,  and  shaiey 
grits  belonging  to  the  Hudson  River  group.  In  breaking  down,  the 
shales  produce  a  cold,  clayey,  retentive  soil,  much  less  favorable 
Un:  agricultural  purposes  than  the  "  birds'-eye"  and  other  limestones 
which  crop  out  nearer  the  shores  of  the  lake.* 

With  respect  to  the  northern  slope  of  the  St.  Lawrence  valley, 
a  reference  to  the  map  will  show  that  the  brim  of  the  basin,  where 
its  feeding  streams  have  their  source,  is  generally  about  150  geo- 
graphical miles  from  the  centre  of  the  lake-way  from  Ontario  up- 
ward, and  considerably  further  oft'  from  the  river  channel  lower 
down.  The  bays  of  the  great  lakes,  in  many  places,  curtail  the 
breadth  of  the  slope  ;  and  it  is  every  where  exceeded  in  breadth 
by  the  northern  slope  toward  Lake  Winipeg,  James's  Bay,  and 
Hudson's  Straits.  It  will  also  be  perceived  that  the  valley,  with 
reference  to  its  northern  bank,  makes  an  acute  bend  of  which  the 
west  end  of  Lake  Erie  forms  the  elbow ;  the  lower  or  eastern  arm 
being  parallel  to  the  Alleghany  range,  while  the  upper  one  takes 
more  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  an- 
gular form  of  the  basin  is  in  conformity  with  the  course  of  the 
primitive  rocks  from  Labrador  to  Lake  Superior,  where  they  blend 
with  the  "intermediate  belt."f  The  general  level  of  the  ridge 
formed  by  these  rocks  does  not  exceed  the  height  of  700  feet  above 
the  river  or  lake  surface;  but.  partaking  of  the  general  eastern  slope 
of  the  continent,  it  attains  a  height  of  about  1400  feet  above  the  sea 
CD  the  north  side  of  Lake  Superior.!     The  course  of  the  St.  Law- 


that  have  long  environed  the  subject  as  in  a  great  degree  removed,  and  the 
bold  conjectures  as  to  their  metamorphic  origin,  which  have  been  from  time 
to  time  put  forth,  fully  vindicated." — Hunt,  Proceed.  Jim.  Assoc,  at  Cambr. 
1849,  p.  333. 

*  During  our  voyage  through  Lake  Champlain,  I  was  informed  by  a  fei- 
low-passenger  that  the  agriculture  of  Vermont  was  very  superior,  especially 
near  Burlington,  where  there  are  many  large  orchards,  and  sheep  farming 
is  extensively  pursued.  Cleared  land,  he  told  me,  sells  currently  at  forty 
dollars  (£8)  an  acre,  and  fifty  dollars  are  thought  to  be  a  high  price.  Two 
hundred  acres  form  a  good-sized  farm  in  the  opinion  of  the  neighborhood, 
and  eighteen  hundred  acres  a  very  large  property.  Many  steamers  are  con- 
stantly employed  in  summer  m  visiting  the  various  bays  of  the  lakp,  and 
carrying  the  produce  to  Whitehall,  whence  it  is  transferred  by  canal  to  the 
Hudson. 

t  The  whole  belt  from  the  Labrador  coast,  along  the  valley  of  the  St 
Lawrence,  and  northward  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  seems  to  be  a  segment  of  the 
border  of  a  great  basin  of  which  Hudson's  Bay  is  the  centre,  and  fragments 
of  its  eastern  brim  may  be  found  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Straits,  and  in 
the  islands  to  the  north. 

t  The  following  ascertained  points  may  be  noticed :  Lake  TemiHcam- 


■    i  1 


"!•: 

^ili 


r 


if 

'     i  ii 


#1] 


iif 


::l ' 


354 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAFUY. 


rence  through  Canada  East  is  conformable  to  the  general  strike  of 
the  beds  in  which  the  channel  is  excavated. 

The  geological  structure  of  the  north  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
basin,  as  ascertained  by  the  Canadian  state  survey  under  Mr.  Logan, 
has  been  summed  up  as  follows  by  his  assistant,  Mr.  Hunt:  «' A 
formation  of  sj'enitic  gneiss,  often  passing  into  mica-schist,  and  in- 
terstratified  with  crystalline  limestone,  forms  a  ridge  of  high  land 
extending  from  the  coast  of  Labrador  along  the  north  side  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  at  a  short  distance  of  from  twelve  to  twenty  miles 
from  the  shore,  until  it  crosses  the  Ottawa,  near  Bytown,  and  thence 
is  traced  across  Lake  Simcoe  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Huron,  where 
its  northern  limit  is  observed  near  the  mouth  of  the  French  River, 
while  it  again  appears  at  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  lake  in 
Matchedash  Bay.  Resting  upon  this  is  a  series  of  rocks  forming 
the  whole  north  coast  of  the  lake,  and  numerous  small  islands.  It 
is  made  up  of  sandstones,  often  coarse-grained,  and  sometimes  be- 
coming conglomerate  from  the  presence  of  red  jasper  pebbles. 
These  beds  are  associated  with  slates  and  one  or  more  bands  of 
limestone.  .  .  .  The  formation  is  much  cut  by  greenstone  dikes, 
and  exhibits  very  frequently  interstratified  beds  of  greenstone,  often 
of  great  thickness.  Both  these  and  the  sedimentary  rocks  contain 
metalliferous  quartz  veins,  of  which  the  copper  mines  of  this  region 
are  examples.  Resting  unconformably  on  the  tilted  edges  of  this 
formation,  and  in  other  places  directly  upon  the  southern  limit  of 
the  syenitic  gneiss,  appear  the  silurian  rocks,  identical  with  those 
which  are  found  in  New  York,  and  covering  the  peninsula  between 
Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Ontario.  Beginning  with  the  Potsdam  sand- 
stone, we  have,  upon  the  Manatoulin  Islands  and  the  coast  between 
Matchedash  Bay  and  Sarnia,  a  complete  exposure  of  those  form- 
ations known  as  the  Trenton  limestone,  Utica  slates,  Loraine  shales, 
Medina  sandstones,  and  the  Niagara  limestones,  with  the  rocks  of 
the  Clinton  group.  All  these  are  well  characterized  by  their  re- 
spective fossils,  and  are  spread  out  quite  undisturbed  at  a  very  gen- 
tle dip  of  about  thirty-five  feet  in  a  mile. 

«'  Passing  to  the  east,  we  find  that  the  syenitic  rocks  have  divided 
where  they  cross  the  Ottawa,  and,  taking  a  southward  course,  are 
spread  over  a  considerable  extent  of  country  between  the  Ottawa 
and  the  St.  Lawrence.     Crossing  this  river  below  Kingston,  they 

ing,  which  is  high  up  on  the  Ottawa,  and  near  the  line  dividing  the  water- 
shed of  that  river  from  the  Abitibbe  and  Moose  River,  which  falls  into  Hud- 
son's Bay,  was  ascertained  by  Mr.  Logan  to  be  612  feet  above  the  tide. 
The  dividing  portage  between  the  Ottawa  and  Lake  Nipissing  is  696  feet 
above  the  sea,  the  lake  itself  being,  according  to  Mr.  Murray,  647  feet  high. 
Lake  Simcoe  was  ascertained,  by  the  same  observer,  to  have  an  altitude 
of  704  feet  abovf  th.'  tido. — Logan  s  Grot.  Rep.  for  1848. 


\ 


ndeCi 

k,  are 

Uawa 

they 

rater- 
1  Hud- 
tide. 
|6  feet 

higb. 
Ititude 


NORTH   SHORE   OF  LAKE.  HURON. 


SOG 


constitute  tha  grenter  pnrt  of  the  Thousand  Isles,*  and  are  exten- 
sively developed  in  the  northern  counties  of  New  York." 

Mr.  Logan  gives  a  more  particular  account  of  the  north  shore  of 
Lake  Huron,  of  which  I  have  made  the  following  abstract:  ^«  The 
north  shore  of  Lake  Huron,  on  which  twenty-two  mining  locations 
have  been  claimed  of  Government,  presents  an  undulating  country 
rising  into  hills  which  sometimes  attain  the  height  of  from  400  to 
700  feet  above  the  lake.  These  occasionally  exhibit  rugged  escarp- 
ments and  naked  rocky  surfaces  ;  but,  in  general,  their  summits 
are  rather  rounded,  and  their  flanks,  with  the  valleys  separating 
one  range  from  another,  are  most  frequently  well  clothed  with 
hard  and  soft  wood,  often  of  large  growth,  and  of  such  species  as 
are  valuable  in  commerce,  in  many  places  giving  promise  of  a 
good  arable  soil.  Many  of  the  slopes  are  gentle,  and  many  of  the 
valleys  wide.  The  Thessalon,  of  the  reported  length  of  200  miles, 
and  the  Spanish  River,  of  120  miles,  flow  through  this  country, 
with  three  other  rivers  of  from  50  to  60  miles'  length  each."  With 
respect  to  the  rocks  occupying  this  country,  he  says,  that  '♦  for  120 
miles  from  the  upper  end  of  the  lake  one  great  formation,  having  a 
breadth  in  some  places  often  and  in  others  exceeding  twenty  miles, 
exists.  It  is  composed  of  sandstones,  conglomerates,  slates,  and 
limestones  ;  the  sandstones  often  vitreous,  and  presenting  the  char- 
acter of  a  perfect  quartz  rock.  ,  These  are  associated  with  green- 
stone trap  and  other  igneous  rocks,  in  the  form  of  overflows,  dykes, 
and  veins,  and  with  amygdaloidal  trap  in  layers.  The  whole  re- 
poses on  granite,  which  is  the  metalliferous  rock  of  the  district, 
and  lies  beneath  the  lowest  known  fossiliferous  beds.  The  Pots- 
dam sandstone,  Trenton  limestone,  Utica  slates,  and  Lor|pe  shales 
are  exposed  in  successive  deposits,  resting  on  the  tilted  beds  of  the 
quartz  rock  in  a  nearly  horizontal,  unconformablo  position  in  the 
Grand  Manatoulin,  La  Cloche,  Snake,  Thessalon,  Sulphur,  and 
other  islands,  and  at  the  east  end  of  the  lake.  Medina  sandstone 
and  Niagara  limestones  exist  in  certain  localities  of  the  promontory 
of  "  Cabot's  Head." 

Of  the  mining  places  above  alluded  to  by  Mr.  Logan,  the  Bruce 
mines,  situated  on  the  main  shore  behind  the  island  of  St.  Joseph, 
are  the  principal;  and,  in  1849,  when  I  was  returning  to  Canada 
in  the  month  of  September,  and  had  an  opportunity  of  visiting 

*  In  the  Lake  of  the  Thousand  Isles,  as  tho  funnel-shaped  outlet  of 
Lake  Ontario  is  denominated,  many  of  the  round-backed  hummocks  of 
granite  which  form  the  innumerable  islets  exliibit  the  parallel  furrows, 
streaks,  and  smooth  surfaces  attributed  by  some  geologists  to  glacial  action. 
Tiiis  expansion,  in  fact,  has  exactly  the  aspect  of  many  of  the  dilatations 
of  the  northern  river*  which  flow  through  the  "  intermediate  primitive  dis- 
trict." 


V 


m 


i  1 ' , 


'    f-'r. 


'J' 


,i. 


l!! 


iM' 


S0O 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


them,  160  people  were  there  emplnyed,  forming,  with  their  fam- 
ilies, a  considerable  village  population.  Mr.  Logan  calculated  that 
250  tons  of  dressed  ore  might  be  raised  monthly,  yielding,  at  an 
average,  about  15  per  cent,  of  copper.  At  present,  fuel  for  mining 
purposes  is  obtained  from  the  Pennsylvania  coal-field,  through  the 
port  of  Cleveland,  on  Lake  Erie ;  but  ere  long,  the  coal  district  in 
Saginaw  Bay,  on  the  south  side  of  Lake  Huron,  will  become  the 
smelting  place  for  both  the  Huron  and  Lake  Superior  minerals. 

To  complete  the  outline  of  the  north  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
valley,  we  may  state  that  the  primitive  rocks  continued  from  Lake 
Huron  to  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior,  form  there  the  bold  pro- 
montory of  Big  Cape  [Gros  Cap),  which  is  a  mass  of  flesh-colored 
granite  and  porphyry  rising  700  feet  above  the  water.  Poin*.  Iro- 
quois, on  the  opposite  side,  three  miles  distant,  is  600  feet  high, 
has  a  more  table-shaped  summit,  and  from  its  base  a  line  of  low 
sandy  beach  stretches  away  on  the  south  side,  sending  out  a  pro- 
jecting tongue  named  «» White-Fish  Point."  The  north  shore,  as 
seen  from  Big  Cape,  presents  a  grand  and  varied  coast  line,  deeply 
indented  by  Goulais  and  Batchewaung  Bays,  with  the  promontory 
of  Mamainse,  composed  of  rugged  and  crumbling  amygdaloid,  dip- 
ping into  the  wide  expanse  of  waters  on  the  northwest.  The 
granitic  ridge  which  skirts  the  bottoms  of  these  bays  comes  out  in 
bold  cliffs  on  both  sides  of  Michipicoten  Bay,  at  the  Otter's  Head, 
and  at  the  bottoms  of  Nipigon  and  Thunder  Bays,  projecting  also 
in  various  capes  between  them.  From  the  last  named  bay  it 
stretches  across  the  northern  bend  of  the  Kamenistikwoya  River, 
by  which  stream  the  canoe  navigation  to  the  interior  is  carried  on. 

Mr.  Ll^an  considers  the  granite,  which  frequently  passes  into 
gneiss,  as  the  base  of  the  series  of  rocks  composing  this  bank  of  the 
lake.  3.  To  this  succeeds  gneiss,  and  both  are  traversed  by  dykes 
and  veins  of  granite.  3.  The  next  in  order  are  dark  green  talcose 
slates,  and  a  pebbly  and  slaty  conglomerate.  4.  Resting  uncon- 
formably  on  these,  is  a  series  of  bluish  shales,  interstratified  with 
trap.  5.  Lastly,  white  or  spotted  sandstones,  indurated  marls, 
and  conglomerates  interstratified  with  trap.  Trap  dykes  in  vast 
numbers  traverse  all  the  beds  down  to  the  granite.  Veins  contain- 
ing copper,  lead,  zinc,  and  silver,  belonging  to  two  systems — one 
coincident  with  the  rock  masses,  the  other  parallel  to  them — occur 
in  very  many  places  on  the  north  shore.  The  courses  of  the  veins 
vary  in  different  bays,  and  Professor  Agassiz  has  shown  that  the 
outline  of  the  lake  has  a  close  connection  with  the  directions  of 
the  trap  dykes,  of  which  he  describes  six  different  systems,  each 
of  them  associated  with  one  of  the  great  curvatures  or  bays. 

A  granite  porphyry,  which  is  very  durable,  forms  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  boldest  and  most  barren  parts  of  the  north  shore  of 


LAKK   SUPERIOR. 


rj? 


so 

it 

ver, 

on. 


the  lake ;  the  projections  of  nmygdnloid,  being  more  perishable, 
assume  the  most  picturesque  shapes;  and  some  of  the  loftiest  head- 
lands are  thickly  capped  with  greenstone,  basalt,  and  other  trappean 
rocks.  The  low,  flat,  well-wooded  islands  are  mostly  sandstone. 
The  general  elevation  of  the  northern  brim  of  the  Lake  Superior 
basin  may  be  stated  at  between  800  and  900  feet  above  the  water 
surface,  and  the  distance  of  its  crest  from  the  margin  of  the  lake 
at  from  20  to  50  miles. 

Many  mining  stations  have  been  granted  to  adventurers  by  the 
Canadian  legislature,  but  workings  are  carried  on  in  three  only ; 
viz.,  one  in  Pigeon  Bay,  one  among  the  islands  of  Nipigon  Bay,  and 
the  third  in  Mica  Bay.  At  the  last  named  100  miners  were  em- 
ployed in  1849,  when  the  establishment  was  broken  up  by  a  foray 
of  Chippeways,  who  thought  that  their  territorial  rights  were  in- 
vaded.* But  little  ore  has  as  yet  been  shipped  from  the  Canadian 
side  of  the  lake.  The  export  of  native  copper  from  the  United 
States  shore  is  considerable.  In  1849,  1114  tons  of  pure  copper 
were  transhipped  at  Saut  Ste.  Mary.f 

Our  limits  will  not  allow  us  to  dwell  longer  on  the  St.  Lawrence 
basin;  t  but  with  respect  to  the  general  character  of  the  ridge 
which  divides  it  from  the  Winipeg  excavation  the  aspect  of  the 
country  traversed  in  pursuing  the  canoe  route  may  be  considered 
as  a  type  of  the  whole.  The  surface  of  that  tract  is  hilly,  the 
granite  rising  in  rounded  and  sometimes  in  rugged  knolls  abruptly 
from  lakes  or  swamps,  but  only  to  small  heights  above  the  general 
level.  Here  and  there,  but  particularly  toward  the  summit  of  the 
ridge,  there  are  considerable  deposits  of  sand,  gravel,  and  loam, 
with  many  boulders.     The  term  ridge  is  used  with  reference  to 


I  ..ill 


•I  Ml 


4'r; 


.1 .,;  ■ 


i  ■ 


con- 
with 
arls, 
vast 
tain- 
one 
)ccur 
veins 
t  the 
IS  of 
each 

jrable 
bre  of 


*  Narrative,  p.  53. 

t  The  Detroit  Free  Press  states  that,  in  1850,  the  shipments  exceeded 
4000  tons,  and  it  is  calculated  that  they  will  equal  the  whole  consumption 
of  the  United  States,  which  is  6000  tons,  in  1851.  There  are  twenty-two 
copper  companies  in  operation  on  the  Michigan  sliores,  employing  800  men. 
The  masses  of  native  copper  on  K'^vawoonan  Point  are  enormous;  but, 
from  their  very  purity,  they  can  neither  be  blasted  nor  hewn  out  in  the 
ordinary  way.  The  method  adr^  ted  at  present  is  to  use  long  iron  chisels, 
which  are  turned  slightly  by  the  hand  at  each  blow  of  the  hammer.  In 
this  way  large  slabs  weighing  'kWo  tons  or  more  are  cut  out,  to  which  not 
above  five  per  cent,  of  quartz  rock  and  other  impurities  adhere.  On  this 
point  there  are  said  to  be  parallel  ridges  of  trap  rising  through  beds  of 
sandstone.  Among  these  the  native  copper  lies  in  walls  or  veins  which 
have  two  directions,  one  running  across  the  trap  ridges  in  N.W.  6  N.  |N. 
direction,  the  other  parallel  to  the  ridges  and  strike  of  the  sandstone. 

t  Professor  Agassiz  has  devoted  a  large  volume  to  the  natural  history 
of  Lake  Superior  alone,  which  is  full  of  interesting  facts  and  comprehensive 
general  views. 


»' 


:  1 


■il 


!    J 


1 


358 


PHYSICAL  GEOGItAPHY. 


its  being  a  height  separating  two  depressions ;  but  its  summit  is  s 
marshy  plateau  of  some  extent,  across  which  narrow  winding  lakes 
afford  a  canoe  navigation  in  a  variety  of  directions.* 

This  summit  of  the  water-shed,  which,  level  as  it  is  with  respect 
to  its  water  communications,  is  rendered  very  uneven  by  the  pro- 
trusion of  numerous  granitic  masses  to  various  but  moderate  heights, 
lies  much  nearer  to  Lake  Superior  than  to  Lake  Winipeg;  and  in 
descending  toward  the  north,  the  same  rocks  appear  in  succession 
which  have  been  noticed  as  forming  the  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
valley,  the  "  bird's-eye  limestone"  of  the  Chatnplain  division  of  the 
New  York  system  being  the  newest  deposit  on  the  Winipeg  Lake. 

If  we  trace  the  water-shed  to  the  southwest,  beyond  the  head 
of  Lake  Superior,  by  the  sources  of  the  St.  Louis  and  head  waters 
of  the  Mississippi,  the  uneven  marshy  surface  gradually  merges  in 
the  sandy  prairie  lands  of  the  Red  River,  the  Saskatchewan,  and 
Missouri,  where  the  naked  rocks  disappear,  or  are  to  be  found  only 
in  the  deep  river  channels. 

The  manner  in  which  an  elbow  of  the  «*  intermediate  primitive 
rocks,"  which  form  the  nucleus  of  the  water-shed  here  spoken  of, 
incloses  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  and  extends  along  part  of  its 
south  coast  until  lost  under  newer  deposits,  may  be  learned  from 
the  subjoined  extract  of  a  "  Report  by  Dr.  Owen,  geologist  to  the 
States  of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin."  f 

*  Vide  map  of  the  district  in  Franklin's  Second  Overland  Journey. 

t  "  The  protozoic  strata  form  sections  on  the  Mississippi  for  an  average 
distance,  in  a  direct  line,  into  the  interior  of  Wisconsin,  of  from  fifty  to 
seventy-five  miles,  or  up  to  the  low  falls  of  the  principal  eastern  tributaries 
of  that  river,  where  the  crystalline  rocks  first  appear.  In  this  part  of  the 
country  the  igneous  ranges  do  not  rise  into  elevated  mountains,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  they  are  seldom  seen  except  in  the  immediate  cuts  of  the 
streams,  being,  for  the  most  part,  covered  with  drift.  The  character  of 
the  country  generally,  toward  the  summit  levels  leading  to  Lake  Superior, 
is  a  succession  of  terraces  of  moderate  elevation,  chiefly  composed  of  drift, 
having  a  nucleus,  no  doubt,  of  granite,  syenite,  or  hornblende  rocks ;  but 
these  protrude  only  occasionally.  At  intervals  the  streams  are  ruffled  into 
rapids,  being  filled  with  boulders  which  materially  obstruct  their  naviga- 
tion. A  portion  of  these  boulders  may  have  been  transported  from  great 
distances,  but  the  greater  part  appear  not  to  be  far  removed  from  their 
parent  rock.  It  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  so  large  an  area  of  the  inte- 
rior of  this  district,  and  indeed  of  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi  generally, 
should  be  level  tamarack  and  cedar  swamps,  since,  on  approaching  a  great 
water-shed  that  gives  rise  to  one  of  the  greatest  rivers  in  the  world,  one  is 
led  to  anticipate  a  country  with  physical  features  of  quite  a  ditforent 
character.  Interposed  between  the  crystalline  and  igneous  rocks  of  the 
interior  of  the  district  and  the  lowest  sandstones,  some  green  and  r»'d 
schistose  beds  have  been  observed  at  different  localities.  These  appear  to 
have  been  derived  from  the  decomposition  and  detritus  of  the  more  easily 


I 


^1 


VALLEY  or  THE  WINIPEG. 


iiS9 


VALLEY    OF    THE    WINIPEG    OR    SASKATCHEWAN. 


The  next  great  transverse  excavation  includes  the  whole  valley 
of  the  Saskatchewan  and  Nelson  Rivers;  and  from  the  sources  of 
the  former  near  Mount  Hooker,  one  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  peaks 
said  to  be  15,700  feet  high,  to  the  mouth  of  the  latter  in  Hudson's 
Bay,  the  axis  of  the  valley  runs  in  a  direct  line  about  east- north- 
east for  660  geographical  miles.  Lake  V/inipeg,  the  principal 
lake  basin  in  connection  with  the  river,  lies  a*  r!;:ht  angles  to  that 
axis,  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain,  and  forms 
one  of  a  series  of  great  lakes  succeeding  one  another  in  a  north- 
northwest  direction.  Their  names  are  Lake  Superior,  Lake 
Winipeg,  Deer  Lake,  WoUaston  Lake,  Athabasca  Lake,  Great 
Slave  Lake,  Marten  Lake,  and  Great  Bear  Lake ;  the  northern 
coast  line  being  moreover  indented  on  the  same  bearing  by  Liver- 
pool and  Franklin  Bays. 

Lake  Winipeg  itself  is  230  geographical  miles  long  and  about 
40  wide,  but  its  width  would  be  increased  to  120  miles,  if  Moose 
Lake,  Muddy  Lake,  Winepegoos  and  Manitoba  Lakes,  which 
differ  very  slightly  from  it  in  level,  and  are  evidently  component 
parts  of  the  same  lake  basin,  were  included  in  the  measurement. 
Into  this  great  lake  the  Saskatchewan,  by  its  two  diverging  branches, 
gathers  a  wide  extent  of  prairie  drainage,  its  northern  tributaries 
being  conterminous  with  the  affluents  of  the  Elk  or  Athabasca 
River,  and  its  southern  ones  with  those  of  the  Missouri.  The 
Assinaboyn  also  traverses  much  prairie  land,  one  of  its  branches 
originating  on  the  banks  of  the  great  southerly  bend  of  the  Missouri ; 
and  the  Red  River,  which  the  Assinaboyn  joins,  rises,  as  has  been 
already  mentioned,  on  the  same  level  and  in  the  close  neighborhood 
of  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Lawrence.  The  waters 
of  the  lake  wash,  on  the  east  side  of  the  basin,  the  *'  intermediate 
primitive  rocks,"  and  find  their  way  through  them  by  anastomosing 

disintegrating  felspathic  granites.  The  lower  beds  of  sandstone  adjacent 
to  the  igneous  outburst  are  not  unfrequently  changed  to  hard  quartzite."  .  .  . 
"  The  highest  ranges  of  the  Wisconsin  side  of  Lake  Superior,  situated  from 
ten  to  sixteen  miles  from  its  south  shore,  are  estimated  to  be  near  1000 
feet  above  the  lake,  and  are  formed  of  hornblende  rocks,  metamorphic 
slates,  syenite,  and  trap.  No  organic  remains  have  been  detected  in  the 
great  mass  of  sandstone  bounding  this  part  of  the  lake  whereby  its  geo- 
logical era  may  be  determined.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi,  north 
of  the  Winebago  reserve  (Minesota),  and  as  far  north  as  St.  Peter's  river, 
limestone,  with  underlying  sandstone,  prevails  to  the  extent  of  half  a  de- 
gree of  longitude." 


i.    t 


if  r 


■AS',  I 


"4 


300  PHYSICAL  CEO<;RAriIY. 

cliHiineU  iinmod  Seu  Hlvor,  Kutcliewnn,  niid,  in  itv  tower  part,  Nol- 
80II  Kivor.  After  it  has  pnased  through  the  intermediate  belt,  it 
takes  its  way  over  silurian  Umestonoa,  and  finally  enters  Hudson's 
Bay  through  alluvial  deposits  of  some  extent. 

The  surface  of  the  lake  has  been  calculated  to  be  853  feet*  above 
the  sea,  and  its  basin  is  excavated  in  the  silurian  beds.  Along  the 
whole  eastern  shore  the  granite,  gneiss,  and  trap  rocks  are  every 
where  exposed,  the  first  named  rock  being  the  most  extensive; 
and  nowhere  do  these  masses  rise  to  the  altitude  of  hills.  On  the 
north  and  west  the  birds'  eye  limestone  is  the  prevailing  rock,  and 
forms  low  cliffs,  in  a  country  otherwise  every  where  flat ;  and  to- 
ward the  south  end  of  the  lake,  and  in  the  narrows,  arenaceous 
deposits  appear  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  granite,  trap-rocks,  and 
chlorite  slates,  having  a  close  resemblance  to  those  of  Pigeon  Bay 
of  Lake  Superior,  where  argentiferous  veins  occur.  It  is,  there- 
fore, an  interesting  quarter  for  exploration  by  the  practical  miner. 

In  ascending  from  Lake  Superior  by  the  Kamenistikwoya,  and 
its  upper  branch  named  the  Dug  River,  to  Thousand  Lakes 
{^MilLes  Lacs),  forty  portages  are  made,  in  which  the  whole  or  part 
of  the  cargo  is  carried,  there  being  besides  some  long  rapids  where 
it  is  not  necessary  to  unload ;  and  in  descending  to  Lake  Winipeg 
the  portages  are  about  fifty,  their  number  and  even  the  route  vary- 
ing with  the  height  of  water.     Thousand  Lakes  f  (Journ.  p.  62)  is 

*  Captain  Lefroy'a  observations  : — "In  the  Geological  Appendix  to  Sir 
John  Franklin's  Second  Journey,  I  estimated  the  height  of  Lake  Winipeg 
above  Hudson's  bay  at  800  feet,  which  I  considered  to  be  a  rough  approx- 
imation. Major  Long  places  it  at  the  same  level  with  Lake  Superior,  and 
the  dividing  ridge  between  the  two  basins  at  600  feet  higher ;  but,  by  the 
best  estimates  I  have  been  able  to  form,  he  makes  the  summit  of  the  ridge 
230  feet  too  low." 

t  The  height  of  this  lake  above  Lake  Superior  was  ascertained  approxi- 
mately as  follows  : 

Feet. 

Foot  of  Mountain  Portage  estimated  by  Captain  Lefroy 48 

Upper  end  of  ditto  (bar.  meas.,  Rich.) 127 

Ascent  of  river  to  Dog  Portage  (estimated,  Rich.) 1 50 

Upper  end  of  Dog  Portage  above  the  lower  (bar.  meas.,  Rich.) 332 

Ascent  of  Dog  River  to  Thousand  Lakes  (estimate) 160 

817 
Lake  Superior  above  the  sea 641 

Thousand  Lakes  above  the  sea 1458 

Owing  to  the  obstructions  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Dog  River,  the  canoe 
route  diverges  from  that  stream  at  Cold-water  Lake,  and  passes  by  the 
Prairie,  Middle,  and  Savannah  Portages,  and  a  small  itream  which  flows 


I 


P< 
C 


re 


Feet. 
48 
127 
150 
332 
160 

817 
641 

1458 


f 


IIKIGIIT  OF    \..\KV.   WINirK.r,. 


liCil 


nn  extremely  in«>;;uliir  pipcoof  water,  liiiving  many  extoiiHive  armH, 
some  of  which  aio  very  sliallow.  Mullituiles  of  iuhindt)  well  cov- 
ered with  birch,  aspen,  arbor-vitjn  {Thuya  (uridfntalis),  and  thn 
various  piiio  trees  of  the  region,  render  the  scenery  phMising.  A 
few  granite  knolls  and  mural  precipices  show  among  the  trees; 
but  many  of  the  islets  appear  to  bo  formed  of  sand,  of  which  sec- 
tions twenty  feet  high  occur.  The  lake  not  only  brandies  into 
the  neighborhood,  but  water  communications  diverge  from  it  in 
every  direction,  as  is  customary  in  the  »»  middle  primitive  bolt." 

From  the  Thousand  Lakes  the  canoe  route  keeps  on  tho  border 
of  the  primitive  rocks,  touching  on  silurian  deposits,  when  it  bends 
to  the  southward  or  westward.  At  first  it  is  flanked  on  both  sides 
by  granite.     In  Rainy  Lake  there  is  much  mica-slate;  ond  at  its 

from  the  latter  into  Thousand  Lakes.  The  heights  of  this  part  of  the 
route  are  as  follow.s  : 

Fret. 
Dog  Lake,  above  Lake  Superior 657 

Ascent  of  Dog  River 14 

Portage  to  Cold-water  Lake 2 

West  end  of  Prairie  Portage  and  Middle  Portage 161 

834 
Lake  Superior  above  the  sea 641 

Height  of  Prairie  or  of  Middle  Portage  above  the  sea 1475 

The  differenco  of  height  between  the  ends  of  the  Mountain  Portage  was 
carefully  ascertained  by  mo  with  Delcro's  barometer  in  1849.  Major 
Delafield  estimates  the  diflerence  at  125  feet,  and  Lieutenants  Scott  and 
Denny,  who  accompanied  Major  Long  in  his  voyage  up  the  St  Peter's,  at 
130  feet.  Mr.  Murr.ay,  of  the  Canadian  Geological  Survey,  m.ea.sured  tho 
actual  height  of  the  falls  here  (natned  Kakkabikkc)  from  the  smooth  water 
at  their  summit  to  the  base,  and  found  it  to  be  119  feet;  hut  at  least  8 
feet  must  be  added  to  give  the  dillerence  between  the  ends  of  the  portage, 
which  terminates  some  way  above  the  brow  of  the  cascade.  Captain  Le- 
froy  makes  the  height,  by  barometrical  measurement,  only  115  feet. 

In  1849  the  height  of  the  upper  Ci  d  of  Dog  Portage  was  ascertained  by 
nie  with  Dolcro's  barometer ;  in  the  previous  season  the  aneroid  barome- 
ter gave  328  feet  as  the  height,  which  was  a  greater  degree  of  accordance 
between  the  instruments  than  I  generally  found.  Major  Long  estimates 
the  water-shed  between  Lake  Winipeg  and  Superior  at  1 200  feet  above  the 
tide  ;  Major  Delafield  calculates  the  height  of  Cold-water  Lake  at  505  feet, 
to  which,  if  161  be  addeil  for  the  Prairie  Portage,  and  641  for  Lake  Su- 
perior, we  have  1307  feet  for  the  height  of  Prairie  Portage  over  the  sea. 
Captain  Lefroy,  by  barometrical  measurements  made  in  connection  with 
the  observatory  at  Toronto,  makes  the  west  end  of  Prairie  Portage  1361 
feet  above  the  sea ;  but  the  distance  between  the  two  places  of  observation 
renders  the  result  liable  to  some  error. 

Q 


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)  J 


n 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


I 


'ii, 


outlet  the  stream,  fulling  over  gneiss  rocks,  produces  the  cascade 
of  La  Chauditrc.  The  grontor  fertility  of  the  country  about  Nem- 
icnn  Lnko  nnd  Riiiny  Rivor  show  tho  vicinity  of  newer  fonnntions. 
In  tho  Lnko  of  tho  Woods  Dr.  Bigsby  found  tho  Pentamerus 
Knifrhtii,  a  fossil  chnrncteristic  of  the  upper  siluiian  rocks ;  but 
granite  is  the  chief  constituent  of  the  islands  and  shores  of  the 
hike.  The  River  Winipeg  flows  wholly  within  the  granite  district, 
nnd  has  tho  lake-like  dilatations  and  other  charucteristics  of  the 
streams  which  traverse  the  "  intermediate  primitive  rocks."  The 
wide  extent  of  land  which  its  reuniting  arms  inclose  is  remarkable. 
One  of  its  affluents,  named  English  River,  issues  from  Lake  Sal, 
which  lies  near  the  wator-shed,  dividing  the  Winipeg  basin  from 
that  of  James's  Bay.  Tho  Borons  River  which  falls  into  Lake 
Winipeg,  issuing  from  the  common  brim  of  the  same  basins  further 
north,  in  tho  vicinity  of  the  sources  of  tho  Severn  River,  affords  a 
canoe  route  to  Hudson's  Bay.  From  my  own  observations  in  1819, 
and  Mr.  Barnston's  at  a  later  period,  it  has  been  ascertained  that 
limestones  of  the  silurian  epoch  occur  on  the  northern  flank  of  the 
«•  intermediate  primitive  belt,"  as  well  as  in  the  basin  of  Lake 
Winipeg.  The  Red  River,  which  has  been  already  repeatedly  re- 
ferred to,  and  which  to  prevent  confusion  with  its  southern  name- 
sake it  would  be  well  to  call  Osnaboyna,  lies  wholly  to  the  westward 
of  the  "  intermediate  belt,"  and  has  a  direct  course  from  Lake 
Travers  of  300  geographical  miles.  The  sandy  ridge  named  CCteau 
des  Prairies,  or  Hauteur  des  Tcrres,  separates  its  npper  part  from 
the  Missouri  valley ;  but  the  metamorphic  rocks  which  present 
themselves  around  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributary 
the  St.  Peter,  are  also  visible  near  Lake  Travers.  In  the  lower 
part  of  Red  River  limestone  crops  out  in  one  place  only,  and  is 
quarried  by  the  settlers.  Elsewhere  the  rocks  are  concealed  by 
the  sandy  deposit  forming  the  soil  of  the  prairies,  along  whose 
eastern  border  the  river  flows.  Major  Long  enumerates  thirty  af- 
fluents of  the  Red  River,  and  its  western  branch,  the  Assinaboyn. 
The  Saskatchewan,  which  is  to  be  considered  as  the  main  feeder 
of  the  Winipeg  basin,  flows  from  a  considerable  distance  above  Pine 
Island  Lake  down  to  Lake  Winipeg  over  horizontal  beds  of  lime- 
stone, through  so  flat  a  country  that  the  river  forks  as  it  would  in 
an  alluvial  delta.  A  rich  mud  is  deposited  in  parts,  particularly  be- 
tween Pine  Island  Lake,  and  the  main  stream,  and  round  Moose 
and  Muddy  Lakes.  In  Beaver  Lake,  which  lies  immediately  to 
the  north  of  Pine  Island  lake,  the  silurian  strata  are  again  seen  cov- 
ering the  flanks  of  the  primitive  rocks ;  while  to  the  southward  an 
eminence  named  Basquiau,*  lying  at  the  distance  of  nearly  a  de- 


*  See  Journal,  p.  50. 


>yn. 
jder 
•ine 
Ime- 
|d  in 

be- 
loose 
ly  to 
Icov- 
|d  an 

de- 


VALLEYS  OP  THE  MliifllNIPI    AND  MAC  KENZIE. 


363 


groe,  Nepnrntes  the  river  vnlley  from  tho  Red  Doer  Lnke  nnd  Swnn 
River.  As  powerful  snit  springs  exist  on  this  eminence,  we  mny 
conjecture  that  it  belongs  to  the  Onondaga  Hult  group. 

I  have  been  more  particular  in  the  topographical  and  geologicnl 
remarks  on  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Saskatchewan  basins,  because 
economy  of  space  made  it  expedient  to  omit  the  details  of  the  voy- 
age of  the  Expedition  through  them.  The  remaining  districts  will 
be  more  briefly  mentioned  here,  since  the  narrative  included  many 
facts  relating  to  them. 

VALLEY   OF    THE    M'SSINIPI. 

The  next  river  basin  that  we  have  to  notice  is  that  of  the 
Churchill,  English  River,  or  Missinipi,*  the  latter,  or  Cree  appel- 
lation, being  nearly  synonymous  with  Mississippi.  This  basin,  in 
crossing  the  intermediate  primitive  rocks,  lies  nearly  parallel  to  the 
Nelson  River  or  Katchewan,  which  is  the  lower  part  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan. Deer  and  Wollnstoii  Lakes,  which  discharge  their 
waters  into  the  Churchill  Rivor,  lie  in  the  line  of  lake  basins  men- 
tioned above  as  running  northward  from  Lake  Superior;  but  their 
axes  do  not  cross  the  river  valley  so  nearly  at  a  right  angle  as  Lnke 
Winipeg  does  the  valley  with  which  it  is  connected.  Further  up 
the  Missinipi  the  Methy,  Buffalo,  Clear,  and  Isle  k  la  Crosse  Lakes, 
which  are  situated  just  to  tho  westward  of  the  primitive  rocks, 
taken  in  the  aggregate,  lie  more  in  the  plane  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
On  the  eastern  flank  of  the  intermediate  primitive  ridge  lie  Big 
Indian  and  Weskayow-washgow  Lakes,  belonging  also  to  the  Mis- 
sinipi river  system. 

The  Missinipi,  by  its  principal  feeder,  the  Beaver  River,  has  its 
source  lower  down  the  eastern  slope  than  the  Saskatchewan,  and 
drains  a  comparatively  small  extent  of  prairie  lands.  At  the  Frog 
Portage  and  elsewhere  the  two  basins  are  divided  from  each  other 
by  rocks  only  a  few  feet  high,  over  which,  in  times  of  flood,  the 
waters  pour;  so  that  the  two  may  be  viewed  as  one  great  valley 
through  which  two  large  rivers  flow,  their  trunks  running  parallel 
to  each  other. 

VALLEY   OP   THE    MACKENZIE. 

Further  to  the  north  lies  the  great  valley  of  the  Mackenzie,  ex- 
tending to  the  Arctic  Sea,  but  having  also  its  subordinate  transverse 
lake  basins,  which  differ  from  the  southern  ones  in  their  heads 
merely  entering  the  western  border  of  the  intermediate  primitive 
locks,  and  their  discharging  streams  taking  an  opposite  direction 
through  the  newer  deposits. 

*  Mist  or  mitchi,  in  Cree,  signifies  "much  or  great,"  and  nipi  "water," 
while  sipi  means  "  river." 


'Ill 


I     ! 


: 


*"   5  (l' 


m^h 


i  j 


! 


3G4 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


Methy  Portage  forms  the  dividing  brim  betwoen  the  Missinipi 
basin  and  the  Mackenzie  River  valley,  at  the  place  where  it  is 
crossed  in  the  usual  canoe  route ;  and,  though  the  country  be 
wooded,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  partial  extension  of  the  prairie 
elope.  The  strata  are  bituminous  shale*  resting  on  Silurian  lime- 
stone, and  covered  'vith  a  thick  arenaceous  deposit.  This  is  deeply 
furrowed  by  the  channels  of  the  Elk  River,  and  its  tributary  the 
Washacummow ;  but  the  lake  basiiis  which  mark  out  the  bord'^r 
of  the  intermediate  primitive  rocks  must  be  sought  for  further  to 
the  eastward.  It  is  probable  that  this  border  touches  a  straight 
line  drawn  from  Knee  Lake,  across  the  outlet  of  Athabasca  Lake, 
to  the  deep  northern  arm  of  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  onward  by 
Martin  Lako,  across  the  two  eastern  arms  of  Great  Bear  Lake, 
to  the  Copper  Mountains.  That  portion  of  the  line  which  lies  be- 
tween Athabasca  Lake  and  Methy  Portage  is  little  known,  because 
the  wa.;er  route  lies  to  the  westward  of  it.  Wollaston  and  Deer 
Lakes  already  mentioned,  will,  if  this  lino  be  correctly  drawn,  be 
situated  considerably  within  the  border  of  the  primitive  rocks;  and 
nn  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which  the  waters  occupying  the 
minor  valleys  of  that  district  communicate  with  each  other  is  af- 
forded by  Wollaston  Lake  Rending  a  itream  from  its  north  end  into 
Athabasca  Lake,  and  one  from  its  south  end  into  the  different  river 
system  of  the  Missinipj.  This  fact,  which,  as  reported  on  the 
authority  of  the  fur-traders,  is  expressed  in  Arrowsmith's  map, 
may  be  considered  as  proving  that  Wollaston  Lake  is  considerably 
elevated.  Indeed,  it  seems  to  be  high  up  on  the  water-shed  which 
separates  the  Mackenzie  valley  from  the  basin  of  Hudson's  Bay. 

According  to  Captain  Lefroy's  measurements  and  estimates, 
Methy  Lake  is  about  1540  feef  above  the  sea ;  and  I  ascertained 
the  summit  of  Methy  Portage  road  to  be  188  feet  higher  than  the 
lake  ;  while  the  Washacummow,  or  Clear-water  River,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  portage,  is  590  feet  below  it,  and  by  my  calcula- 
tions 910  feet  above  the  sea.  From  Methy  Portage  westward,  the 
country,  though  deeply  furrowed  by  river  courses  and  ravines,  and 
more  or  less  thickly  wooded,  partakes  so  much  of  a  prairie  charac- 
ter that  horsemen  may  travel  over  it  to  Lesser  Slave  Lake  and  the 
Saskatchewan.  At  the  junction  of  the  Washacummow  with  the 
Elk  the  channel  of  the  river  is  sunk  925  feet  below  the  summit  of 
the  portage,  which  may  be  assumed  as  near  the  mean  level  of  the 
district,  and  is  1688  feet  above  the  sea.f 

The  Athabasca,  Red  Deer  {La  Diche),  or  Elk  River,  the  most 

*  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  shale  be  referable  to  the  Marcellua  shale 
or  not. 

t  See  Narrative,  p.  75.  Captain  Lefroy'a  estimate  of  the  height  of  Me- 
thy Lake  exceeds  mine  by  40  feet. 


1 1 


ATHABASCA  RIVER. 


363 


the 
the 

cula- 
the 
and 

nrac- 
the 
the 

lit  of 

»f  the 

most 

shale 

)fMe. 


\ 


southerly  feeder  of  the  Mnckonzie,  originates  in  tl  a  Rocky  Mount- 
ains near  Mount  Browne,  which  is  said  to  rise  15,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  and,  flowing  through  prairie  lands,  receives  the  waters  of 
Lesser  Slave  Lake,  whose  axis  crosses  its  general  course,  and 
afterward  those  of  Red  Deer  Lake.     Its  bed  is  in  many  places 
deeply  cut  beneath  the  level  of  the  prairie  plateau,  which  is  not 
separated  by  any  marked  ridge  from  the   Saskatchewan  prairie 
country.     Further  north,  the  wide-spreading  sources  of  the  Peace 
River  drain  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain  for  four  degrees  of  latitude, 
and  the  trunk  formed  by  their  union  curves  across  the  slope  to 
join  the  Athabasca  a  little  below  the  transverse  basin  of  the  Lake 
of  the  Hills.     The  Channel  of  the  Peace  River  is  cut  into  silurian 
or  Devonian  strata;  but  the  Lake  of  the  Hills,  or  Athabasca  Lake, 
runs  eastward  among  the  «« intermediate  primitive  rocks,"  and,  as 
has  been  said  above,  receives  a  tributary  stream  from  Wollaston 
Lake,  situated  near  the  water-shed  which  divides  the  basin  from 
Hudson's  Bay.     The  conjoined  stream  of  the  Peace  and  Athabasca 
Rivers  assumes  the  name  of  Slave  River,  which  flows  in  the  frac- 
ture between  the  silurian  and  primitive  rocks.     The  junction  of 
the  western  arm  of  the  river  with  Great  Slave  Lake  marks  the 
western  border  of  the  primitive  rocks,  which  is  also  indicated  oa 
tho  northern  side  of  the  basin  by  the  Fort  Providence  Inlet.     Ayl- 
mer  and  Artillery  Lakes  lie  150  feet  hi;;5her  at  the  oust  end  of  the 
lake,  into  which  they  send  their  waters;  and  in  their  immediate 
vincinity,  on  the  same  plateau,  are  the  sources  of  the  Great  Fish 
or  Back's  River,  which  falls  into  the  Arctic  Sea,  as  has  been  already 
stated.     The  streams  that  run  from  the  westward  into  Chester- 
field Inlet  must  come  from  near  the  same  place ;  and  this  inlet, 
from    its   transverse   direction,  and    east-northeast   bearing  from 
Great  Slave  Lake,  has  an  evident  connection  with  that  excavation, 
their  axes  being  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  Rocky  Mountain 
chain. 

In  Great  Slave  Lake  the  Mackenzie  is  deflected  from  the  inter- 
mediate primitive  belt,  and  flows  first  westward  then  northward, 
in  a  channel  scooped  out  of  the  upper  silurian  strata  and  still  newer 
deposits,  for  1000  statute  miles  of  river  course,  or  nearly  600  goo- 
graphical  miles  in  a  direct  line;  neither  granite,  gneiss,  nor  mica 
slate  are  seen  on  its  banks,  and  even  trap  rocks  are  rare,  if  any 
actually  occur. 

The  River  of  the  Mountains,  embracing  by  its  feeders  a  more 
northern  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain,  after  disengaging  it- 
self from  the  rugged  hills  from  which  it  draws  its  supplies,  makes 
a  northerly  bend  nearly  parallel  to  Slave  River,  and  then  joins  the 
Mackenzie  at  Fort  Simpson.  Ofthis  mountain  stream  I  have  already 
given  a  slight  notice  in  the  Narrative  (see  pp.  105,  106);  and  I 


'Ml 


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! 


1!  ^V 


! 


I 


366 


I'llVSlCAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


may  add  here  that  for  twenty-five  miles  upward  from  its  mouth  it 
flows  through  sand  and  shale,  with  limestone  occasionally  cropping 
out.  At  the  end  of  that  distance  there  is  a  rapid,  above  which 
low  wooded  points  exist,  with  at  intervals  mountain  blufTs  coming 
down  to  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  most  remarkable  of  these 
stands  at  the  influx  of  the  Noh'hanne  River,  and  is  named  the 
NoK'lianne  Bute.  It  is  the  highest  hill  in  that  quarter,  and  is  about 
seventy-five  miles  from  Fort  Simpson.  Perhaps  it  is  a  member 
of  a  range  whose  prolongation  is  seen  indistinctly  in  descending 
the  Mackenzie  about  half-way  between  Hare  Skin  River  and  Fort 
Simpson.  Messieurs  M^Pherson  and  Bell  ascended  it,  and  the 
latter  gentleman  was  seized  with  nausea  and  vertigo  before  reach- 
ing its  summit ;  so  that  its  altitude  is  probably  considerable,  but  the 
snow  disappears  from  it  in  summer.  On  its  top  there  is  a  salt 
spring,  having  a  basin  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  which  is  never  dry. 
For  this  notice  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  M'Pherson,  who  brought 
from  it  some  fragments  of  limestone  that  were  similar  in  litholog- 
ical  character  to  those  procured  at  the  Rock  by  the  River's  Side  de- 
scribed in  page  113. 

Great  Bear  Lake,  the  most  northerly  of  the  transverse  fresh- 
water lakes,  lies  about  150  feet  above  the  channel  of  the  Mackenzie, 
and  crosses  the  Arctic  circle  on  the  line  where  the  hypogenous 
and  Silurian  rocks  meet.  Coronation  Gulf  is  also  excavated  on  the 
same  line,  which  has  a  general  parallelism  to  the  Great  Slave  Lake 
series  of  excavations  enumerated  above. 

The  northerly  trending  of  the  coast  line  west  of  the  Mackenzie 
is  evidently  due  to  the  prolongation  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  whose 
successive  ridges  or  spurs  come  out  en  echelon^  diminishing  in  alti- 
tude as  they  approach  the  shore. 

The  short  western  slope  of  the  continent  from  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains to  the  Pacific  diflfers  from  the  eastern  one  in  its  configuration, 
its  river  valleys  being  all  more  or  less  transverse.  The  peculiar 
wing-like  projection  in  the  north,  toward  Asia,  is  evidently  due  to 
the  volcanic  chain  of  Alaska,  which  runs  at  right  angles  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  T  le  groat  transverse  river  valley  of  the  Yukon 
or  Kwichpack  lies  to  the  north  of  it.  The  western  sea-coast  from 
Cook's  Inlet  to  Beering's  Straits  is  delineated  in  a  map  attached 
to  Baer's  ♦*  Nachrichten  tlber  den  Nordwestktiate  von  Amerikn," 
published  in  1839,  though  it  seems  to  have  been  hitherto  netrlected 
by  our  topographers :  and  the  interior  of  Kussiaa  America  has  re- 
mained a  blank  in  our  maps.* 

*  The  newest  work  on  this  district  of  America  is,  "  Beitrage  zvx  Kennt- 
niss  der  orographischen  mid  geognostisohen  BeschafTenheit  der  Nordwefst. 
kiiste  Amcrikas,  von  Dr.  C.  Grewingk,  St.  Petersburg,  1850 ;  but  this  I  have 
not  been  abh  to  procure. 


:'HE  YUKON. 


367 


For  the  following  information  respecting  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany's land  to  the  west  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  for  some  account  of 
Russian  America  gathered  from  the  natives,  I  am  indebted  to  Chief 
Factor  M*Pherson,  Chief  Trader  Bell,  and  to  the  letters  of  Mr. 
Alex.  H.  Murray,  alluded  to  in  a  preceding  page.  By  ascending 
the  River  of  the  Mountains,  and  tracing  its  northvost  branch  to 
Lake  Frances,  a  very  elevated  mountainous  countiy  is  reached. 
In  this  the  Lewis,  which  flows  toward  tlie  Pacific,  takes  its  rise, 
its  sources  springing  to  the  eastward  of  those  of  the  River  of  the 
Mountains;  so  that  here,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  chain,  the  rivers  fulling  into  opposite  seas  interlock  at 
their  origin.  In  hit.  61°  30'  N.,  long.  130°  W.,  the  Lewis  is  joined 
by  the  River  Francis,  which  has  no  connection  v/iththe  lake  of  p.  sim- 
ilar name,  but  comes  from  Russian  Lake,  a  sheet  of  water  lying  more 
to  the  south.  At  the  junction  of  the  Francis  and  Lewis,  Mr.  Rode- 
rick Campbell  has  built  a  trading  post,  named  "Polly  Banks,"  which, 
according  to  his  experiments  with  the  boiling  water  thermometer, 
is  elevated  1400  feet  above  the  ocean.  The  united  streams  take 
the  name  of  the  Pelly,  which  falls  into  the  Pacific,  probably  into 
Tchilikat  or  Lynn  '^'f  lal,  but  the  exact  situation  of  its  mouth  has 
not  been  ascertained.  Native  traders  come  from  the  head  of  Tchi- 
likat to  Pelly  Banks  in  a  fortnight. 

From  the  same  elevated  district  in  whicli  the  Lewis  or  Pelly 
and  the  northwest  branch  of  the  River  of  the  Mountains  take 
their  source,  the  Yukon,  a  river  of  great  magnitude,  issues ;  and 
for  a  considerable  part  of  its  course  flows  to  the  north,  through  a 
country  which,  as  far  as  I  can  judge  from  the  descriptive  notices 
of  it  which  I  have  collected,  closely  resembles  the  valley  of  the 
Mackenzie.  Mr.  Murray  was  disposed  at  one  time  to  identify 
this  river  with  the  Colville,  which  falls  into  the  Arctic  Sea  about 
120  miles  to  the  east  of  Point  Barrow;  but  more  recent  and  full 
native  information  leads  him  now  to  conclude  that  it  flows  toward 
Norton  Sound ;  and  one  of  the  officers  of  the  Enterprise,  in  a  pri- 
vate letter  which  has  been  published,  states  that  the  Russians  have 
established  its  identity  with  the  Kwichpack,  which  fells  into  Beer- 
ing's  Sea  between  Cape  Stephens  and  Cape  Romanzofl*.* 

*  The  following  is  an  extract  of  a  letter  to  me  from  Mr.  Murray,  dated 
May,  1850,  on  the  Yukon  : — "  My  account  of  the  course  cf  this  river,  also 
a  sort  of  chart  I  made  of  it  from  the  description  given  by  the  Indians, 
might,  perhaps,  lead  you  to  have  a  wrong  impression  respecting  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  1  am  now  convinced  that  it  is  not  the  same  with 
the  Colville.  and  I  have  for  some  years  suspected  that  its  mouth  lay  to 
the  west.  The  Russians  have  come  up  the  lower  part  of  tlie  river  regu- 
larly for  some  seasons  :  I  was  at  first  informed  that  tliey  entered  it  from 
another  river,  but  I  am  now  told  positively  by  Indians  who  went  down 


liN" 


ir>f 
hi; 


i        J 


t  -H 


''• 


368 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


i 


i 


In  1847,  Mr.  Bell,  having  heard  of  the  Yukon  fronri  the  Kutchin 
who  visited  the  fort  on  Peel's  River,  set  out  in  quest  of  it,  accompa- 
nied by  a  native  guide,  tie  first  crossed  the  mountains  to  a  stream 
termed  the  Rat  River,  on  which  an  outpost  named  La  Pierre's 
House  has  since  been  built.  This  post  is  about  sixty  miles  distant 
from  Bell's  Fort  on  the  Peel,  and  is  about  ten  miles  to  the  south- 
ward of  it.  Shortly  after  embarking  in  a  canoe  on  the  Rat  River, 
Mr.  Bell  came  to  one  of  much  larger  size  to  which  it  is  tributary, 
and  which  is  named  the  Porcupine.  Three  days'  descent*  of  this 
carried  him  into  the  Yukon,  which  it  enters  at  right  angles  in  the 
66th  parallel,  and  in  the  supposed  longitude  of  147}*^  west.f  At 
this  place  the  Yukon  is  Ij  mile  wide,  and  is  full  of  well-wooded 
islands,  with  a  very  strong  current  in  the  channels  which  separate 
them.  After  issuing  from  tho  mountainous  district  north  of  Pelly 
Banks,  the  course  of  the  Yukon  is,  according  to  the  Indians,  to 
the  westward  of  north  ;  and  in  one  place  where  it  cuts  a  spur  of 
the  Big  Beaver  Mountains,  it  passes  between  high  limostone  cliffd 
rosijmbling  the  "  ramparts"  on  the  Mackenzie.  Its  current  is  every 
where  more  rapid  than  that  of  the  river  just  named.  The  first  im- 
portant tributary  which  it  receives  is  the  Red  Island  River,  that 
flows  in  from  the  mountains  on  its  eastern  bank,  and  is  divided  at 
its  source  from  the  head  of  the  Peel  l)y  a  single  ridge  of  land.  Be- 
tween it  and  the  Lewis  there  is  a  barren  plateau,  whicli  the  In- 
dians cross  in  four  days,  but  on  which  they  find  no  water. t  An- 
other tributary  from  the  east  comes  in  lower  down,  and  below  that 
Deep  River  enters  from  the  west.  The  Russians  appeared  on 
this  stream  with  a  skin  boat  (baidar),  coming  overland,  it  was  sup- 

and  met  them  last  summer  that  th-  y  come  into  it  direct  from  the  sea. 
By  one  of  those  Indians  I  received  a  letter  from  the  Russians  which,  being 
in  their  own  languag'',  is  unintelligible  to  me.  Salmon  and  hooko(>nosed 
trout  (Salnw  scouleri)  ascend  the  river,  but  are  not  found  in  the  M  .jKenzie, 
or  rivers  falling  into  the  Arctic  Sea.  Again,  I  have  made  frequent  in- 
quiries of  the  '  Gens  du  large,'  or  the  northern  Indians,  who  visit  the 
Arctic  Sea  coast,  and  find  that  they  are  unacquainted  with  the  mouth  of 
the  river.  For  two  winter  days'  walking  below  the  Porcupine,  tlie  Yukon 
trends  to  the  west  and  southwest,  and  the  natives  say  that  it  flows  on  in 
the  same  direction.  I  .am  therefore  inclined  to  believe  that  tiie  Colville  is 
a  smaller  river,  and  that  the  Yukon  emptits  its  waters  into  Norton 
Sound." 

*  In  returning  from  the  Yukon  against  the  stream,  by  tracking  the 
canoe,  nine  days  were  reqiured  to  reach  Rat  River. 

t   By  Mr.  Rxurray's  courses  and  distances. 

t  There  is  a  district  in  Sih-^ria  on  which  neittie"  pnow  nor  rain  is  said 
to  fall.  This  may  be  a  sintilar  one;  for  it  can  .scarcely  be,  in  so  rigorous 
a  climate,  that  melting  snow,  if  it  exists,  should  not  leave  ponis  uf  water 
all  the  suuuncr. 


\./i 


COURSE   OF   THE   YUKON. 


369 


in- 
the 
|h  of 
ikon 
|)n  in 
lie  is 
Irton 

the 


lyald 
Irons 
later 


posed,  from  the  Copper  River  or  Atiia,  which  joins  the  Pacific  in 
Comptroller's  Bay.  From  below  the  "ramparts,"  which  are  reck- 
oned to  be  about  seventy  miles  above  the  influx  of  the  Porcupine, 
the  Yukon  flows  to  the  northwest  through  a  flat  country ;  but 
twenty  or  thirty  miles  below  the  mouth  of  that  tributary  it  again 
cuts  a  spur  of  the  Beaver  Mountains,  trending  at  the  same  time  to 
the  southwestward  and  westward,  and  finally  issuing  in  Beering's 
Sea,  under  the  Eskimo  appellation  of  Kwichpack,  as  has  been 
mentioned  above.  Below  the  Big  Beaver  Mountains  it  receives 
from  the  south  the  "  River  of  the  Mountain  Men,"  which  runs 
parallel  to  the  main  stream  for  some  distance  before  enterin'^  it. 
From  thence  to  the  sea  the  Kwichpack  flows,  according  to  the 
natives,  through  a  low,  marshy,  and  very  sparingly-wooded  country. 

Mr.  Murray,  in  his  letter  to  me  quoted  above,  mentions  his  in- 
tention of  exploring  the  Vukon  as  far  as  he  had  leisure  to  do  so  in 
the  summer  of  1850;  and  it  was  probably  the  report  of  his  party 
having  been  seen  which  induced  Captain  Collinson  to  land  Lieu- 
tenant Barnard  and  Mr.  Adams  at  FNirt  Michaelowsky,  that  they 
might  ascertain  who  the  white  men  were. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  only  of  North  America  does  volcanic  action 
exist  at  the  present  time.  Many  peaks  throwing  out  fire  and 
smoke  are  mentioned  by  Brter.  They  lie  in  a  line  running  west- 
southwest  from  the  north  side  of  Kanai  or  Cook's  Inlet,  through 
the  peninsula  of  Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Islands.  Many  of  their 
summits  rise  into  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  Among  these  lUl- 
mSn  has  a  height  of  13,151  feet,  and  WinkelhOhe  of  11,270,  both 
lying  on  the  north  bank  of  Cook's  Inlet.  In  Alaska  there  is  the 
Peak  of  St.  Paul,  atid  in  the  islands  Schischaldin,  which  is  8953  feet 
high,  besides  Schimaldin,  Makuschkin,  Korowenskische,  and  many 
others.  The  line  in  which  these  volcanic  peaks  lie,  when  prolonged 
to  the  eastward,  strikes  the  Big  Beaver  Mountains  on  the  Yukon. 

Mounts  Edgecumbe,  Fairweather,  and  St.  Elias  are,  I  believe, 
extinct  volcanoes,  which  form,  with  those  of  Alaska,  nearly  the 
segment  of  a  circle. 

On  the  side  of  the  Atlantic,  modern  volcanic  rocks  occur  in  Jan 
Mayen's  Island  only,  whose  principal  mountain,  Beerenberg,  rises 
6870  feet  above  the  sea.  In  the  coal  of  Jameson's  Land,  lying  in 
north  latitude  71°  on  the  east  side  of  Greenland,  and  in  that  of 
Melville  Island,  in  latitude  75°  north.  Professor  Jameson  found 
plants  resembling  fossils  of  the  coal  fields  of  Britain.  This  fact  ia 
sufficient  of  itself  to  raise  a  world  of  conjecture  respecting  the  con- 
dition of  the  earth  when  those  ancient  fossils  were  living  plants.  It 
the  great  coal  measures,  containing  similar  fossil  vegetable  forms, 
were  deposited  at  the  same  epoch  in  distant  localities,  there  must 
have  existed,  when  that  deposition  took  place,  a  similarity  of  con- 


i' 


I  i 


t   'i 


11 

!11 


V 
1»  i 


I 


■4  0 


h. 


I 


370 


PHYUIC'AL  GEOGRAPHy. 


E! 


dition  of  the  North  American  continent  from  latitude  75°  down  to 
40^* 

In  concluding  this  sketch  I  shnil  advert  to  the  distribution  of  the 
fossil  remains  of  mammalia,  and  especially  to  those  of  the  mam- 
moth.    Teeth  of  this  animal  have  been  discovered  on  the  banks  of 
several  rivers  in  Russian  America,  north  of  Mount  St.  £lia8 ;  and 
there  is  a  celebrated  locality  in  Kotxebue  Sound  where  the  thawing 
and  waste  of  frozen  cliffs  is  continually  exposing  the  bones  and 
tusks  of  mammoths  and  other  quadrupeds.     Dr.  Bucklnnd,  in  his 
interesting  account  of  the  specimens  collected  at  this  place,  on 
Captain  Beechey's  voyage,  enumerates  fragments  of  bones  of  mam- 
moths, and  of  the  urus,  the  legrbone  of  a  large  deer,  and  a  cervical 
vertebra  of  some  unknown  animal,  different  from  any  that  now  in- 
habit Arctic  America.     Along  with  these  there  were  found  also  the 
skull  of  a  musk  ox  and  some  bones  of  the  reindeer  in  a  more  recent 
condition  than  the  others.     In  Asia,  from  the  Don  to  Beering's 
Straits,  on  the  banks  of  all  the  great  rivers,  bones  and  teeth  are 
still  more  plentiful,  the  local  deposits  being  richer  and  more  exten- 
sive the  more  we  advance  to  the  north.    They  are  especially  abun- 
dant on  the  islands  north  of  Sviatoi  Noss  (Sacred  Cape),  lying  be- 
tween the  73d  and  76th  parallels ;  and  some  of  these  islands  seem 
to  consist  in  a  great  part  of  organic  remains,  which  fill  more  space 
than  the  matrix  in  which  they  lie.     The  soil  containing  them  is 
frozen  as  hard  as  a  rock;  and,  as  it  thaws  annually,  the  bones  drop 
out  or  are  quarried  by  the  natives.     From  time  immemorial  this 
has  been  proceeding,  and  the  ivory  hunters  have  been  obtaining 
their  annual  supply  without  any  sensible  diminution  of  the  store 
they  draw  from.    Some  tusks  found  in  New  Siberia  weigh  480  lbs., 
and  from  that  island  alone  the  merchants  of  Yakutzk,  in  1821,  ob- 
tained 20,000  lbs.  weight  of  this  fossil  ivory.     Though  the  tusks  of 
the  mammoth  {Elephas  primigenus)  are  chiefly  sought  for,  bones 
and  teeth  of  other  animals  are  found,  and  among  the  rest  those 
of  the  Rhinoceros  licorinus,  of  which  the  skulls,  flesh,  and  skiu 
with  its  hair,  have  been  procured.     The  remarkable  discovery,  in 
1799,  by  a  Tungusian,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lena,  of  the  entire  car- 
cass of  a  mammoth,  in  excellent  preservation,  is  well  known.    The 
existence  of  the^e  numerous  testimonials  of  an  ancient  fauna  is 
suggestive  of  maay  curious  speculations,  and  geologists  seem  hith- 
erto to  have  failed  in  explaining  the  circumstances  under  which  ac- 
cumulations 40  vast  could  occur  in  such  high  latitudes.     The  diffi- 
culty is  increitsed  when  we  consider  that  these  bones  have   not 
been  detected  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky  T.Iountains  in  the  northern 

*  The  coal  of  Vancouver's  Island  and  Oregon  belongs,  it  is  said,  to  the 
great  coal  measurea. 


''ll 


^  "^ 


BOULDERS. 


371 


latitudes.  None  hnvo  hitherto  been  found  in  Rupert's  Land,  though 
the  annual  wnste  of  the  banks  of  the  large  rivers  and  the  frequent 
land  slips  would  have  revealed  thetn  to  the  natives  or  fur  traders 
had  they  existed  even  in  small  numbers.  They  are  rare  also,  or 
altogether  wanting,  in  Canada,  but  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi 
the  bone-licks  are  well  known  as  most  extensive,  and  furnishing 
the  remains  of  a  diflerent  series  of  extinct  quadrupeds. 

The  existence  of  the  skull  of  a  musk  ox  in  Kotzebue  Sound  is  of 
much  interest.  This  relic  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  the  naturalists  who  have  compared  it  with  recent  skulls  of  the 
animal  brought  from  Melville  Island  or  ChurchiP,  perceive  no  dif- 
ference. But,  as  the  species  is  not  known  to  frequent  any  district 
to  the  westward  of  the  Mackenzie,  the  transport  of  any  of  its  bones 
in  modern  times  to  Kotzebue  Sound  can  not  be  readily  accounted 
for. 

In  a  preceding  page  I  have  alluded,  in  a  general  way,  to  the  dis- 
tribution of  boulders  on  the  eastern  pruirie  slope  and  in  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi.  The  journal  of  the  voyage  shows  that  these 
are  every  where  present  in  the  north.  The  surface  soil,  the  beds 
of  rivers,  and  sea-shore  abound  in  them.  I  noticed  them  also  in 
various  places  accumulated  in  clusters,  forming  small  eminences  of 
from  10  to  100  yards  in  diameter,  and  from  8  to  20  feet  high. 
These  may  be  ice-borne  boulders.  The  usually  circular  form  of 
the  heaps  militates  against  their  being  glacier  moraines.  Such 
collections  are  of  frequent  occurrence  on  the  borders  of  Great  Bear 
Lake,  and  in  the  valleys  that  separate  the  spurs  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains — several  hundred  feet  above  the  present  levels  of  the 
lakes  and  rivers.     They  also  occur  in  more  southern  localities. 


ih- 


.;.'! 


the 


t ; 


ii 


3; -J 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


No.   II. 
CLIMATOLOGY. 

Snow  line— Ground  Ice — Thcrmometricul  Observations  in  the  Valley  of  the  St. 
Lawrence — Comparative  Temperature  of  the  two  sides  of  the  Continent — Phe- 
nomena of  the  Seasons  at  Penevanguishene  :  at  Fort  William :  at  Fort  Van- 
couver.— Thermometrical  Observations  in  the  Valley  of  the  Saskatchewan — On 
the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  Continent  in  that  Parallel — Phenomena  of  the 
Seasons  at  Cumberland  House  :  at  Carlton  House  :  at  Marten's  Falls  on  Alba- 
ny River — Themiomf  trical  01)servations  on  the  Missinipi,  and  in  the  same  par- 
allels on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  Continent — Themiometrical  Observations 
in  the  Valleys  of  the  Mackenzie,  Yukon,  and  Pelly — Progress  of  the  Seasons  at 
Fort  Franklin — Thermometrical  Observations  on  the  Arctic  Seas — Generul  Re- 
marks— Nocturnal  Radiation. 

The  remarks  which  follow  on  the  climate  of  North  America 
have  reference  especially  to  the  districts  through  which  the  Expe- 
dition traveled,  some  general  facts  being,  however,  illustrated  by 
observations  made  in  other  quarters. 

The  course  of  the  snow  line  has  always  engaged  the  attention  of 
travelers,  who  have  ascended  high  mountain  ranges,  or  penetrated 
into  Polar  regions.  Nowhere  on  the  route  of  the  Expedition  is  the 
snow  permanent;  not  even  on  the  summits  of  that  part  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  which  skirts  the  Mackenzie.  Snow  may  indeed 
be  occasionally  found  in  summer  which  has  drifted  into  some  nar- 
row ravine,  or  undrr  a  high  cliff  with  a  northern  exposure;  but 
these  patches  are  of  small  extent,  and  have  no  general  influence  on 
the  temperature  of  the  district  in  which  they  occur. 

In  lat.  65°  N.,  the  snow  remains  continually  on  the  ground  from 
the  middle  of  October  till  the  beginning  of  May,  at  which  time  the 
Hoil  begins  to  appear  after  it  has  been  covered  up  for  2t0  days. 
The  Liickness  of  the  snowy  covering  materially  affects  the  depth 
to  which  the  low  winter  temperature  can  be  traced  into  the  sub- 
soil. In  places  of  small  extent,  sheltered  from  cold  winds,  and 
having  a  good  drainage,  with  a  southern  aspect,  the  vernal  rays  of 
the  sun  assist  in  removing  the  snow  early ;  while  a  retentive  clay, 
even  in  lower  and  more  southern  localities,  produces  a  tardy  sum- 
mer and  late  frosts.  Such  are  the  hypogenous  or  primitive  dis- 
tricts, which  from  their  cold  climate  and  ungenial  soil  have  been 
justly  named  '•  barren  grounds,"  and  are  analogous  to  the  terra 


from 
the 
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and 
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1  terra 


SNOW   LINE 


damnata  of  Lapland,  described  by  Linn<eii9;  or  the  tundras  of 
Arctic  Siberia;  in  such  tracts  the  snow  falls  early  and  remains 
long.  The  active  vegetation  of  forest  lands  reacts  on  the  soil ;  ex- 
cited by  the  sun's  rays,  the  trees  are  roused  from  their  winter's 
sleep,  while  the  soil  is  still  as  hard  as  a  rock,  and  the  snow  disap- 
pears sooner  from  over  their  roots  than  elsewhere.  At  the  Equator 
the  permanent  snow  line  is  said  to  vary  from  15,000  feet  of  altitude 
to  20,0uC,  to  sink  to  3800  on  the  60th  parallel  of  latitude,  and  to  be 
one  foot  high  on  the  75th  parallel.*  The  latter  assumption  does 
not,  however,  accord  with  observations  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 
In  no  arctic  district  to  which  man  has  yet  penetrated,  is  there  a 
permanent  covering  of  snow  through  any  wide  extent  of  low  coun- 
try. Even  at  Spitzbergen,  only  nine  degrees  from  the  Pole,  there 
is  a  summe»'  in  whicli  vegetation  proceeds,  of  which  we  have  wit- 
nesses in  the  flora  and  fauna.  The  well-fed  herds  of  reindeer, 
which  that  hyperborean  land  maintains,  must  find  '^rass  and  lichens, 
whereon  they  fatten.! 

On  the  north  side  of  Lake  Superior,  the  duration  of  the  winter's 
snow  is  less  by  at  least  sixty  days  than  it  is  in  lat.  65°  N.,  that  being 
the  difference  due  to  nbout  twenty-seven  degrees  of  latitude.  In 
favorable  seasons,  at  Melville  Island,  in  lat.  74^°  N.  and  long. 
110°  W.,  the  snow  toward  the  end  of  June  lies  only  in  the  valleys 
where  it  had  drifted  deeply,  and  the  level  meadows  remain  un- 
covered for  seventy  days,  or  till  the  beginning  of  September.  In 
Regent's  Inlet,  which  is  more  to  the  eastward,  the  snow  dissolves 
less  rapidly;  and  at  Igloolik,  still  further  east,  notwithstanding  a 
ditference  of  51°  of  southing,  the  soil  is  uncovered  for  a  still  shorter 
period,  furnishing  an  illu  tration  of  the  depression  of  temperature 
on  the  eastern  coast,  on  which  some  observations  will  be  made  in  a 
subsequent  page.  The  subjoined  tables  will  furnish  the  dates  of 
the  disappearance  of  the  snow  in  the  spring,  of  various  more  south- 
ern localities. 

The  opinion  held  at  no  distant  date  by  eminent  meteorologists, 
that  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  freezing  poirjt  of  water 
coincides  with  the  snow  line,  has  been  satisfactorily  disproved  by 

*  Von  Buch  states  the  height  of  the  snow  line  at  the  North  Cape 
(Europe)  at  2275  Prussian  feet. — Meyen,  Geog.  of  Plants. 

t  The  Herald  Island,  discovered  by  Captain  Kellett  in  lat.  71°  13'  N., 
long.  175°  23'  W.,  to  the  north  uf  Bcering's  Straits,  is  1200  feet  high, 
and  consists  of  granite  precipices  to  the  height  of  900  feet,  and  then  a 
succession  of  terraces,  on  which  there  grows  a  turfy  vegetation.  Eight 
speeies  of  plants  were  gathered  from  these  terraces,  viz.  a  Hrpatica,  Poa 
ardica  and  another  grass,  Artemisia  horealis.  Cocfilcria  fcnestrata,  Saxi- 
fraga  laurentiniana,  a  moss  and  a  red  lichen,  which  covered  the  rocks. 


m 


1  ^ 


371 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


I 


II 


observutiun.  Every  where  to  the  eaBtward  Oi  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains,  the  isothertntil  of  32°  V.  is  below  the  fifty-seventh  parallel  of 
latitude. 

When  the  rigor  of  the  climate  of  Arctic  America  is  considered, 
the  under  limit  uf  permanent  snow  on  the  hills  appears  to  be  very 
elevated.  The  true  laws  of  the  altitude  of  this  line  have  not  yet 
been  ascertained.  Correct  measurements  have  shown  that  within 
the  tropics  the  snow  line  varies  several  thciiennd  feet,  even  in  the 
same  range  of  mountains,  according  to  its  diHorent  aspects.  The 
active  radiation  of  the  sun  in  the  continuous  day  of  an  arctic  sum- 
intM',  in  conjunction  with  the  comparatively  small  winter  deposit, 
must  tend  to  elevate  the  snow  line;  while  within  the  tropics,  the 
effect  of  a  vertical  sun  is  compensated  by  nocturnal  terrestrial  ra- 
diation, and  the  deposition  that  attends  the  sudden  cooling  of  an 
atmosphere  charged  with  moisture.  The  same  or  similar  causes 
must  tend  to  vary  the  breadth  of  the  mountain  zone,  comprehended 
between  the  summer  and  winter  snow  line.  The  east  coast  climate 
every  where  north  of  Canada  has  an  analogy  to  this  zone,  and  not 
to  its  upper  limit  or  the  permanent  snow  line. 

Another  phenomenon  intimately  connected  with  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  a  district,  is  the  »'  ground  ice*'  or  «'  permanently  frozen 
subsoil."  The  lateral  extent  of  this  substratum,  its  southern  limits, 
and  its  thickness,  are  interesting  subjects  of  inquiry.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  warmth  excited  by  the  sun's  rays  is  conducted 
slowly  and  progressively  into  the  earth,  the  effects  of  seasons  and 
years  following  like  tides,  but  becoming  less  sensible  and  less  dis- 
tinct until  they  are  blended,  and  at  a  certain  depth  vanish  altogether. 
Professor  Forbes  says,  that  "  the  decrease  of  the  annual  range  is 
common  to  the  strata  of  the  air  above  the  surface  of  the  earth  and 
ito  those  of  the  soil  beneath ;  both  ultimately,  no  doubt,  exhibit  a 
limit,  firBt  where  the  diurnal  variations  disappear,  then  the  annual." 
The  cause,  however,  he  states  is  different  in  the  two  cases;  the 
one  being  chiefly  the  result  of  the  radiation,  and  the  other  of  the 
conduction  of  heat.  The  limit  here  spoken  of,  or  the  depth  to 
which  the  periodical  changes  of  summer  and  winter  are  felt,  is  in- 
fluenced by  a  variety  of  circumstances,  and  differs  in  different 
localities.  The  temperature  of  that  limit  would  be,  it  is  supposed, 
that  of  the  mean  of  a  number  of  years  (fourteen  or  fifteen  perhaps) 
forming  a  complete  cycle  of  the  annual  variations. 

The  limit  or  commencement  of  permanently  frozen  soil,  or 
ground  ice,  is  coincident,  according  to  Biler,  with  the  isothermal 
line  of  32°  F. ;  and  its  thickness  increases  in  proportion  as  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  locality  falls  below  that  degree,  its  un- 
limited descent  being  checked  by  the  interior  heat  of  the  earth. 


' 


GROUND  ICE. 


375 


, 


ObBei'vatiuos  oft  he  temperatures  of  mines  and  of  artesian  wells 
have  established  the  fact  that  Ihe  temperature  rises  as  we  pen- 
etrate into  the  crust  of  the  earth;  but  the  rate  of  increment  has 
not  yet  been  satisfactorily  determined.  The  temperatures  of  mines 
in  the  same  district,  and  of  diflferent  parts  of  the  same  mine  at  equal 
depths,  vary  greatly.  Some  authors  fix  the  increment  at  one  de- 
gree of  Fahrenheit  for  every  forty-five  feet  of  descent,  after  the 
superficial  stratum  which  is  directly  influenced  by  the  solar  heat 
has  been  passect. 

At  Yakutzk,  in  Siberia,  on  the  sixty-second  parallel,  with  a  mean 
annual  temperature  of  14°  F.,  a  woll  dug  to  the  depth  of  382  feet 
just  penetrated  the  frozen  earth,  and  the  resulting  increment  of 
heat  there  is  one  degree  for  twenty-eight  feet  of  descent.  At  Fort 
Simpson,  on  the  Mackenzie,  very  nearly  in  the  parallel  of  Yakutzk, 
but  having  a  mean  annual  temperatue  of  25°  F.,  the  frozen  sub- 
stratum was  found  to  terminate  at  the  depth  of  seventeen  feet  from 
the  surface,  the  unr^  riying  bed  being  loose  and  sandy.  The  sur- 
face soil  there  wn  .awed  at  the  close  of  summer  (19th  October, 
1837),  to  the  depth  of  nearly  eleven  feet,  so  that  the  ground  ice 
was  only  six  feet  thick. 

At  York  Factory,  on  Hudson's  bay,  in  lat.  57°,  in  October,  1835, 
recent  frosts  had  penetrated  eight  inches  into  the  soil ;  the  thaw 
due  to  the  summer  heat  extended  twenty-eight  inches  beyond  this, 
beneath  which  a  frozen  bed  seventec^n  and  ahalf  feet  thick  reposed 
on  thawed  mud  which  had  a  temperature  of  33  F.  The  mean 
annual  heat  of  this  place  is  25^  F.,  being  equal  to  that  of  Fort 
Simpson,  which  lies  five  degrees  further  north. 

At  Seven  outpost,  exactly  one  degree  of  latitude  to  the  south  of 
York  Factory,  and  on  the  same  coast  of  Hudson's  Bay,  the  surface 
had  thawed  at  the  close  of  the  summer  of  1835  nearly  to  the  depth 
of  six  feet,  and  the  frozen  substratum  was  dug  into  seven  and  a 
quarter  feet,  being  thirteen  feet  in  all,  but  not  passed  through,  so 
that  its  thickness  was  not  ascertained. 

I  have  no  information  respecting  the  ground  ice  of  the  Peace 
River  or  Saskatchewan  prairie  districts. 

At  Rupert's  House,  on  James's  Bay,  near  the  level  of  the  sea,  in 
lat.  51°  26'  N.,  long.  78°  40'  W.,  the  soil  in  an  exposed  situation 
in  the  month  of  April  was  frozen  to  the  depth  of  seven  feet;  but 
under  a  snow-drift  the  frost  had  penetrated  only  thirteen  inches 
into  the  earth. 

At  East  Main,  situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  same  bay,  in 
lat.  52°  15'  N.,  long.  78°  40'  W.,  the  ground  under  a  snow-drift 
eight  feet  thick  was  frozen  to  the  depth  of  only  ten  inches. 
The  pits  at  these  places  were  not  dug  deep  enough  to  give  any 


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23  WIST  MAIN  STMET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  MSEC 

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376 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


information    respecting  the   existence  of  a  permanently   frozen 
substratum. 

Ou  Michiskum  Lake,  which  lies  in  lat.  49°  N.,  long.  78°  W.,  on 
the  north  side  of  the  water-shed  that  divides  the  Abitibbe,  or  eastern 
branch  of  Moose  River,  from  Lake  Temiscaming  and  the  Ottawa, 
and  which  is  about  700  feet  above  the  sea,  the  frost  toward  the 
close  of  winter  had  penetrated  three  and  a  half  feet  in  a  cultivated 
field,  while  in  the  woods  not  above  six  inches  of  soil  were  frozen. 
No  search  was  made  for  a  frozen  substratum.  These  are  the  chief 
observations*  I  have  been  able  to  collect,  having  reference  to  this 
subject.  It  is  plain  that  much  more  extensive  researches  are  re< 
quired  to  enable  us  to  form  any  general  conclusions  which  can  be 
relied  on. 

Professor  Biler  informs  us  that  in  Europe  and  Siberia,  the 
farther  we  go  east,  the  more  southerly  do  we  find  the  limit  of  per- 
petual ground  ice  to  be.  In  the  environs  of  Lake  Baikal,  ice  re- 
mains at  least  in  one  locality  all  the  year.  No  permanent  ice  was 
found  at  Tobolsk  in  lat.  58°  N.,  but  Humboldt  discovered  small 
pieces  at  the  depth  of  six  feet  in  summer  in  the  elevated  district  of 
Boguslowsk,  near  the  foot  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  in  lat.  59°  45'  N. 
It  would  appear  from  these  instances  that  the  ground  ice  has  a 
more  southerly  limit  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  than  in  Siberia; 
and  that  in  America,  as  far  as  observations  go,  that  limit  follows  the 
course  of  the  isothermal  lines  which  dip  to  the  south  as  they  pro- 
ceed to  the  eastward. 


THERMOMfiTRICAL  OBSERVATIONS  IN  THE  VALLEY   OP  THE   ST. 

LAWRENCE. 

The  subsequent  tables  of  temperature  and  notices  of  the  pro- 
gress of  the  seasons  are  arranged  so  as  to  convey,  as  far  as  my  ma- 
terials go,  a  view  of  the  climates  of  the  successive  lake  basins  from 
the  St.  Lawrence  northward.  Table  II.  is  intended  also  to  illus- 
trate the  fact  that  the  climate,  on  the  west  side  of  the  continent,  is 
milder  than  in  the  eastern  States.  Fort  Vancouver  being  upward 
of  forty  miles  from  the  coast  in  a  direct  line,  its  climate  can  not  be 
culled  maritime,  and  its  temperatures  may  be  conveniently  con- 
trusted  with  those  of  Montreal,  which  is  also  situated  on  the  banks 
of  a  first-rate  river,  and  not  under  the  influence  of  sea-breezes. 

There  is  very  little  difference  in  the  latitudes  of  the  two  places, 
or  in  their  altitudes  above  the  sea;  but  the  direct  distance  between 

*  All  the  experimeutsi  made  in  Rupert's  Land,  in  1835-36;  are  detailed 
in  the  Ed.  New  Philos.  Journ.  for  January,  1841. 


VALLEY    OF  THE   ST.   LAWRENCE. 


377 


' 


them  exceeds  2200  geographical  miles.  The  difference  of  their 
mean  annual  temperatures  is,  at  least,  eight  degrees  of  Fahrenheit 
in  favor  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  is  equal  to  what  would  be  produced 
by  a  diminution  of  four  or  five  degrees  of  latitude  on  the  same  me- 
ridian. The  greater  mean  heat  of  the  Pacific  side  of  the  continent 
has  been  long  known,  and  a  reference  to  the  table  will  show  that  it 
is  mainly  due  to  the  milder  winters;  the  mean  difference  between 
the  summer  and  winter  temperatures  being  twice  as  grea  -  at  Mon- 
treal as  on  the  Oregon.  On  the  other  hand,  the  summers  are  sen- 
sibly warmer  at  Montreal.  The  notices  of  the  progress  of  the 
seasons  on  the  two  sides  of  the  continent  will  illustrate  these  facts 
equally  well.  The  early  spring  at  Vancouver,  with  the  two  inches 
of  snow  and  a  rainy  winter,  contrasts  strongly  with  the  long  dry 
winter  and  three  feet  of  snow  at  Penetanguishene,  where  the  ice 
does  not  disappear  from  the  lake  till  past  the  middle  of  April. 

Columns  1  and  2  of  the  same  table  refer  to  places  immediately 
on  the  coast,  and  Franklin  Malone  is  at  an  altitude  above  Fort 
Vancouver,  which  is  considered  to  be  equivalent  to  two  degrees  of 
mean  annual  temperature.  If  we  compare  these  columns  with 
column  4,  we  perceive  that  with  little  change  of  mean  annual  tem- 
perature, places  on  the  coast  have  a  more  equable  climate,  the 
three  winter  months  being  comparatively  milder,  and  the  three 
summer  ones  less  warm. 

Table  I.  shows  that  as  we  advance  into  the  interior,  the  heat  of 
the  sutnmer  is  kept  up,  or  even  augments,  notwithstanding  the 
elevation  above  the  sea  attained  by  ascending  the  successive  stages 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin. 

The  nature  of  the  rock  formations  has  a  considerable  influence 
on  the  climate  of  a  district.  In  the  primitive  country,  such  as  has 
been  described  in  a  preceding  page  as  abounding  in  lakes  and 
swamps,  the  climate  is  extreme,  the  winters  being  not  only  longer, 
but  also  more  severe,  the  dissolution  of  the  ice  in  such  districts 
absorbing  much  heat.  A  marked  difference  occurs  when  we  pass 
from  the  "  intermediate  primitive  range"  to  the  prairie  districts 
lying  to  the  westward  ;  for,  notwithstanding  the  greater  elevation 
of  the  latter,  the  wintei's  are  milder,  the  snow  less  deep  and  less 
durable,  the  rivers  break  up  earlier,  and  the  sap  flows  sooner  in  the 
trees.  A  corresponding  difference  in  the  vegetation  occurs ;  thd 
prairie  plants  have  much  less  of  an  arctic  aspect  than  those  of  the 
primitive  districts.  Professor  Agassiz,  in  his  work  on  Lake  Supe- 
rior, has  instituted  a  very  interesting  comparison  between  the  vege- 
tation of  that  basin  and  the  lower  and  middle  subalpine  zones  of 
the  higher  tracts  of  the  Jura,  proving  their  very  great  similarity. 
With  the  prairie  districts,  the  analogy  of  the  Jura  is  very  much 


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CLIMATOLOGY. 


less  Strong.  Many  of  the  plants  which  give  the  peculiar  character 
to  the  prairies  south  of  the  Missouri,  range  northward  to  the 
branches  of  the  Peace  River,  a  main  affluent  of  the  Mackenzie ; 
and  several  prairie  plants  enter  the  Silurian  wooded  tracts  which  lie 
to  the  westward  of  the  «' intermediate  primitive  range,"  though 
they  have  not  been  discovered  in  the  more  eastern  parts  of  the 
continent. 


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CI.IMATOLOGY. 


TABLE 


Comparative    Table    of    Temperatures    on    the    East    akd 


PERIODS. 

East  Sidk. 

Atlantic  Coast. 

St.  Lawrence  Galley. 

Maine, 

Easlport, 

Lnt  44"  M'  S. 

Long.  Wi"  «(/  W. 

Alt.  16  Feet. 

Nova  Scotia, 

Halifax, 

I.at.  44"  39/  N. 

Long.  KJ-  .18/  VV. 

Alt  16?  Feet. 

Nortli  N.  York, 

Fr.  Mnliinn, 

l.at.  44"  f,Qi  N. 

Long.  74'  23/  W. 

Alt.  645  Feet. 

Canada  East, 

Montreal, 

Lat  45"  31'  N. 

Lone.  T.-!"  36/  W. 

Alt.  60  Feet 

(1.)* 

(2.) 

(3.) 

(4.) 

Janunrv  

19-18 
22-71 
29-85 
38-72 
48-99 
56-31 
63-28 
63  24 
57-15 
4(5-33 
36-18 
24-55  . 

2000 
18-00 
25-00 
3000 
40-00 
50  00 
63  00 
7000 
5100 
51-00 
38  00 
25  00 

28-24 
26-15 
31-42 
45-08 
52-67 
60-22 
66-90 
65-45 
5517 
46  92 
32-85 
21-22 

13-03 
17-68 

.    30-89 
46-80 
53  97 

'    59-73 
6890 
68  04 
57-61 
46-50 
3158 
19-66 

Febriiarv 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

Aiieust 

Si'Diember 

Octobei' 

Novenilier 

Decenibcr 

Year 

42-41 

4008 

43-52 

42  12 

3  Winter  months 

2215 
39-19 
60-94 
46-55 

2100 
31-67 
6100 
46-67 

21-87 
43-06 
64-19 
44-98 

1695 
39-03 
67-26 
45-18 

3  Spring  nionUis 

3  Summer  months 

3  Autumn  months 

Diflerence  of  hottest  and 
coldest  months 

DifTerence  of  summer  and 
winter 

j       44-10 
38-79 

52  00 
4000 

48-66 
42-32 

55-87 
5031 

*  Columns  1, 2,  and  3  are  extracted  from  Dove's  paper,  published  in  the  Report  of  the  British 
Association  for  1847,  being  corrected  for  the  diurnal  variation  computed  for  Toronto  by 
Dove,  in  the  same  paper.  No.  4  is  abstracted  from  a  paper  by  J.  S.  M'Cord,  Esquire, 
printed  at  Montreal,  and  discussing  observations  of  temperature  for  1839  and  1840,  and 
1840-41,  12  times  daily  at  the  even  hours. 

Column  5  is  also  from  Dove's  paper,  and  is  reduced  by  his  formula. 

Columns  6  and  8  are  abstracted  from  a  year's  observations,  by  G.  B.  Roberts,  Esquire,  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  with  a  thermometer  of  Newman's  construction.  Column  6  is 
reduced  for  the  hours  of  observation,  according  to  Dove's  formula  for  Toronto.  Colunm  8  is 
transcribed  without  correction.  Oulumn  7  is  an  abstract  of  observations  by  the  Rev.  S.  Par- 
ker, also  corrected  by  Dove's  formula. 

The  subjoined  is  an  abstract  of  observations  for  seven  years,  made  by  Henry  Poole,  Esquire, 
at  Albion  Mines,  near  Pictou,  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 
Mr.  Poole  ascertained  the  minima  in  the  night  by  a  self-registering  thermometer,  and  the 
maxima  between  1  and  2  p.m.,  by  a  thermometer  hung  on  the  north  side  of  the  house,  and 
sheltered  from  the  north  winds  by  a  plantation  of  firs  at  the  distance  of  a  few  yards.    The  ub« 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  TEMPERATURES. 


381 


II. 


West  Sides  of  the  Continent  near  the  45th  Parallel. 


West  Side. 

PERIODS. 

Oregon  State. 

Fort  Vancouver,  on  the  Columbia,  60  m.  Troni  the  Sea. 

Lat.  45"  37(  N. 

Long.  122»  45/  W. 

Hours  7,  3,  9. 

Hours  8  and  8. 

Hours  7-1. 

Hour  -2  p.m. 

(5.) 

(6.) 

(7.) 

(8.) 

37-62 
42-89 
43-68 
45-55 
5344 
62-48 
6546 
65-84 
60-30 
63-23 
42-68 
42-95 

36-58 
35-37 
44-05 
50-22 
58-43 
58-72 
61-76 
63-05 
61-10 
52  62 
38-83 
34-49 

37-10 

38-98 
47-47 

48-*27 
39-23 
38-60 

4068 
44-07 
55-06 
62-50 
74-61 
7317 
75-71 
79-74 
74-27 
68-16 
48-27 
42-06 

January. 

February 

March. 

April 

May. 

June. 

July. 

August. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

Year. 

3  Winter  months. 
3  Spring  months. 
3  Summer  months. 
3  Autumn  months. 

Difference  of  hottest  and 

coldest  months. 
Difference  of  summer  und 

winter. 

51-34 

49-73 

•• 

61-91 

' 

41-15 
47-55 
64  67 
52-00 

3549 
50-90 
61-30 
50-92 

38  23 

42-21 
64-07 
76-14 
W-71 

28-28 
23-52 

28-56 
25-81 

— 

•• 

39  06 
33  93 

■  'i' 


Hi 


■ervatioDS  are  corrected  for  the  Toronto  diurnal  variation  for  an  hour  before  sunrise,  and  2  r.M 
As  there  appears  to  have  been  some  local  cause  producini;  higher  winter  temperatures  than  ip 
other  parts  of  the  cuaat,  I  did  not  think  it  expedient  tu  introduce  these  observations  into  the 
comparative  table. 


of 
6  is 
8  is 
Par- 

juire, 

ence. 

the 

and 

I  ub- 


Abstract  of  Temperatures  at  Albian  Mines,  120  Feet  above  the  Sea,  Lat.  49^  34^'  N. 
Long.  62°  42'  W.    Means  of  Maxima. 


Jan.    MfiSr. 
Feb.    51 -85 
Dec.    5111 

Marrh  52  63 
April     64'5I 
May     68-64 

June       6S86 
July         7064 
August    70  61 

Sept       62-42 
Oct         5510 
Nov.        4W98 

Year 

.   M-03 

Diir.  hot  ai  d  cold  months    . 

20-60 

Wint.  M18 

Spring  53  23 

Summer  69-04 

Autumn  66-83 

DifT.  of  summer  and  winter     . 

.     l7-8t) 

m 


''■■5)1 


'         !•: 


■'•\' 

i') 


382 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


TABLE  III. 


Table  of  Temperatures  on  Lake  Superior  and  on  the  upper  Part  of 

THE  Ottawa  River. 


periods. 


January 

Februnry 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Year 

3  Winter  months 

3  Spring  months 

3  Summer  months 

3  Autumn  months 

Difference  of  hottest  and  ) 
coldest  months { 

Difference  of  summer  and  i 
winter  months ) 


Lake  Superior. 


Fort  BrAdy, 

Saut  St.  Marv. 

Lat.  46''3r  N. 

Long.  84>»  2«'  W. 

Alt.  660  Feet. 


7,  2,  9, 

Dove 

Corrected. 


(»•) 


+18-30 
19-69 
2704 
3805 
5200 
58-61 
65-36 
64-36 
55-55 
44-75 
33-59 
22-23 


41-63 


2007 
39-04 
62-77 
44-63 


4606 
42-70 


Northeast 

angle, 

Mirliipicoten. 

Lat  47"  6H'  N. 

Long.  Sfl'  &  \V. 

Alt.  660  Feet. 


8  and  8,  by 

G.  Keith,  Esq., 

corrected  hy 

Dove's  Ibrm. 


(2.) 


Thunder  Bay, 
Fort  William. 

Lat.  48°  23>^'  N. 

Lohg.  W>  2r  W. 
Alt.  ti60  Feet. 


8  and  8, 
Corrected  by 
Dove's  furm. 


(3.) 


+1063 
16-66 
2609 
34-66 
51-H8 
55-00 
57-03 
6004 
4967 
44-92 
2901 
22-38 


38-25 


1663 
37-57 
57-39 
41-24 


49-41 
40-71 


+5-70 
8-22 
22-72 
31-42 
48-87 
58-73 
6219 
58-84 
4816 
41-88 
23-43 
18-16 


35-90 


10-75 
39  07 
59-94 
37-80 


56-49 
49-19 


L.  Temiicaming. 
H.  Bai-  Pout, 
on  the  Ottaw.i, 
Lat.  47"  ly  N. 

Long.  7il''3r  W. 
Alt.  630  Feet. 


Sunrine,  sunset, 
and  noon. 

by 

Severight,  E«q., 
corrected  by 
Dove's  form. 


(4.) 


+9-23 
18-44 
24-41 
39-04 
49  35 
62-75 
67-28 

ea-aa 

53-39 
40-83 
2597 
17-68 


38  58 


1502 
37-58 
65-23 
40-07 


5805 
50-21 


Column  1  is  extracted  from  Dove's  paper,  already  referred  to;  columns  2  and  3  are  com- 
piled from  documents  obtained  from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  ;  and  column  4  is  extracted 
from  Mr.  Logan's  Geological  Report  for  1845-6. 


y^jf^mi^'i 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SEASONS  AT  MICHIPICOTEN. 


383 


Phenomena  illustrative  of  the  Climate  of  Pcnetanguishene,  on  Lake 

Huron.* 


The  spring  sets  in  very  suddenly.  Snow  continues  until  the  latter  end 
of  April,  and  longer  in  the  forest  than  in  cleared  lands.  The  weather  in 
March  is  clear  and  cloudless,  and  the  ice,  which  in  winter  has  attained  a 
thickness  of  sixteen  inches,  begins  to  dissolve.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
month  the  sap  of  the  maple  flows,  and  the  sugar  harvest  commences. 
Flocks  of  Canada  geese  and  various  ducks  appear  about  the  same  time, 
and  are  the  harbingers  of  fine  weather.  The  ice  disappears  on  an  average 
on  the  24th  of  April.  Alders  and  various  willows  flower  about  the  middle 
of  the  month,  and  the  Hepatica  triloba  blossoms  on  the  25th.  Potatoes 
are  planted  between  the  1st  and  20th  of  May,  and  cucumbers  and  melons 
are  usually  sown  between  the  25th  and  the  end  of  the  month.  Viola 
blanda,  Xylosteum,  Leontice,  Erythronium,  and  many  other  plants,  blossom 
in  this  month;  the  forest  trees  come  all  into  leaf  about  the  16th,  and, 
about  the  19th,  the  musquitoes  begin  to  be  troublesome. 

In  the  month  of  June  the  temperature  rises  to  90°  F.  in  the  day,  and 
heavy  dews  fall  in  the  night.  Barley  and  oats  are  sown  about  the  15th, 
and  toward  the  end  of  the  month  garden  peas  are  fully  podded,  and  the 
male  flowers  of  maize  spring  up.  The  Lilium  philadelphicum  blossoms  at 
this  time. 

In  July  and  August  the  weather  is  usually  dry  and  sultry.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  former  month  Penstemon  pubcscens,  Rhus  typhinum,  gar- 
den melons,  and  cucumbers  blossom  ;  and,  toward  the  middle  of  August, 
melons  grown  without  artificial  warmth  are  ripe,  and  the  wheat  and  oat 
harvest  commences.     Maize  is  fit  for  pulling  about  the  end  of  the  month. 

In  September  numerous  flocks  of  Turdus  migratorius  and  other  birds 
arrive  from  the  north,  and  remain  for  a  time  feeding  on  the  berries  of 
various  rasp  bushes.  Maize  ripens  about  the  first  of  the  month,  and  near 
its  end  frost  destroys  the  cucumber  and  melon  vines :  forest  trees  chang.' 
their  hue,  and  potatoes  are  dug  and  stored  for  winter  use. 

The  forest  assumes  a  variety  of  autumnal  hues  in  the  beginning  of 
October ;  about  the  middle  of  the  mon  h ,  ^nany  flocks  of  geese  and  ducks 
pass  to  the  southward,  and  their  appearance  precedes  a  series  of  cold 
weather,  which  strips  the  leaves  from  the  trees.  A  fall  of  snow  usually 
occurs  about  the  2dth. 

November  is  generally  calm  and  pleasant,  and  about  three  weeks  of 
peculiar  weather,  named  the  "Indian  summer,"  occurs.  It  is  character- 
ized by  a  fog  or  haze  rising  from  the  earth,  through  which  the  sun  is  seen 
obscurely,  and  there  is  little  or  no  wind.  In  December,  the  thermometer 
sinks  a  few  degrees  below  zero,  and  much  snow  falls.  The  harbor  freezes 
in  the  beginning  of  the  month.  In  January,  the  thermometer  sinks  20 
degrees  below  zero,  and  rarely  to — 32°.  The  snow  attains  a  depth  of 
three  feet  in  the  woods,  but  the  ground  it  covers  is  not  frozen.  A  great 
fall  of  snow  takes  place  in  February,  and  there  is  usually  a  temporary 
thaw  about  the  end  of  the  month,  accompanied  by  heavy  rain,  and  occa- 
sionally by  thunder. 

*  By  the  late  C.  C.  Todd,  Esq.,  Surgeon,  R.  N. 


■if 


I 


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M 


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;.•   (■ 


lit 


''■  ^  f-  ,1 


1  ■S(i 


8S4 


CLIMATOLOGY, 


Phenomena  indicating  the  Progrest  of  the  Seasons  at  Michipicoten,  Lake 

Superior,*  in  the  year  1840. 

Jan.    19.  Open  water  in  the  bay.     Mergansers  frequenting  it. 

Feb.    14.  Bay  again  closed  by  ice. 

March  8.  Snow-birds  departed  for  the  north.  26th.  The  snow-birds  re- 
turned again,  the  weather  having  been  severe.  Domestic  hens 
began  to  lay  eggs.     Two  ducks  seen. 

Jlpr.  10.  Lake  clear  of  ice  in  Michipicoten  Bay.  12th.  Tardus  migratori- 
us  came. 

May  2.  All  the  snow  gone.  6th.  Swallows  came.  22d.  Potatoes 
planted. 

Sept.  4.  Small  trout  collecting  in  the  rivulets  to  spawn.  On  the  23d 
thpy  ceasoil  spawning.  Frosty  nights.  Potatoes  not  hurt. 
26th.  Corregonus  lucidus  spawning  in  the  river. 

Nov.  10.  Ice  beginning  to  drift  in  the  river.  18th.  The  large  trout  and 
Corregonus  albus  cease  to  spawn  here  at  this  time,  though  they 
carry  on  this  operation  later  in  other  parts  of  the  lake. 

Dec.  3.  Ice  broken  up  in  the  river.  Little  snow  lying  on  the  ground. 
13th.  Eiver  again  frozen  over.     Season  mild. 

Phenomena  indicating  the  Progress  of  the  Seasons  at  Fort  William,  Lake 

Superior,  in  the  year  1840. 

Feb.    29.  Thermometer  at  noon  rose  to  39°  F. 

March  I.  Temperature  61°  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  On  the  27th  a 
gray  hawk,  and  on  the  31st  a  barking  crow,  Corvus  americanus, 
were  seen. 

April  2.  The  sap  of  the  suga.  maple  began  to  run.  On  the  4th  small 
holes  began  to  perforate  the  ice.  On  the  9th  the  first  wild 
ducks  of  the  season  came,  and  on  the  10th  butterflies,  blue  flies, 
and  gulls  were  noticed.  20th.  The  general  thaw  commences 
at  this  period.  Ground  frozen  to  the  depth  of  3  feet  9  inches. 
21st.  Anser  canadensis,  Anas  boschas,  and  mergansers  frequent- 
ing the  neighborhood.  28th.  Heard  a  nightingale  (Tardus?). 
30th.  River  partially  open. 

May  2.  River  free  of  ice.  Bay  of  the  lake  full  of  drift  ice.  6th.  Anser 
hyperboreus  passing  in  flocks.  8th.  Musquitoes  seen.  10th. 
The  birch  tree  and  maple  budding. 

June  15.  Swallows  building  in  the  outhouses.  17th.  Sturgeons  spawning 
in  the  rapids  of  the  river.  19th.  Catastomi  beginning  to  de- 
scend the  river  from  the  rapids.  21st.  Corregonus  lucidus 
comes  to  the  entrance  of  the  river  in  shoals. 

July  3.  The  Corregoni  have  left  the  mouth  of  the  river.  15th.  Barley 
just  coming  into  ear.  Potatoes  in  flower.  The  Lepus  ameri- 
canus  having  its  second  litter  of  young.  31st.  Raspberries 
ripening. 

Aug.    8.  Red  currants  and  blue  berries  (Vaccinium)  perfectly  ripe.     10th. 

♦  By  chief  factor  George  Keith,  Esq. 


JS 
D 


at 
Ji 


Ft 

M 


A} 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SEASONS  AT  FORT   VANCOUVER. 


385 


Reindeer  begin  to  rut.      19th.   Barley   ripening.     29th.  Peas 
quite  ripe.     31st.  The  swallows  have  disappeared. 

Sept.  2.  Reindeer  rutting  season  ends.  On  the  7th  the  leaves  of  the 
birch  and  aspen  change  color.  10th.  Small  trout  begin  to 
spawn.  13th.  Potatoes,  cabbages,  turnips,  and  cauliflowers 
nipped  by  the  frost.  14th.  A  few  ducka  arriving  from  the 
north.  16th.  The  first  stock-ducks  arrived  from  the  north  this 
autumn.  20th.  Small  trout  spawning  abundantly  on  the 
shoals.  23d.  The  orioles  have  departed  for  the  south.  Canada 
geese  arriving  from  the  north,  and  gomg  southward.  30th. 
Corregonus  lucidua  at  this  date  begins  to  apavm  in  the  rapids  of 
the  river. 

Oct.  6.  The  largo  trout  begin  to  spawn  in  the  lake  at  the  Shaguinah 
Islands:  they  cease  on  the  18th.  Thunder.  7th.  Leaves  of 
the  birch  and  aspen  falling.  10th.  The  Corregonus  lucidua 
has  ceased  spawning  on  the  rapids.  14th.  Thunder,  ^nscr 
hyperboreus  arriving  from  the  north.  15th.  Passing  in  largo 
flocks.  20th.  Hail,  thunder,  and  lightning.  Plovers,  divers, 
snipes,  orioles,  geese,  and  ducks  iii  the  neighborhood.  On  the 
31st,  snow-birds  began  to  arrive  from  the  north. 

Nov.  3.  The  small  lakes  frozen  over.  On  the  9th,  the  river  (Kamenis- 
tikwoya)  covered  by  a  sheet  of  ice,  which  broke  up  again.  21st. 
The  spawning  season  of  the  Corregonus  albus  terminates. 

Dec.  1.  Ice  driving  about  in  the  lake  with  the  wind.  On  the  17th,  the 
bay  was  frozen  across  to  the  Welcome  Inlands. 

The  following  Notices  of  the  Progress  of  the  Seasons  at  Fort 
Vancouver  in  1838,*  may  be  contrasted  with  the  state  of  vegetation 
at  the  same  times  of  the  year  in  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence : 


11' 
;  III 


■  w 


I    II 


i# 


Oth. 


Jan.  2.  Short  young  grass,  aflbrding  good  pasturage  for  sheep  in  places 
that  were  flooded  in  summer.  8th.  Berry-bearing  bushes  bud- 
ding, such  as  the  wild  cherry,  black  currant,  &c.  Swans 
abundant,  ducks,  geese,  and  cranes  scarce.  10th— 12th.  Snow 
fell  to  the  depth  of  an  inch  and  a  half,  and  vegetation  was  re- 
tarded by  unfavorable  weather  till 

Feb.  17.  when  wild  gooseberry  bushes  were  observed  budding.  Between 
the  26th  of  this  month  and 

Mar.  16.  Thunder  and  hail  showers  occurred.  Ribes  sangvineum  blossom- 
ing. Trillium  grandijlorum,  having  the  local  name  in  Oregon 
of  "Herb  Paris,"  in  full  flower.  2l8t.  Apple  and  pear-trees 
budding.  The  wild  gooseberry  in  full  leaf,  and  further  ad- 
vanced than  bushes  from  England  cultivated  in  the  garden. 
24th.  The  swallow  first  noticed.  30th.  Humming-birds  ap- 
pearing ;  strawberries  flowering. 

jlpril  3.  Mahonia  in  blossom,  and,  on  the  5th,  peach-trees  flowering. 
8th.  Potatoes  that  have  lain  in  the  ground  all  winter,  begin- 
ning to  show.  11th.  Dog-wood  and  elder  in  blossom.  17th. 
Several  species  of  violet  in  flower.  20th.  Field  iris  in  flower. 
23d.  Brambles  flowering.  On  the  25th,  clover  in  bloom  ;  and, 
*  By  G.  B.  Roberts,  Esq..  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 


t 


!  '; 


3S0 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


on  the  26th,  wild  tares  flowered.  Kail  and  thunder  storms. 
28th.  Blossoms  of  the  fruit-trees  falling. 

May  1.  Lupins  in  flower,  7th.  V/ild  rose  and  eglantine  in  flower, 
12th.  Strawberries  ripening.  28th.  Fiold-peas  in  bloBsoin. 
30th.  Garden-peas  brought  to  table.     Thunder. 

June  1.  .Spring  barley  in  ear.  5th.  New  {jotatoes  raised  from  tubers, 
left  all  winter  in  the  ground,  ftt  for  table,  7th.  Oats  in  flower. 
10th.  Spring  wheat  coming  into  ear.  17th,  Bramble-berries 
ripening,  23d,  Gooseberries,  currants,  and  raspberries  ripe. 
Thunder.     26th.  Blackberries  (Vaccinium)  ripe. 

July  4.  Humming-birds  scarce  this  season.  19th.  Barley  fit  for  the 
scythe,  22d.  Winter  wheat  ripe.  28th.  House-flies  numer- 
ous, 

^ug.  3,  Oats  ripe.  7th,  Field-peas  harvested,  9th.  Foggy  mornings, 
followed  by  a  clear  sky  and  excessive  heat.  Dewless  mornings 
succeeded  by  rain,  12th.  Salmon  season  usually  ends.  Sev- 
eral cases  of  ague  occurring,  27th.  Musquitoes  very  trouble- 
some.    Geese  arriving  from  the  north, 

Sept.  7.  Hail  and  thunder.  12th.  Buckwheat  harvested,  13th,  Ague 
prevalent,  19th,  Mowed  barley  that  was  sowed  on  the  16th 
of  June — a  fair  crop,  2 2d,  Peas  sown  on  the  19th  of  June, 
on  alluvial  land,  that  was  flooded  in  winter,  now  ripe, 

Oct.  27,  The  Columbia  or  Oregon  River  unusually  low,  the  greatest  depth 
opposite  the  fort  being  less  than  fifteen  feet. 

Nov.  8.  Potatoes  killed  by  the  frost.  18th.  A  little  drift  ic«  in  the  river. 
20th.  Eain  and  sleet. 

Dec.  26,  Snow  at  this  time  two  inches  deep,  being  the  greatest  fall  this 
season,  and  less  than  usual. 


■ac 

th( 

of 

Ben 

Hu 

8 

no(i 


r 


Ju 

aft( 

con 

1 
an  1 
the 

A| 
and 
Dec 


.A-^ 


la. 

it. 
m. 

rs, 
er. 
ies 
pe. 

the 
ler- 

ig», 
ngs 
5ev- 
ble. 

Lgue 
1 6th 
une, 

epth 

river. 

this 


TKMrmATimFs  in  s.askatchrwan  valley 


387 


TABLK  IV. 


Thermometrical  Observations. — Valley  op  the  Saskatchewan. 


MONTHS  AND  SEASONS. 


June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Jnnunry  

February 

March 

April 

May 

Year 

Summer 

Autumn 

Winter 

Spring 

Diflerence  of  hottest  and  ) 
coldest  months s 

Difference  of  summer  and 
winter 


Cumberland 

HoiiM. 

L«t.  M"  ^7'  N. 

Loiiit.  l(l-3»  20'  W. 

Alt.  900  Feet. 

Menn  Temp., 

8  A.M.,  8  P.M., 

rorreited 

IfU'.*. 


Oxford  Hoiiite. 

Lat.  M*  Ml  N. 

Lotift.  OH"  iJ8/  W. 

Alt 400  Feet? 

Mean  Temp., 

7  A..M.,  Noon, 

and  n  P..M., 

corrected, 

IKM. 


62-84 

44-90 

33-15 

21-48 

7-94 

—0-89 

—8-06 

18-30 

S701 

52-59 


33-20 


62-02 

33-04 

—0-17 

32-70 


72-06 
61-79 


1753 

13-29 

—23-06 

—22-06 

—  1-90 

8-57 

28-62 

38-01 


York  Fuctory. 

Lat.  M'O/  N. 

Long.  <««  itH  W. 

Alt.  30  Feet 

Mean  Temp. 

Morn.,  Noon, 

and  F.vcning, 

corrected, 

1830. 


—0-82 
7-51 


47-07 

59-99 

54  85 

4190 

33-43 

25-17 

3-73 

-5-12 

—660 

4-77 

19-21 

33-53 


25-63 


Rupert  Hmiw 

Lat  ftl**  H>  N. 

Long.  8.-1*  40'  W. 

Alt'iO  Feet? 

Mean  Temp.. 

Sunrme,  \^  P.M. 

Simiiet, 

corrected, 

1«3'.». 


34-80 

23-33 

15  59 

-4-09 

—0  68 

764 

2105 

41-51 


52-07 

33.50 

—2-53 

1917 


66-59 
54-60 


0-14 
0-78 


The  observations  recorded  in  the  above  table  were  made  at  Cumberland  House,  by  chief 
factor  John  Lee  Lewis,  between  the  lieginning  of  August,  1839  and  the  end  of  September,  1840, 
the  register  being  deficient  in  June  and  July,  when  Mr..  Lewis  was  traveling  on  the  business 
of  the  Company.  The  temperatures  were  measured  by  a  thermometer  made  by  Newman,  and 
sent  out  at  that  time  with  many  others,  by  the  Geographical  Society,  but  at  the  expense  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The  monthly  means  of  the  combined  temperatures  at  8  A.M.  and  at 
8  P.M.  were  corrected  by  Dove's  table,  calculated  for  Toronto.— Rep.  Br.  Ass.  1847. 

The  observations  at  Oxford  House  were  made  between  October,  1833  to  May,  1834,  at  7  a,M,, 
noon,  and  8  p.m.,  and  these  are  also  corrected  by  Dove's  formula  for  Toronto. 

The  register  for  York  Factory,  Hudson's  Bay,  was  kept  by  chief  factor  Joseph  Charles,  from 
June,  1830  to  end  of  May,  1831,  the  temperatures  being  recorded  in  the  morning,  noon,  and 
afternoon,  but  the  exact  hours  of  the  morning  and  evening  are  not  specified.  They  have  been 
corrected  by  Dove's  table,  on  the  supposition  that  the  hours  were  sunrise  and  sunset. 

The  observations  at  Rupert  House,  on  the  east  side  of  James's  Bay,  were  made  at  sunrise, 
an  hour  anH  a  half  aAer  noon,  and  at  sunset,  and  Dove's  corrections  have  also  been  applied  to 
them. 

An  examination  of  the  several  columns  will  show  clearly  the  effect  of  open  water  in  Hudson's 
and  James's  Bays,  in  tempering  the  atmosphere  in  the  months  of  October,  November,  and  even 
December,  and  of  the  presence  of  ice  in  those  seas,  keeping  down  the  summer  heat. 


i: 


I'.! 


m 


V 


>'■'  r't]  • 


\n 


388 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


TABLE  V. 

Comparative  Table  of  Temperature  on  East  and  West  Sides  of  the 

Continent. 


PERIODS. 

Nain. 

LaL  67"  IC  N. 

Long,  mo  50/  W. 

Ait.  30  Feet 

3  Years. 

8,  W,  4,  8. 

Dove. 

Okak. 

LaL  67»  .W 

Long.  66». 

Alt.  30  Feet 

2  Yearn. 

8,  12,  4,  8. 

Dove. 

Sitka. 

Lat.67»3/  N. 

Long.  13.^)"»  18/  W 

Alt.  30  Feet 

'ZJ4  Years. 

Reduced. 

Baer. 

June 

July 

42.53 

50-18 

50  99 

44-98 

33  98 

26-51 

6-51 

095 

3-51 

752 

29-97 

36-23 

44-65 

51-65 

5200 

44  4o 

3115 

22  40 

8-45 

215 

1-95 

8-25 

2900 

38-25 

53-83 
5711 
57-79 
55-96 
46-63 
42  89 
36-32 
34-18 
33  60 
3801 
40-64 
48-18 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

Year 

27-82 

27-86 

4544 

Summer 

47-90 

3516 

3-66 

24-57 

4943 

32  67 

418 

25-17 

56  24 
48-49 
34-74 
42  28 

Autumn 

Winter 

Sorine 

Difference  of  liottest  and  coldest  months  . . 
Difference  of  summer  and  winter 

50-04 
44  24 

50-05 
45-25 

2419 
21-50 

TABLE  VL 


Abstract  of  a  Record  of  Temperatures  of  the  Air  in  the  Shade, 
KEPT  BY  Mr.  Drummond,  at  Edmonton  House,  Lat.  53°  40'  N.,  Long. 
113°  W.,  Alt.  1800  Feet. 


L 


it 


^> 


months. 

Monthly  Means. 

Extreme  Temperatures. 

Of  Maxima. 

Of  Minima. 

Of  these. 

Highest 

Lowest 

1827. 
January  ••... 

18-68 
2996 

3-42 
3-68 

11-05 
14-32 

-1-420 
-I-470 

—270 
—25-0 

February 

tW( 

sel( 

the 

bel 

erp 

mo! 

lesi 

Ho 

as 

50tl 


CARLTON  HOUSE.— SASKATCHEWAN  VALLEY.         889 


TABLE  VII. 

Abstract  of  a  Journal  of  Temperatures  kept  at  Carlton  House  by 
THE  Author,  Lat.  52°  51'  N.,  Long.  106°  13'  W.,  Alt.  1100  Feet. 


months. 

Monthly  Means. 

Extreme  Temperatures. 

Of  Maxima. 

Of  Minima. 

Oftlieae. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Feb.,  last  10  days 

March 

April 

May 

12-50 
S310 
40-97 
61-90 

-1-20 

+074 

18-53 

33-95 

5-65 
11-92 
29-75 
47-92 

31-0 
420 
590 
750 

—290 
—260 
+  2-0 
+22-0 

TABLE  VIII. 


I 


Table  of  the  Extreme  Temperatures  occurring  in  each  Month  at 
SEVERAL  Places  in  the  Saskatchewan  Valley,  and  in  Hudson's  and 
James's  Bays. 


Cumberland  House. 

Oxford  House. 

;York  Factory. 

Rupert  House. 

Lat  5.1»  67'  N. 

I.at  64"  56'  N. 

Lat  67"  00'  N. 

Lat  61"  21'  N. 

Long.  1 W  30'  W. 

U>ng.  yfi"  2*  W. 

Long.  92«  26*  W. 
AU.  20  Feet 

Long.  83"  40*  W. 

Alt.  900  Feet 

Alt  400  Feet. 

Alt  20  Feet 

Highest 

Lowest 

Highest 

Lowest 

Highest 

Lowest 

Highest 

Lowest 

Temp. 

Temp. 

Temp. 

Tomp. 

Temp. 

Temp. 

Temp. 

Temp. 

June 

87 

42 

. . 

83 

25 

July 

98 
90 

47 
49 

.  • 

9G 
79 

35 
40 

Ausiist 

September 

73 

30 

, , 

, , 

70 

28 

October 

68 

5 

49 

—  3 

58 

19 

61 

13 

November 

38 

—10 

39 

—  6 

42 

8 

36 

—10 

December 

25 

-26 

32 

-29 

30 

-30 

37 

—  5 

January 

35 

—32 

0 

—44 

19 

—34 

16 

—32 

February  

34 

—35 

30 

—33 

37 

-35 

39 

—36 

March 

.TO 
55 
93 

—  9 

-  3 

27 

34 
64 
65 

-27 

—  8 

15 

47 
55 
62 

-25 

-9 

15 

34 
53 
71 

—25 

-16 

IS 

April 

May 

>l 


! 


itures. 


Table  VIII.  shows  that  tropical  temperatures  occur  in  the  Saskatchewan  basin,  for  a  day  or 
two,  or  it  may  be  only  for  a  few  hours  at  a  time  in  summer,  yet  that  the  three  summer  months 
seldom  pass  without  night  frosts.  These  destroy  tender  plants,  and  in  untoward  seasons  injure 
the  growth  of  cerealia.  Wheat,  however,  ripens  well  in  >he  drier  limestone  districts,  and  still 
better  in  the  prairie  country  ;  but  it  is  there  subject  to  periodical  ravages  of  the  larvie  of  cat- 
erpillars, which  come  like  an  army  of  locusts,  and  eat  up  all  that  is  green.  Were  the  country 
more  generally  cultivated,  and  roioks  and  domestic  poultry  encouraged,  this  plague  might  be 
lessened.  Maize  ripens  well  at  the  Red  River  and  Carlton,  and,  I  believe,  at  Cumberland 
House  also,  though  I  did  not  see  it  in  cultivation  there.  The  54th  parallel  may  be  considered 
as  its  northern  limit,  but  its  profitable  culture  does  not,  perhaps,  extend  beyond  the  49th  or 
50th  degree  on  the  east  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 


«-• 


390 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


7. 
8. 


12. 


21. 


24. 


In  the  following  Table  of  Phenomena,  indicating  the  Progress  of 
the  Seasons  at  Cumberland  House,  I  have  combined  my  own  obser- 
vations in  the  spring  of  1830  with  those  of  chief  factor  John  Lee 
Lewis,  in  1839  and  1840,  distinguishing  the  remarks  by  the  years. 
The  supposed  altitude  of  Cumberland  House  above  the  sea  is  900 
feet,  according  to  Captain  Lefroy's  calculations. 

March  4.  Water  collecting  in  pools  round  the  establishment.     1840. 

Much  bare  ground  visible. 

The  snow  which  covered  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  three  feet, 
was  observed  to  moisten  in  the  sun  for  the  first  time  this  sea- 
son.     1820. 

Temperature  in  the  shade  rose  for  the  first  time  to  -|-30°  F. 
The  melting  snow  began  to  drop  from  the  eaves  of  the  houses. 

Patches  of  earth  became  visible,  the  season  being  in  respect  to 
the  melting  of  the  snow  fourteen  days  later  than  that  of  1840. 
The  river  Saskatchewan  broke  up  partially,  the  melting  snow 
covered  with  PodurcB,  as  it  is  also  frequently  in  the  autumn. 

A  white-headed  eagle  Was  seen,  this  being  almost  always  the 
first  of  the  siunmer  birds  which  arrives ;  it  comes  as  soon  as  it 
can  obtain  fish.  In  1840,  the  first  eagle  was  seen  on  the  26th. 
^pril  2.  The  river  Saskatchewan  froze  over  again,  after  some  very  cold 
days. 
7.  Barking  crows  {Corvus  americanus)  seen.  They  were  not  ob- 
served till  the  19th  in  1840. 

First  snow  bunting  seen  (Emberiza  nivalis).     1840. 

A  merganser  seen.     1820. 

Willow  catkins  beginning  to  burst. 

Geese  and  swans  seen  in  1820.  In  1840  they  were  not  seen 
till  the  20th :  and  pelicans  and  ducks  were  observed  that  year 
on  the  21st. 

Buds  of  Populus  balsamifera  bursting.      1820. 

Plovers,  grakles,   and  orioles  seen,  and,  on  the  following  day, 
Canadian  jays  and  fly-catchers.     Frogs  croaking. 
20.  Coltsfoot,  Nardoamia  palmata  flowering. 

26.  Alder  flowering.  The  sugar  harvest,  which  is  collected  in  this 
district  from  the  Negundo  fraxinifolium,  commenced  in  1820, 
on  the  20th  of  this  month,  and  lasted  till  the  10th  of  May. 
The  flow  of  the  sap  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  direct  action  of 
the  sun,  and  is  greatest  when  a  smart  night's  frost  is  succeeded 
by  a  warm  sun-shining  day.  The  flow  ceases  in  a  cold  night. 
28.  The  Saskatchewan  thoroughly  broken  up.  The  ice  on  Pine 
Island  Lake  did  not  disappear  until  nearly  a  month  afterward. 
Wahlenberg  observes  that  the  mean  temperature  of  the  air  in 
Lapland  must  rise  to  40°  F.  before  the  rivers  are  completely 
free.  The  Saskatchewan  opens  in  this  district  before  the  mean 
heat  for  ten  days  rises  so  high ;  but  its  upper  part  flows  from  a 
more  southerly  and  warmer,  though  a  more  elevated,  country. 
30.  Commenced  plowing.  1840. 
1.  Anemone  patens,  or  wind  flower,  in  blossom,  its  leaves  not  yet 
expanded.     1820. 


8. 

9. 
10. 
12. 


13. 
17. 


May 


PROGRESS  OP  SEASONS  AT  CARLTON   HOUSE. 


391 


a.jr, 


m  a 

rv- 

yet 


May  2. 
13. 
14. 

17. 


1840. 


17. 

21. 

22. 
24. 
25. 


June  12 
Jiug.    1 


A  fall  of  snow  to  the  depth  of  two  feet. 

Planting  potatoes. 

Sowing  barley.      1820.     Negtmdo  fraxinifolium  and  gooachctiy 

bushes  in  flower. 
Willows,    gooseberries,    aspens    (Populus    tremuloides)    in    leaf. 

Various  DrabcB  in  flower.      1820.     In    1840  the  trees  were 

bursting  their  buds  at  this  time. 
Wheat  sown  on  the  8th  of  this  month,  above  ground  to-day, 

having  germinated  in  nine  days.      1840. 
Barley  sown  on  the  14th  above  groimd,  having  taken  seven  days 

to  germinate. 
Leaves  of  the  trees  expanding  rapidly. 
Ulmus  americana  flowered.     1820. 
Pine  Island  Lake  clear  of  ice.     28th.     Prunus  pennsylvanica, 

P.   virginiana,  and  Amelanchier  in  flower.     30th.    From  the 

23d  to  the  30th  of  this  month  in  1840,  the  temperature  in  the 

shade  at  2   p.m.  varied  between  78°  F.  and  93°  F.     On  the 

30th,  potatoes  planted  on  the  13th  appeared  above  the  ground. 

1840. 
All  the  forest  trees  in  full  leaf.     1820. 
Commenced    reaping   barley.     On    the   15th,    idth,    19th,   and 

September  1,  the  thermometer  at  noon  ranged  between  80° 

and  90^,  being  the  hottest  days  in  the  month.     There  was 

much  thunder  and  hail  on  these  days.      1839. 
Sept.     2.  Flocks  of  water-fowl  beginning  to  arrive  from  the  north.     3d. 

The  first  fall  of  snow  this  autumn.     4th.     Vast  numbers  of 

water-fowl  flying  southward.     A  severe  fall  of  enow  and  frost 

in  the  north  causes  these  birds  to  hurry  to  the  south.     11th. 

First   hoar-frost.      Birch    and    aspen   leaves    turning   yellow. 

14th.     Wild-fowl  numerous.     20th.     Snow;  21st,  ditto  very 

heavy.     24th.  Thunder  and  lightning. 
Taking  up  potatoes.     5th.  Leaves  all  fallen  from  the  deciduous 

trees.     On  the  11th,  thermometer  at  2  p.m.,  in  the  shade,  68° 

F.,  being  unusually  high. 
Water-fowl  passing  southward  in  large  flocks.      1839. 
Bays  of  the  lake  frozen  over.     16th.  The  ground  frozen  hard. 

17th.  Last  water-fowl  seen  this  season.      18th.  Lake  entirely 
0  frozen  over.     In  1839  the  Little  River  was  frozen  over  on  the 

24th  of  this  month,  but  broke  up  again  in  part,  and  remained 

partially  open  all  the  winter. 
31.  Waveys  {Anas  hyperborea)  passing.     Lake  partially  opened. 

The  following  are  the  Phenomena  of  the  Spring  of  1827  at  Carl- 
ton House,  in  lat.  52°  51'  N.,  long.  106°  13'  ^^  ,  on  the  eastern 
limits  of  the  Saskatchewan  prairie  lands,  and  at  an  elevation  above 
the  sea  of  about  1100  feet.* 

*  This  was  estimated  in  1827  at  1000  feet  from  the  length  of  flie  river  course 
between  Carlton  House  and  York  Factory,  making  a  smaller  allowance  per 
mile  for  the  descent,  as  far  as  Lake  Winipeg,  and  a  considerably  greater  one 
for  the  falls  and  rapids  of  Nelson  River.  It  accords  sufficiently  with  Captain 
Lefroy'a  observations  ;  and  its  error  does  not  probably  exceed  200  feet  at  most 


Oct.      1. 


14. 
15. 


I 


I 


803 


Fth.    1.0. 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


Snow  iliRwing  in  fho  Minshine,  and  vn  Uio  I7ih  many  sandy 
lunnnKH-kH  on  tim  plains  were  baro.  This  in  at  leant  thren 
wcr-ks  oarlior  Ihaii  tlm  lliaw  comnirncps  in  an  early  arason  at 
CuuiIdm'IiukI  llouHc,  which  iu  a  tlrgriMt  Airllior  north,  hut  is  200 
f»M't  lowor. 

March  fi.  Trccf*  thawvd  in  lino  dnys,  and  on  llm  8!h  tho  black  oarth  on 
Iho  imtncdiato  hanks  of  tho  river  was  Hol'tcnod  to  tho  depth  of 
two  inohoH  hy  Iho  powor  of  tlui  huu'h  rnys.  At  thin  placo  tho 
wostrrly  winds  brin^  mild  weather,  and  tho  easterly  ones  aro 
attended  by  fop  and  snow. 
13.  Sparrow-hawks  (Fairo  spnrvrriuH)  arrived  froiri   the  south,  and 

on  tho  I7th  several  migratory  small  birds  were  noticed. 
29.   Largo  flocks  of  snow-birds   (Kmlwrizn  nivnlif)  came  about  th« 
establishment;   and,  by   the   Hist,   steep   banks,  which  had  a 
southern  aspect,  wero  clear  of  snow. 

Jlpril    1.  Many  Fringillul(r   (birds  of  the  sparrow  tribe)  wero  seen.      On 
tho  2d,  swans  arrived,  and,  by  tho  3<1,  much  snow  had  disap- 
p»'ared  from  tho  plains. 
4.  The  snow  at  this  time  was  melting  in  tho  shade,  and  the  sap  of 
the  maple  trees  [Negunda  frnxini folium)  began  to  flow. 

April  6.  Geese  arrived.  Stormy  weather,  about  tho  middio  of  tho  trionth, 
retarded  the  arrival  of  the  summer  birds;  but  tho  plants  con- 
tinued to  grow  fast.  On  tho  20th,  tho  Telltale  plover  (Chara- 
drius  vorifrrvf)  and  several  small  birds  came, 
22.  7\<rdv^  tuigrotoriuK,  Pyrrhuin  ludoririnna,  aiul  Lanius  cxvubitor 
were  se<'n,  and  tho  flowers  of  ./Inrmonc  patens  expanded. 

27.  Ice  ill  tho  river  Saskatchewnn  gave  way.      Frogs  began  to  croak. 

28.  Canada  cranes  Grus  canndrnsin  arrived. 

May  1.  Sinrnus  ludot^irianus  arrived,  and  the  last  flocks  of  Embcrixa 
nivalis  departed  for  tho  north. 

2.  On  this  diiy,  Icterus  phtrmeeus  and  Seoleeophagns  fcrrugintut 
wero  seen,  and  most  of  the  water-fowl  had  by  this  timo  ar- 
rived.    On  the  4th,  Phlox  hoodii  flowered. 

fi.  Rannneulus  rhomboideus,  Viola  debilis,  Nardosmia  palmata,  and 
several  carices  flowered. 

6.  Hirundo  viridis  and  many  gulls  arrived. 

7.  On  this  day  tho  sap  of  the  ash-leaved  maple,  whicli  had  flowed 

scantily  for  ten  days,  ceased  to  run  altogether,  and  tho  sugar 
harvest  closed.  Avocttta  amcricana  arrived.  Populus  tremu- 
loides  in  flower. 
9.  Crow-blackbirds  wero  first  seen.  Corydalis  aurea,  Corylu$  amer- 
icana  and  rostrata,  Hippophde  canadensis,  'Jliermopsis  rhom- 
bifolia,  Vesicaria  arctica,  and  Alnns  turidis  flowered.  12th. 
Potentilla  concinna,  Townsendia  sericea  AowcreA.  14th.  Goose- 
berry bushes  coming  into  leaf.  Ash-leaved  maple  flowering, 
seven  days  after  the  sap  had  ceased  to  flow  from  wounds  in 
the  stem.  16th.  Tho  Picus  varius  arrived  in  considerable 
numbers,  and  on  the  19th  tho  Viola  nuttalliana  flowered. 

The  average  antecedence  of  spring  phenomena  at  Carlton  House  to  their 
occurrence  at  Cumberland  llonse  is  between  a  fortnight  and  three  weeks. 


' 


in 
iblo 


heir 
ckH. 


HKA80NH    AT   MARTIN'H    FALLS. 


303 


Tho  «liirt'ren«'.«  of  lalituil*>,  which  in  only  «mo  (Ifgro*-,  in  nearly  counterbal- 
anced liy  200  feet  of  greater  altitnilo  ;  hut  the  firy  Handy  soil  of  the  plaiiiR, 
which  are  early  denuded  of  Hnow,  givcH  the  npring  there  a  great  Huperior- 
ity  over  that  of  the  lower  country,  where  the  ground  Ih  almost  Huhinerged, 
and  thn  greater  part  of  it  icebound  for  a  month  after  the  river  is  «)pen. 

I  obtained  no  o^her  reginter  of  ternperatureH  at  Edmonton  lIoiiHe,  or 
from  the  country  near  the  baHc  of  the  ll«)eky  Mountains  in  that  parallel, 
than  the  daily  maxima  and  minima  for  two  winter  months  observed  by 
Mr.  Drurnmond  in  1827.  These  arc  included  in  the  subjoined  table;  and 
it  will  be  observed  that  the  winter,  as  far  as  we  can  judge  from  a  few 
isolated  observations,  is  even  milder  at  Edmonton  than  at  Cumberland 
Hotise,  though  it  is  on  the  same  parallel  and  at  a  much  greater  altitude. 
Edmonton  Houso  is  in  latitude  64"^  N.,  and  longitude  113''  W.,  and  its 
elevation  above  the  sea  is  estimated  by  Captain  I^efroy,  from  his  observa- 
tions on  the  boiling  point  of  water,  at  1800  feet. 

Neither  have  I  been  able  to  procure  registers  of  temperatures  kept  at 
any  post  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  Saskatchewan  basin.  The  Red  River 
Colony  extends  to  the  boundary  line  of  th<i  United  States,  or  the  49th  par- 
allel; and  I  havV'  been  informed  that  the  Fnguii  frrruginea,  or  American 
beech,  grows  within  the  limits  of  the  settlement,  though  it  docs  not  exist 
on  Lake  Superior,  but  terminates  in  that  direction  at  Michilimackinac,  on 
the  4()th  parallel,  in  the  interesting  account  of  the  Alps  of  New  Hamp- 
shire by  Professor  Agassiz,  the  trees  which  grow  in  the  zone  comprist'd 
between  the  elevations  of  830  and  1.^00  feet  above  the  sea  are  the  same 
kinds  which  grow  on  the  Red  River  and  forks  of  the  Saskatchewan  at 
nearly  «s  great  altitudes,  and  from  five  to  ten  degrees  further  north ;  with 
the  addition  of  the  oaks,  which  find  their  northern  limit  on  Lake  Winipeg, 
though  they  do  not  enter  the  corresponding  New  Hampshire  zone.  Tho 
8am«!  trees,  however,  if  I  understand  tho  passage  in  tho  work  on  Lake 
Superior  (p.  186)  to  which  1  here  refer,  continue  to  ascend  tho  New  Hamp- 
shire mountains  to  the  height  of  2080  feet ;  above  which,  to  the  height 
of  4350  feet,  the  vegetation  consists  almost  entirely  of  Jllnes  alba  and 
bnhamea,  and  Betula  excelsa  and  papyracea,  Betula  excdsa  scarcfdy  rea<di- 
es  the  Saskatchewan  basin,  or,  if  it  does,  is  rare  even  in  the  southern 
parts;  but  the  other  trees  here  named  go  northward  on  the  Mackenzie  till 
the  69th  parallel,  and  terminate  there  on  coming  within  tho  direct  influ- 
ence of  tho  winds  blowing  from  tho  Arctic  Sea.  The  summits  of  the  New 
Hampshire  Alps,  6280  feet  high,  present  a  truly  arctic  flora,  much  moro 
so,  I  believe,  than  tho  slope  of  tho  Rocky  Mountains  at  that  elevation  on 
the  52d  parallel.  On  this  point,  however,  I  can  not  speak  with  any  con- 
fidence, as  I  have  no  measurements  of  tho  heights  at  which  Mr.  Drurn- 
mond gathcnnl  his  plants,  and  he  is  tho  only  authority  for  tho  botany  of 
that  district. 

That  I  may  carry  on  as  complete  a  view  of  the  climate  of  the 
country  as  I  can  produce  from  the  observations  of  others  as  well  as 
from  my  own,  I  introduce  here  a  table*  drawn  up  by  a  very  intelli- 
gent officer  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  chief  factor  George 

*  Mr.  Barnston  having  sent  mo  thia  paper  in  1840, 1  pablished  it  in  the  Edin* 
burgh  PhiloBofhL-al  Journal  for  April,  1844. 


ii'i 


I  1'  '■ 


I II 


m 


!  I 


394 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


Barnston,  giving  the  progress  of  the  seasons  nt  Martin's  Falls. 
This  post  is  situated  in  iat.  5V  32'  N.,  long.  86°  39'  W.,  on  Albany 
River,  about  200  geogrnphnal  miles  in  a  direct  line  from  the  coast 
of  Hudson's  Bay,  an  equa!  distance  in  a  westerly  direction  from  the 
water-shed  between  the  Albany  and  Winipeg  Rivers,  and  some- 
what less  from  the  beach  of  Lake  Superior,  bearing  south.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Barnston's  remark  which  follows,  the  country  about 
the  falls  is  similar  in  its  geological  character  to  the  west  side 
of  Lake  Winipeg,  and  referrible  to  the  Silurian  epoch.  >»  Our  geo- 
logical position,'*  says  that  gentleman,  «'  is  upon  the  confines  of  the 
great  basin  of  James's  Bay,  an  immense  extension  of  the  older  cal- 
careous strata.  Between  the  '  falls '  and  the  coast  the  bed  of  the 
river  is  composed  of  limestones  and  clays,  both  containing  extinct 
genera  of  shells;  while  above,  toward  the  interior,  little  is  to  be 
seen  but  gneiss  and  greenstone  schist,  with  a  mixture  here  and 
there  of  less  fissile  granite  rocks.  The  fossils  I  have  been  able  to 
procure  in  this  neighborhood  are  principally  spirifers,  producta,  ter- 
ebratula,  and  impressions  of  trilobites.  Although  in  winter  we 
have  the  cold  of  Russia,  in  the  months  of  July  and  August  we  en- 
joy the  climate  of  Germany  and  the  north  of  France."  (Barnston, 
1.  c.)  A  reference  to  the  map  will  show  that  there  is  a  canoe  route 
from  Winipeg  River,  through  Lake  Sal,  and  by  a  portage  over  the 
water-shed  to  Lake  Saint  Joseph,  and  Albany  River,  and  also  a 
shorter  one  from  the  Peek  River  on  Lake  Superior  to  the  southern 
tributaries  of  the  Albany.  In  short,  as  has  been  already  frequently 
stated,  the  primitive  rocks  forming  the  brims  of  these  several  river 
basins  are  traversed  in  every  direction  by  sheets  of  water  occupy- 
ing more  surface  than  the  rocks  themselves. 


On  the  Progress  of  the  Seasons  at  Martin's  Falls. 

Dec.  Jan.  Feb.  We  are  frequently  visited  in  these  dead  winter  months  by 
the  white  owl  (Strix  nyctea)  from  James's  Bay,  but  the  hawk 
owl  {Strix  funerea)  is  our  most  common  bird  of  prey.  Tetrao 
umbellus^  T.  canadensis,  and  T.  phasianellus  are  residents  in  thlH 
district  the  whole  year.  The  Tetrao  saliceti,  or  willow  ptariiu- 
gan,  is  a  winter  visitor  which  comes  from  the  north. 

March.  Martens  (Mustela  martes)  pair,  and  soon  afterward  rabbits  (Ze- 
pus  americanus.) 
15.  In  the  middle  of  the  month  the  snow  often  melts  in  the  height 
of  the  day,  and  by  the  20th  a  snow-bird  {Emberiza  nivalis) 
may  be  seen  occasionally  if  the  season  be  early. 
20.  Tops  of  the  higher  grasses,  which  have  been  concealed  beneath 
the  snow,  begin  to  show.  A  few  brown  feathers  clothe  the 
necks  of  the  willow-grouse,  and  these  birds  leave  us. 

April.  A  slight  crust  now  forms  on  the  snow,  produced  by  night  frosts 
after  thaw  in  the  day.  In  mild  weather,  a  few  insects  s.'iow 
in  the  sunshine. 


SEASONS   AT  MARTiNS   FALLS. 


30d 


;h 
le 

ts 
w 


8.  Two  Hpecies  of  Per  la  and  one  of  Ncmoura  come  up  through  the 
crevices  of  the  ice  and  porona  snow,  and  all  proceed  straight  to 
the  nearest  beach.   The  cold  renders  them  too  weak  to  fly,  though 
most  of  them  have  got  rid  of  their  nyraphine  investments  be- 
fore emerging  from  the  ice. 
15.  Snow-birds  have  become  plentiful,  and  are  now  joined  by  the 
Emberiza  lapponica  and  Alauda  atpestria.     20th.  The  flesh-fly 
is  still  scarce.     The  small  owl  (Scops)  calls  in  the  warm  nights, 
and  the  commonf  woodpecker  (Picus  pileatus)  drum.s  on  the  hol- 
low trees.     22d.  The  Canada  goose  (^nser  canadensis)  and 
stock-ducks  (^nas  boschas)  sometimes  arrive  at  this  date,  but 
are  frequently  forced  to  return  for  want  of  water,  and  by  north- 
erly blasts. 
5.  A  few  spots  of  ground  bare ;    (more  than  a  month  later  than  the 
earth  begins  to  appear  at  Carlton  House.)      28th.    The  red- 
breasted  thrush  {Ihrdus  migratorius)  and  cattle  blackbird  {Sco- 
lecophagus  ferrugineus^)  are  now  arriving,  and  pick  up  the  be- 
numbed grubs  and  caterpillars.     Goshawks  arrive. 
May     1 .  Snow  melting  rapidly.     Ground  getting  barer.     5th.  Wild  geese 
and  ducks  passing  to  the  northward.     Hawks  still  arriving. 
10th.  Every  flne  day  brings  an  accession  to  the  small  bush 
birds,  fly-catchers,  &c.     Food  for  these  is  still  scarce,  and  they 
approach  the  houses  in  quest  of  Diptera,  which  rise  from  the 
manure  and  rich  earth  round  the  place.     Snow-birds  have  left 
us,  and  ermines  and  hares   [Lepus  amcricanus)  are  becoming 
altogether  brown.     The  ice  is  now  shingly  and  dangerous,  and 
strong  currents  and  rapids  are  open.     Waveys  (^nscr  hyperbo- 
reus)  and  brents  {Anser  bernicla)  passing  toward  James's  Bay 
in  large  flocks.     No  weather  stops  them  after  this  time. 
12.  The  northern  diver  {Colymbus  glacialis)  and  several  black  ducks 
{Anas  nigra,  fusca,  and  perspicillata)  are  still  scarce,  but  are 
sometimes  seen.     The  buds  of  the  balsam  poplar,  aspen,  and 
of  various  willows,  swell.     On  the  latter  may  be  found  the  ear- 
liest Tenthredines,  the  larvoe  being  nursed  in  the  tender  bud. 
Two  species  of  butterfly  {Vanessa  and  Argynnis)  sport  over  the 
ice  and  snow,  when  these  are  not  gone. 
15.  The  larger  rivers  break  up.      (The  Saskatchewan  opens  about 
twenty  days  earlier  at  Carlton  House.)     Fish  ascend  the  small 
streams  to  spawn.     The  pike  {Esqx  lucius)  and  dore  {Lucioper- 
ca)  spawn.    Sucking-carp  {Catastomi)  soon  follow  them.    Trout 
take  bait  greedily.     The  cliff-swallow  {Hirttndo  fulva^  Vieillot) 
is  seen.     (On  May  28th,  1849,  Mr.  Rae  found  this  swallow  on 
the  banks  of  the  Coppermine,  having  constructed  its  clustered 
nest  against  the  cliflfs  at  the  mouth  of  Kendall  River,  lat.  67° 
N.,  but  not  yet  laid  its  eggs.)      Swamps  and  stagnant  pools  are 
thawed.     Frogs  begin  to  croak,  and  musquitoes  to  bite. 
20.  Shells  {Limncei)  begin  to  move  in  the  pools  along  the  river. 
Snails  {Limax,  Helix,  Bulimus,  &c.)  remove  from  under  stones 
and  fallen  timber.     The  end  of  the  month  discloses  some  species 
of  moths  {Noctualites) . 
25.  Our  only  goatsucker  {Chordeilcs  virginianus),   and  the  golden- 


! 


\m 


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^ml 


riM, 


^MA- 


■'Wit 
I  I  a.: 


■««■ 


396 


CLIMATOLOUV. 


I 


fc 


winged  woodpecker  {Colaptes  auratus),  the  last  of  the  spring 
birds  in  this  district,  arrive.  Seavers,  otters,  and  musk-rats 
have  their  young. 

May  28.  The  balsam  poplar,  and  aspen  expand  their  leaves.  (Not  so 
early  as  on  the  Saskatchewan,  two  or  three  degrees  further 
north.)     The  Hudson's  Bay  reindeer  has  young. 

June  1.  Sturgeon  begin  to  frequent  falls  and  rapids,  and  to  spawn.  5th. 
Insects  are  busy  on  warm  days ;  the  Tenthredinida  on  bushes, 
the  Sphingides,  ^ndreneta,  and  PangonitB,  on  the  ground,  all 
attended  by  a  variety  of  parasite  ichneumons.  The  first  flowers 
blow,  and  those  of  the  willow  are  surrounded  by  Sylphides  and 
flower-flies  {^nthotnoyee). 
10.  A  night-frost  will  sometimes  intervene,  even  at  this  late  period; 
and,  in  the  woods,  the  ground  is  still  frozen  solidly  at  the  depth 
of  a  foot  from  the  surface.  Vegetation,  nevertheless,  still  goes 
forward.  Musquitoes  become  a  torment;  the  swamps  and 
puddles  swarm  with  their  larvae.  Small  tadpoles  abound  in 
the  pools.  13th.  The  country  is  now  covered  with  verdure. 
Birds  are  nestling;  geese  and  ducks  hatching.  The  natives 
are  occupied  with  the  sturgeon  fishery. 
15.  The  latest  shrubs  are  in  leaf,  and  the  majority  of  moths  and 
butterflies  are  disclosing  themselves.  The  large  Ephemera 
{Perlee  and  Phryganea)  issue  from  the  water.  20th.  Trout 
.  take  the  fly-hook.  White-fish  {Corregonua  albus)  rise  to  the 
surface.  Cattle  seek  the  houses  to  get  rid  of  the  tormenting 
Tahani.  In  dry  seasons  rivulets  become  low,  though  rivers  re- 
tain their  strength. 

July  Our  warmest  month.     The  river  unusually  gets  low.     Sturgeon 

fishing  continues.  Cattle  become  lean,  being  tormented  by 
flies  in  the  day,  and  feeding  in  the  night  only.  10th — 20th. 
Many  genera  of  Coleoptera  appear,  some  of  them  of  forms  more 
characteristic  of  warmer  climes;  Cirindelcf,  Necrophori,  many 
Buprestes,  and  a  species  allied  to  Lucanus.  Of  those  whose 
larvae  live  on  wood,  the  Serropalpus,  a  very  fine  Dorcacenis, 
CerambyXf  Callidium,  Lamia,  and  numerous  species  of  LeptU' 
retcB.  Neuroptera  are  abundant  on  the  banks  of  the  river — 
LibellulcB,  Agrion,  &c. ;  and  on  the  leaves  Hemerobius,  Panor- 
pe$,  Sialis.  In  the  other  orders,  also,  there  are  many  genera  to 
keep  up  the  character  of  the  month.  It  ends  with  bringing  in 
strawberries,  and  in  sending  off  sturgeon,  which  return  to  the 
depths. 

jlug.  The  raspberries  begin  to  ripen.  Young  ducks  are  well  feathered. 
Wp  have  sultry  weather  for  a  few  days,  and  then  thunder- 
storms followed  by  chilly  nights.  10th.  Pigeons  (Ectopiste$ 
migratorius)  are  numerous.  Young  geese  {^tuer  canadensis) 
can  fly.  Gnats  decrease,  and  sand-flies  (Similium)  replace 
them. 
15.  The  raspberries,  and  red  and  black  currants  ripen.  Grasshoppers 
are  full  grown.  Trout  move  about,  ascending  the  river. 
Sturgeon  are  very  scarce.  Grass  becomes  brown  in  dry  situa- 
tions.    20th.  The  noisy  lesser  tell-tale  {Totanus  flavipes)   ap- 


=*U: 


SEASONS  AT  MARTLN'S  FALLS. 


397 


pears,  and  if  we  have  much  rain  we  are  visited  by  a  species  of 
snipe.     The  golden  and  ring-necked  plovers  are  not  uncommon. 

Sept.  The  air  is  generally  cooler  and  the  wind  stronger,  and  frosty 
nights  may  be  expected. 
10.  Trout  spawn.  Many  insectivorous  birds  depart.  The  passenger 
pigeon  disappears.  Hawks  and  the  large  horned  owl  {Strix 
virginianut)  are  common.  Night  frosts  frequent. 
15.  Tops  of  potatoes  always  blackened.  Caterpillars  nearly  all 
cased.  Trout  refuse  the  fly-hook,  but  still  take  bait ;  thr'y  are 
now  poor  fish.  Canada  geese  pass  to  the  southward.  Ducka 
abound  in  the  grassy  lakes.  Leaves  turning  yellow  rapidly. 
20th.  Pleasant  weather  at  mid-day  but  cold  in  the  night. 
The  fall-moth  {Phaleena  autumnalia)  is  now  to  be  seen.  Sand- 
flies bite  only  in  the  height  of  the  warmer  days.  The  mus- 
quito  is  utterly  defunct.  Diving  ducks  common  ;  the  others  gone. 

Oct.  1.  Pools  and  swamps  crusted  with  ice.  White-fish  (Corregonua 
albus)  begin  to  spawn.  5th.  Sucking-carp  {Catastomi)  and 
trout  desert  the  small  streams.  Foliage  is  yellow,  and  falls. 
Deer  rut.  Instead  of  rain  we  have  snow,  which  generally 
melts,  the  earth  being  warmer  than  the  atmosphere. 
10.  A  single  blast  of  northerly  wind  will  now  suffice  to  bare  the 
trees,  strip  the  shrubs,  and  send  all  water-fowl  to  the  south. 
The  last  of  these  are  weak  or  lingering  flocks  of  waveys  {^inser 
hyperborem),  which  may  be  observed  passing.  They  seldom 
alight  unless  when  met  by  adverse  winds. 
20.  The  small  lakes  and  rivers  sometimes  frozen.  (Between  the 
21st  and  28th  is  the  the  usual  period  for  the  freezing  of  the 
lake  at  Cumberland  House.)  TuUibee  {Coregonus  artedi) 
spawns.  Quadrupeds  acquire  thick  fur.  The  willow-grouse 
(Tetrao  saliceti)  arrives  from  the  north.  There  is  usually  a 
little  snow  on  the  ground ;  and  the  American  hare  and  ermine 
are  becoming  white. 

Nov.  1.  The  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  which  in  mild  weather  har- 
bors multitudes  of  Podura.  10th.  I  have  frequently  observed 
at  this  time,  and  later,  a  wingless  tipula  {Chionea  hiemalis) 
crawling  about.  20th.  Large  rivers  and  the  lakes  often  solidly 
frozen ;  strong  rapids  filling  with  ice,  and  setting  fast.  Ameri- 
can hares  and  ermines  entirely  white.  Swamps  passable,  and 
winter  fairly  set  in. 

(George  Barnston.) 


a  3  H 
a  4 


39S 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


s 


TABLE  IX. 


Temperatures   between    the    Parallels    of    52°    and    61^°    North 

Latitude. 


PERIODS. 


January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Year 

Winter 

Summer 

Spring 

Autumn 

Difference  of  hottest  and  coldest  months 
Difference  of  summer  and  winter 


Cliurcliill. 

Lat.  69"  02'  N. 

Long.  93"  10'  W. 

Alt.  20  Feet. 

Year,  l«38-39. 

Mornii  g,  Aftern., 

Evenins. 

Correctea  by 

Dove's  formula. 


(1.) 


-21-21 

-  7-31 

-  4-63 
16-29 
28-42 
44-69 
56-80 
53-39 
36-03 
26-50 

3-32 
-14-00 


18-19 


-1417 

13-36 
21-95 


7801 
65-80 


Greenland. 

Fredericksthal. 

Lat  fiO"  N. 

Long.  450  W. 

Alt  30  Feet 

Dove. 


(2.) 


19-62 
18-72 
2210 
27-50 


32-43 
3515 

29-75 


30  00? 


22-70 


PeUy  Banks. 

Lat.ei'SO/  N. 

Long.  130"  W. 

Alt.  1400  Feet 

fi  Months. 

1848,  1840. 

Sunrise,  3  P.M., 

Dusk. 

Corrected. 


(3.) 


-21-95 

—14-73 

—  0-99 

20-44 


-13-98 


—16-88 


No.  1.  The  reifister  at  Churchill  was  kept  by  Mr.  Harding,  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's 
Service,  from  February,  1838,  to  May,  1839,  the  ubservations  being  made  daily  in  the  morning, 
afternoon,  and  evening.  Column  2  is  extracted  from  Dove's  table  ;  and  for  column  3  I  am  in- 
debted to  Murdock  M'Pherson,  Esq.,  who  sent  me  a  register  kept  at  Pelly  Banks  by  R.  Camp- 
bell, Esq. 


or 
a  ' 


ft 
o  : 


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n 

S3 
2  3 

it 
g. 

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Progrtit  of  the  Sea$oni  at  Fort  Frankli)i.  on  Great  Bear  Lake,  in  tat.  65° 

12'  N.,  long.  123°  12'iNr. 

Till"  moan  tuinporaturo  of  the  three  winter  months  varies  comparatively 
little  in  ilillerunt  yearu ;  but  the  relative  temperatures  uf  these  munthii 
ilitFer  greatly  among  themselves,  ho  that  in  one  year  December  is  the 
col(li>!4t  month,  in  'in<  her  February,  and  in  a  third  January.  In  some 
yeais  the  t(  mperature  of  places  exposed  to  the  sun  rises  for  a  day  or  two 
in  \viiiter  above  (!»"  freezing  point,  and  tlif  snow  moistens  on  the  surface; 
but  in     flier  winters  no  thaw  whatever  occurs. 

In  March  the  snow  ia  deepest,  and  averages  about  three  feet,  being, 
however,  often  drifted  to  a  much  greater  thickness  under  dills  and  on  the 
borders  of  lakes.  In  the  end  of  March  or  begiiming  of  April  trees  begin  to 
thaw,  the  mean  temperature  in  the  shade  being  about  Z(iro  Fah. ;  but  the 
elTect  of  the  sun's  rays  on  the  blackened  bulb  of  a  thermometer  being 
sullicient  to  raise  the  mercury  to  -|-90°  Fah. 

About  the  10th  of  April  the  snow  begins  to  thaw  decidedly  in  the  sun- 
Bhine,  and  myriads  of  Podura  are  seen  at  such  times  moving  actively  in 
its  cavities.  Ptarmigan  begin  to  assume  their  summer  plumage  toward 
the  end  of  the  month. 

From  the  Ist  to  the  6th  of  May,  according  to  the  season,  wator-ftwl 
arrive.  The  Colymbus  glacialis  and  arcticus?  arrive  occasionally  earlier, 
and  frequent  a  piece  of  water  at  the  elHux  of  Bear  Lake  River  from  the 
lake,  which  remains  open  all  the  year. 

Swans  {Cygnus  buccinator  and  amencanu$)  are  among  the  early  arrivals, 
the  larger  species  coming  first.  The  Anas  acuta,  A.  crecca,  Clangula 
histrionica,  and  Oidemia  pertpicillata  make  their  appearance  within  the 
first  eight  days.  Gulls  come  about  the  9th  or  10th.  Singing  birds, 
orioles,  and  swifts  arrive  about  the  middle  of  the  month ;  the  latter  vary- 
ing their  time  of  appearance  to  a  week  later,  if  the  spring  is  tardy.  Pools 
of  water  and  swamps  must  have  been  thawed  long  enough  to  release  a 
sufficiency  of  winged  insects  for  the  support  of  the  swallow  tribe,  before 
they  show  themselves  in  a  district.  About  the  10th  or  12th  of  the  month 
small  streams  break  up,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  ten  preceding  days 
having  risen  to  37°  Fah.  Bear  Lake  River,  which  is  fed  from  the  depths 
of  the  lake  with  warmer  water,  breaks  its  bonds  at  its  efflux  earlier. 
Lower  down,  this  river  remains  fast  till  the  first  or  second  week  of  Jun«. 
Mackenzie  River  usually  opens  at  Fort  Simpson  about  the  7th  of  May, 
and  in  the  more  northern  quarters  in  the  course  of  a  week  later ;  the  boats 
which  follow  the  flood  in  its  descent  taking  about  that  time  to  go  to  Fort 
Good  Hope.  In  1849  the  river  broke  up  on  the  unprecedently  late  date  of 
the  23d  of  May. 

At  this  latter  date  there  is  bright  light  at  midnight  on  Great  Bear  Lake, 
and  the  Fringilla  leucophrys  is  employed  with  other  songsters  in  singing 
at  that  hour. 

Snow-geese  arrive  about  this  time,  or  a  week  earlier,  and  are  followed  in 
a  fortnight  by  the  laughing-geese.  Both  kinds  wing  their  way  northward 
in  bands  of  from  fifteen  to  forty  individuals,  which  are  passing  every  few 
minutes,  day  and  night,  for  about  three  weeks.  Many  go  on  without  halt< 
ing ;  others  alight  in  the  marshes  to  feed  on  the  nascent  stems  of  the  early 
Cyperacea,  which  are  developed  with  marvelous  rapidity  after  the  com- 


I 


'il 

'   I 


1       •' 


u 


402 


CLIMATOLOGV. 


mencement  of  the  thaw,  and,  though  still  wrapped  in  the  dead  leaves  of 
last  season,  have  acquired  juiciness  and  a  sweet  taste  by  the  time  that  the 
snow  has  mostly  gone.  Toward  the  end  of  May,  or  in  the  first  week  in 
June,  according  to  the  earliness  of  the  spring,  Chrysosplenium  alternifolium, 
Arbutus  alpinus,  Eriophorum  vaginatum  begin  to  flower,  and  the  Betula 
glandulosa  and  some  willows  show  their  tender  foliage  and  catkins. 
Early  in  June  the  Potentilla  fruticosa,  the  Rhododendron  lapponicum,  and 
several  anemones  flowe/.  Frogs  at  this  time  croak  loudly ;  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  month,  summer  may  be  considered  as  fiiirly  established. 
About  the  24th  or  26th  of  July,  ripe  bleaberries  (Vaccinimn  uliginosum) 
may  be  gathered.  Strawberries  are  generally  a  week  earlier,  and  the 
Arbutus  alpina  and  Rubus  chamamorut,  or  cloudberry,  are  somewhat  later. 

In  the  beginning  of  August  stars  may  be  seen  at  midnight ;  and  in  the 
last  week  of  this  month  the  van  flocks  of  snow-geese  are  seen  going  south- 
ward, having  spent  between  eighty  and  ninety  days  at  their  breeding 
stations.  The  laughing-geese  follow  in  a  day  or  two  ;  but  they  pass  on  in 
autumn  without  any  of  the  delays  that  characterize  their  spring  flights, 
which  are  necessarily  checked  as  often  as  a  few  cold  days  arrest  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snow  on  the  sea-coast.  Drift  ice  obstructs  the  navigation  of 
the  lake  in  some  seasons  till  the  first  or  second  week  of  August. 

In  the  last  week  of  August,  or  in  the  beginning  of  September,  snow 
falls,  and  by  the  10th  of  the  month  the  deciduous  leaves  begin  to  drop. 
By  the  18th,  most  of  the  birds  which  breed  in  the  district  have  migrated 
southward,  a  few  water-fowl  and  the  winter  residents  alone  remaining. 
Between  the  first  appearance  of  vegetation,  till  the  falling  of  the  leaves  of 
deciduous  trees,  about  a  hundred  days  elapse ;  but  although  this  may  be 
taken  as  the  length  of  the  season  for  the  growth  of  plants,  some  of  the 
grasses  continue  to  ripen  their  seeds  till  the  beginning  of  October,  notwith- 
standing much  severe  frost  before  that  date.  In  ordinary  seasons  the  frost 
sets  in  severely  before  the  end  of  September,  and  the  seeds  of  carices  and 
grasses,  instead  of  dropping  off",  are  frozen  hard  in  their  glumes,  and  re- 
main hanging  on  the  culm  till  next  spring,  when  they  drop  off"  into  a  soil 
prepared  by  the  thaw  for  their  reception.  It  is  on  these  grass  seeds  of  the 
preceding  j'^ear  that  the  gi'aminivorous  birds  feed  on  their  first  arrival  from 
the  south.  In  October,  when  the  soil  begins  to  freeze  again,  the  summer 
thaw  has  penetrated  about  twenty-one  inches  in  the  neighborhood  of  Fort 
Franklin.  The  small  lakes  are  covered  with  ice  by  the  10th  or  12th  of 
the  month ;  and,  when  that  occurs,  the  last  of  the  water-fowl  depart.  By 
the  20th  of  the  month  the  smaller  trees  are  frozen  through,  the  larger  ones 
remaining  soft  and  moic  'n  the  centre.  By  the  end  of  the  month,  or  early 
in  November,  the  young  ice,  llling  the  bays,  puts  an  end  to  the  navigation 
of  the  lake,  after  it  has  continued  open  about  sixty  days.  The  centre  of 
the  lake  does  not  freeze  over  till  late  in  December 


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OBSERVATIONS  IN  THE  ARCTIC  SEAS. 


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CLIMATOLOOY. 

OnSKRVATIONS   IN    SpiTZBKIlOEN. 


June. 

July. 

Auftuit. 

Rum.  <)unrter. 

Hecia  Cove.  Int.  HOO  N . . 
Trent  cruising,  in.  Int. 
80ON.,long.  lOOE... 

+3580 
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33  80 

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34.53 

The  procediiig  pages  contnin  the  tompernturos  of  the  districts 
througli  which  the  Expedition  tnivelod,  wherever  I  have  been  nble 
to  ascertain  them,  and  also  data  fur  extending  the  lines  of  mean  an- 
nual heat  (^isotlicrmal),  moan  summer  heat  {isothrrral),  and  mean 
winter  heat  (^isochcitncnnl)  across  the  continent.  By  comparing  the 
sea-coast  temperatures  in  Table  II.  and  those  of  the  shores  of  the 
great  lakes  in  Table  I.  with  those  of  places  in  France  and  Italy 
lying  between  tlie  same  parallels  of  42"-45"  north  latitude,  wo 
perceive  that  the  mean  annual  heat  of  Europe  is  from  8°  to  15°  Fah. 
greater  than  that  of  America  at  the  same  distance  from  the  equa- 
tor, while  the  summer  heats  difler  only  from  2°  to  G°.*  The  in- 
ferior mean  heat  of  America  is  therefore  duo  principally  to  excessive 
winter  colds,  and  this  is  decidedly  the  case  in  the  inferior.  As  the 
summer  heats,  however,  regulate  the  culture  of  the  cerealia  and 
the  growth  of  deciduous  plants  generally,  the  severe  winters  of 
America  do  not  cause  a  scanty  vegetation.  From  the  50th  parallel 
northward  the  trees  are  frozen  to  their  centres  in  winter ;  and, 
consequently,  the  development  of  buds  and  other  vital  processes 
which  go  on  in  the  temperate  climate  of  England,  even  in  the  cold- 
est months,  are  completely  arrested.  This  hybernation  of  plants 
Micreases  in  length  with  the  severity  and  duration  of  winter  which, 
i^enorally  speaking,  augment  in  the  interior  of  America  with  the 
latitude.  The  summer  heats  do  not,  however,  decrease  in  the 
same  ratio  as  we  go  to  the  north ;  on  the  contrary,  the  isothiRral 
lines  nearly  follow  the  canoe  route,  and  run  to  the  northward  and 
westward.  The  elevation  of  the  prairie  slopes  has  less  influence  in 
depressing  the  summer  heat,  than  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  other 
causes  have  in  raising  it. 

Experiments  are  still  wanting  whereby  we  may  ascertain  the 
ratio  of  the  decrease  of  mean  heat  in  America  with  the  increase 
of  altitude.     In  Table  II.  we  find  that,  notwithstanding  the  eleva- 

*  Dove's  table  in  the  Report  of  the  Brit.  Association  for  1847  has  fur- 
nished the  moans  of  making  this  comparison.  The  places  compared  were 
Alais,  Aries,  Bordeaux,  Dax,  Manosque,  Marseilles,  Montpellier,  Pan,  Puy, 
Tarascon,  Toulon,  Toulouse,  Perpignan,  Alba,  Bologna,  Cascina,  and  Lucca. 
Oleron  of  Beam  has  the  same  altitude  with  Lake  Superior,  and  Mount 
Louis  is  4900  feet  high.  All  of  them  lie  within  the  parallels  of  43°-45° 
except  the  last  which  is  in  42°  50'  N.  The  maps  of  isothermal  lines  of 
this  author  express  the  general  results  of  the  study  of  the  table  referred  *n. 


■W0.MKFli 


nts 
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es  of 
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COMrARIi=«ON  OF  TKMrKRATlTRES. 


40b 


tion  of  Frnnklin  Malone  nhove  Kastpoit  of  ()45  feet,  its  monn  teni- 
pernturo  is  groiitor;  its  interior  poHiiion  giving  it  an  advantage  in 
summer  heat  over  the  sea-coast,  which  its  greater  altitude  does  not 
destroy.  If  we  refer  to  Dove's  tabUi,  and  contrast  the  temperatures 
of  Mount  Louis,  which  hes  near  the  43d  parallel,  witli  those  of  low 
country  situations  enumerated  at  the  foot  of  the  preceding  page, 
we  find  a  mean  diiference  of  temperature  of  one  degree  of  Fah- 
renheit for  350  feet  of  altitude.  A  similar  allowance  for  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  successive  steps  of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin  would  place 
in  still  greater  prominence  the  rise  of  the  isothermal  linoH,  and  more 
still  that  of  the  isothseral  ones,  as  they  recede  from  the  Atlantic 
coast.  There  is,  however,  this  diiference  in  the  climate  of  the  sum- 
mit of  a  mountain  and  of  an  elevated  plateau,  that  in  the  former 
case  we  approach  near  the  line  of  invariable  temperature,  and  the 
summer  hea^  therefore  differs  loss  from  the  mean  of  the  year,  and 
more  from  that  of  the  plains,  than  on  a  plateau  where  the  depression 
of  mean  temperature  produced  by  elevation  is  due  chiefly  to  winter 
colds,  and  in  a  small  degree  only  to  defect  of  summer  heat. 

From  Table  IL  also  we  may  learn  that  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  coast  districts  of  the  Pacific  is  greater  than  that  of  the  Atlantic 
countries,  and,  at  the  same  time,  more  equable ;  the  difference  be- 
tween the  hot  and  cold  months  being  less.  We  find  in  it  an  ex- 
pression of  the  general  fact,  that  the  west  coasts  of  continents 
are  warmer  than  the  east  ones ;  and  as  Montreal  and  Fort  Van- 
couver lie  nearly  in  the  same  latitudes  and  at  the  same  altitudes 
above  the  sea,  and  both  are  far  enough  removed  from  the  coast  to 
be  beyond  the  direct  influence  of  the  sea  breezes,  columns  4  and  6 
furnish  the  means  of  eliciting  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  climate 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  continent.  Instead  of  four  or  five  months 
of  continuous  snow  and  ice  which  Canada  may  be  said  to  enjoy,  for 
it  is  the  season  of  general  enjoyment,  Oregon  has  an  open,  rainy 
winter,  with  little  frost  or  snow;  but,  at  the  same  time,  a  summer 
of  less  power. 

Table  V.  exhibits  even  greater  differences  in  the  Pacific  and 
Atlantic  climates  in  a  higher  parallel.  The  course  of  the  ocean 
currents,  and  the  interposition  of  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  and  its  pro- 
longation by  the  Aleutian  chain  of  islands,  protect  the  west  coast  of 
America  from  the  masses  of  drift  ice  which  in  the  same  latitudes  en- 
cumber and  chill  the  Labrador  coast  for  the  most  of  the  year.  Even 
in  the  polar  regions  the  west  coasts  have  milder  climates.  Table 
X.  shows,  as  fur  as  it  goes,  that  the  mean  temperature  of  the  west 
coast  of  Greenland  exceeds  that  of  places  on  the  continent,  up  to 
the  150th  meridian,  though  the  summer  on  the  coast  is  greatly  colder 
than  that  of  the  interior.  By  the  study  of  Table  XH.  we  learn 
that  in  the  polar  seas  the  summer  heats  vary  little,  as  we  might 


"111 


i 


tl 


406 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


expect  from  the  constant  presence  of  ice;  but  the  nnnual  menn 
seems  to  decrease  generally  with  the  latitude,  the  only  exception 
being  that  of  Wolstenholme  Sound,  in  which  we  have  a  confirmation 
of  the  greater  mildness  of  the  west  Greenland  coast.  In  the  high 
latitudes  the  mean  heat  of  the  three  winter  months  does  not  differ 
greatly  in  different  years;  but  in  some  seasons  one  of  these  months, 
in  others  another,  is  the  coldest,  the  temperature  being  ruled  greatly 
by  the  prevailing  winds. 

Generally  speaking,  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  places  in 
the  interior  of  North  America  falls  within  a  degree  or  two  of  the 
mean  heat  of  the  two  months  of  April  and  October.  The  mean 
temperature  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  is,  according  to 
Dove's  calculations,  58*2°  Fah.,  being  54°  in  January  and  62°  in 
July.  For  such  a  mean  annual  heat  in  America  we  must  descend 
to  the  34th  parallel  of  latitude ;  but  the  July  heat  of  62°  Fah.  ex- 
tends northward  to  the  Mackenzie. 

The  intense  winter  colds  in  the  high  latitudes  are  apparently  in  a 
great  measure  owing  to  the  active  nocturnal  radiation  into  the  clear 
blue  sky.  The  observatory,  which  was  a  small  log  building  with- 
out a  fire-place,  furnished  us  with  the  means  of  judging  how  much 
greater  the  depression  of  temperature  in  the  night  was  in  places 
exposed  to  the  sky,  than  in  those  covered  in. 

The  daily  curve  of  atmospheric  temperature  for  the  three  winter 
months  was  a  bold  and  nearly  regular  hyperbolic  curve,  of  which  the 
mean  was  — 25-2°  Fah.,  the  maximum  — 22*2°  Fah.,  and  the  min- 
imum — 26*7°  Fah.*  The  maximum  occurs  at  Ih.  18m.  p.m.,  and 
the  mean  line  is  crossed  by  the  curve  at  9h.  19m.  a.m.,  and  6h. 
29ra.  P.M. ;  the  lowest  temperature  being  reached  at  7  a.m.  The 
ascending  branch  of  the  curve,  therefore,  corresponds  to  an  in- 
terval of  6h.  18m.,  and  the  descending  one  to  17h.  42m.  During 
14h.  51m.  the  temperature  is  below  the  mean,  and  it  is  only  9h. 
9m.  above  it,  which  indicates  a  tolerably  bold  curve  in  the  day,  and 
a  nearly  horizontal  course  in  the  night. 

In  the  observatory  the  mean  for  the  same  period  was  only 
— 15*91°  Fah.,  and  the  range  no  more  than  0*97°.  The  maximum 
occurred  at  6  p.m.,  being  retarded  4^  hours ;  and  the  minimum  at 
10  A.M.  being  delayed  3  hours.  For  most  of  the  night  the  temper- 
ature was  above  the  mean — such  being  the  effect  of  the  interposition 
of  the  building  between  the  thermometer  and  the  blue  atmosphere. 
The  walls  of  the  observatory,  it  is  necessary  to  remark,  were  by  no 
means  air-tight,  and  the  door  was  opened  at  least  once  an  hour  in 
the  day,  and  sometimes,  especially  on  term  days,  much  oftener. 
There  was,  consequently,  a  considerable  and  frequent  admission  of 

*  The  correction  for  the  error  of  the  thermometer  at  low  temperatures 
used  in  Tab.  X.  col.  9.  was  not  applied  to  these  numbers. 


I 


■li^ 


EFFECTS  OP  SUNLIGHT  ON  VEGETATION. 


407 


'he 
in- 


jures 


the  exterDal  air;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  during  the  experiments 
on  magnetic  intensity,  the  heat  of  the  observer's  body  had  an  evi- 
dent effect  in  raising  the  temperature  of  the  room. 

I  had  intended  to  have  instituted  a  series  of  observations,  with 
Sir  John  Herschell's  actinometer,  on  the  nocturnal  radiation,  and 
also  on  the  momentary  intensity  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun ;  but 
the  instrument  was  unfortunately  broken  on  the  voyage.  The 
Edinburgh  New  Philosophical  Journal  for  1841  contains  the  results 
of  obseiTations  made  at  Fort  Franklin,  with  the  black  bulb  thermom- 
eter, on  the  heating  power  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  I  renewed  these 
observations  at  Fort  Confidence ;  but,  as  they  were  not  carried  on 
later  than  April,  they  furnish  no  information  respecting  the  power 
of  the  sun  in  the  months  in  which  the  processes  of  vegetation  are 
active.  As  the  black  bulb  thermometer  indicates  the  accumulative 
effect  of  the  sun's  rays,  it  seems  to  be  a  useful  instrument  for  as- 
certaining the  heating  power  of  the  sun  on  the  stems  and  larger 
branches  of  trees,  at  least,  if  not  also  on  their  leaves  and  on  her- 
baceous plants.  The  hybernation  of  trees  ceases  long  before  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  is  sufficient  to  restore  activity  to 
the  vegetative  processes,  and  before  the  earth,  still  enveloped  in  its 
snowy  covering,  has  felt  the  influence  of  returning  spring.  This 
is  evidently  mainly  or  wholly  due  to  the  sun's  light  direct  or  reflect- 
ed ;  and  perhaps  its  rays  as  reflected  from  the  pure  and  glassy  sur- 
face of  the  snow,  after  the  days  have  increased  considerably  in 
length,  may  have  the  same  powerful  effect  on  the  forest  that,  ac- 
cording to  Professor  Forbes,  they  have  on  the  black-bulb  thermom- 
eter. For  some  time  after  the  trees  have  begun  to  thaw  by  day, 
they  freeze  again  in  the  night;  and  in  more  southern  localities, 
where  the  sugar-maple  grows,  the  sugar  makers  are  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  fact  that  a  hard  frost  arrests  the  flow  of  the  sap  in  the 
night.  Should  a  hot  day,  however,  follow  such  an  occurrence,  the 
flow  is  more  abundant  than  ever,  the  short  rest  seemingly  increas- 
ing the  irritability  of  the  organs  by  which  the  sap  is  eliminated  and 
circulated.* 

*  As  I  was  revising  this  sheet,  Sir  William  Hooker  favored  me  with  an 
extract  from  the  journal  of  Mr.  Berthold  Seeman,  botanist  of  the  Herald, 
part  of  which  follows  :  "  During  our  stay  at  Port  Clarence,  in  September, 
1850, 1  made  several  experiments  to  ascertain  the  depth  to  which  the  thaw 
penetrated  the  soil :  the  result  varied ;  in  some  places  ft  did  not  descend 
above  two  feet  into  the  earth,  while  in  sandy  places  the  groimd  was  free 
from  frost  to  the  depth  of  four  or  five  feet.  The  season  was  much  colder 
than  in  1849,  the  sea  more  loaded  with  ice,  and  the  terrestrial  vegetation 
less  vigorous." 


ti 


<  rl 


:     H^.' 


'■  t  ffl 


1 

m 


408 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTIOiN  OP  PLANTO. 


No.  III. 

ON  THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS  IN  THE 
COUNTRY  NORTH  OF  THE  49th  PARALLEL  OF  LATITUDE. 

Generic  and  Specific  Forms  of  Plants  decrease  in  Number  as  the  Latitude  in- 
creases.— Analogy  between  Altitude  and  Increase  of  Latitude. — Culture  of  the 
Vine. — Of  the  Cerealia. — Maize. — Wlieat. — Oats. — Barley. — Potatoes. — Botan- 
ical Districts. — Their  Physiognomy.^-Woodland  District. — Barren  Grounds. — 
Prairies. — Rocky  Mountains. — Sitka. — Polar  Plants. — Arctic  Zone. — Trees  and 
Shrubs. — Table  of  Distribution  of  Species  in  three  several  Zones. — Carices. 

Tholgh  the  isolhesral  lines,  when  the  term  is  restricted  to  the 
mean  temperatures  of  the  three  summer  months  of  June,  July,  and 
August,  run  from  Lake  Superior  northward  to  the  Mackenzie,  yet 
the  short  duration  of  the  summer  on  the  banks  of  that  river,  and 
the  occasional  frosts  in  June  and  August,  and  in  some  years  even 
in  July,  render  itie  climate  unsuitable  for  numbers  of  vegetables 
which  flourish  in  the  northern  districts  of  the  United  States.  Many 
trees,  shrubs,  and  perennial  roots  can  be  frozen  without  injury  if 
the  frost  be  continuous  throughout  the  winter ;  and  they  acquire  so 
much  irritability  in  their  hybernation,  that  the  stimulus  of  perpetual 
though  less  fervid  day  within  the  arctic  circle  causes  them  to  perform 
the  functions  of  foliation  and  fructification  with  a  rapidity  unknown 
in  more  temperate  regions.  Other  plants  which  need  longer  time 
to  perfect  their  fruit  or  woody  fibre,  terminate  in  succession  ac- 
cording to  their  several  constitutions  as  the  latitude  increases. 
Their  place  is  only  partially  supplied  by  other  species,  which  have 
in  like  manner  their  equatorial  and  polar  limits.  These  are  not, 
however,  so  numerous  as  those  which  die  out,  there  being  no  rule 
more  general  than  the  decrease  of  generic  and  specific  forms  in 
passing  from  temperate  zones  to  arctic  or  polar  ones. 

There  is  a  similarity  in  many  respects  between  the  vegetation  ot 
alpine  tracts  and  that  of  high  latitudes,  but  not  an  identity,  the  con- 
dition of  the  two  regions  differing  in  some  essential  particulars.  No 
more  apt  illustration  of  this  fact  is  needed  than  that  adduced  by 
Meyen,  of  Titicaca.  This  alpine  lake,  situated  on  the  plateau  of 
Chuquito  in  southern  Peru,  at  the  elevation  of  12,700  feet,  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  rich  and  beautiful  vegetation,  wMoti  nourishes  under 
a  perpetual  spring.  On  its  banks  a  populous  community,  inhabiting 
magnificent  cities,  is  supported  by  a  fertile  soil,  yet  trees  are  want- 


I 

: 

V 

fi 
I 

r 
t 


tl 
a 

8i 
II 

rr 
t( 


THE  CEREALIA.-TIIE  VINE.-MAIZK. 


409 


U;! 

•  I  ; 


)s  in 

)D  ot 
Icon- 
No 
by 
iU  of 
8ur- 
Inder 
liting 
mnt- 


injj  ill  the  country ;  wliereos  we  luive  seen  tlint  the  pine  forest  ex- 
tends in  North  America  to  the  G9th  parallel,  beyond  the  limits  of 
I  lie  cnralia.  On  the  shores  of  Lnke  Titicaca  barley  and  oats 
jirow,  but  wheat  does  not  succeed,  and  maize  is  raised  only  by  arti- 
ticial  heat.  In  respect  of  these  products,  therefore,  its  climate 
agrees  with  that  of  Fort  Simpson  on  the  G3d  parallel.  Its  sum- 
mer heat,  which,  according  to  Meyen,  ranges  between  52°  and  6G° 
Fah.,  is  more  equable  than  that  of  Fort  Simpson  which  has  a 
mean  daily  summer  temperature  of  about  59'^  Fah.,  with  a  mean 
at  noon  of  70°  Fah. ;  and  a  range  of  from  90°  Fah.,  down  to  below 
the  freezing  point. 

It  is  necessary  to  remark,  however,  that  the  decrease  of  vegeta- 
ble forms  with  an  increase  of  latitude  has  more  analogy  to  that 
which  is  observed  on  a  lofty  isolated  mountain  than  on  an  elevated 
plateau;  and  plants  actually  grow  on  the  summits  of  the  White 
Mountains  of  New  Hampshire  which  are  not  met  witli  again  until 
we  reach  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  climate  of  Canada  and  Rupert's  Land 
may  be  in  part  shown  by  reference  to  a  few  of  the  plants  usually 
cultivated  for  food.  The  vine  would  thrive  with  the  summer  heat 
of  Fort  Simpson  were  the  season  long  enough ;  but  the  September 
and  October  heats,  which  are  required  to  ripen  its  fruit,  do  not  oc- 
cur in  any  district  of  Rupert's  Land;  and  the  grape  is  destroyed 
by  the  severe  night  frosts  which  are  frequent  in  autumn  even  in  so 
low  a  parallel  as  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior.  The  conditions 
essential  to  the  due  growth  of  the  vine,  mentioned  by  Meyen,*  do 
not  extend  in  the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  beyond  the  43d  par- 
allel, while  on  the  Rhine  wine  is  u  profitable  production  up  to  the 
5 1  St. 

Maize  is  a  plant  which  thrives  best  in  the  dampest  and  hottest 
tropical  climates,  where  it  brings  forth  eight  hundred-fold.  Its  cul- 
ture extends  into  temperate  regions,  but  with  a  greatly  diminished 
yield ;  and  it  is  cultivated  near  its  northern  limit  only  as  a  green 
vegetable,  the  grain  seldom  ripening,  and  being  eaten  in  its  milky 
state.  This  is  its  condition  in  most  parts  of  Great  Britain,  when 
reared  in  the  open  field.  On  the  western  shore  of  Europe  it  in 
not  cultivated  beyond  46°,  though  in  the  volley  of  the  Rhine  it  ex- 
tends to  49°  north  lat.     In  South  America,  on  the  Chili  coast,  it  is 

*  This  author  states  that  the  culture  of  the  vine  is  regulated  more  by 
the  length  of  summer  than  by  its  high  temperature,  though  the  latter  is 
also  an  element  in  the  proper  ripening  of  the  grape.  It  will  succeed,  he 
Bays,  under  every  tropical  heat,  provided  the  atmosphere  be  not  too  moist. 
It  thrives  well  under  a  mean  heat  of  60°  Fah.  ;  it  ripens  with  a  lower 
mean  heat  of  48°  Fah.,  and  a  summer  heat  of  68°  Fah.,  but  the  juice  con- 
tains less  sugar  and  yields  less  alcohol.     (Meyen,  Geogr.  of  Plants.) 

S 


•;' 


m 


.1 


1  ^■ 


' '  i 


i; 


i  ■*' 


I       ' 


.i 


410 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


planted  ns  low  as  40*^  south  lat. ;  and  on  the  Peruvian  plateau,  at 
the  height  of  12,000  feet,  above  which  it  requires  artificial  shelter 
and  warmth.  A  profitable  return  can  be  obtained  from  it  in  Ru- 
peit's  Land  between  the  49th  and  Slst  parallels,  where,  however, 
the  vine  does  not  accompany  it,  as  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  Gar- 
den cultivation  and  shelter  from  spring  frosts  would  extend  its  cul- 
tivation in  Rupert's  Land  even  higher  than  in  England.  On  the 
fertile  acclivity  of  Young  Street  which  leads  from  Toronto  to  Lake 
Simcoe,  and  crosses  the  44th  parallel  of  latitude,  we  may  behold 
heavy  crops  of  maize,  and  cucumbers  and  gourds,  ri()ening,  in  the 
same  field,  with  but  little  expenditure  of  care  or  labor,  though  the 
mean  annual  heat,  being  41°  Fah.,  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  Orkney 
and  Shetland  Islands,  where  barley,  one  of  the  most  northern  of 
the  cereals,  grows  imperfectly.  The  summer  heat  of  Young 
Street,  however,  exceeds  that  of  any  part  of  the  British  Isles. 

Wheat  is  the  cereal  which  requires  most  heat  of  those  usually 
cultivated  in  England.  Its  culture  is  said  to  ascend  to  62^  or  64*^ 
north  lat.  on  the  west  side  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  but  not 
to  be  of  importance  beyond  the  60th.  On  the  route  of  the  Expedition 
it  is  raised  with  profit  at  Fort  Liard  in  lat.  60°  5'  north,  long.  122^ 
31'  west,  and  having  an  altitude  of  between  400  and  500  feet  above 
the  sea.  This  locality,  however,  being  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  is  subject  to  summer  frosts;  and  the  grain  does  not 
ripen  perfectly  every  year,  though  in  favorable  seasons  it  gives  a 
good  return.  At  Dunvegan,  on  Peace  River,  lying  in  lat.  66°  6' 
north,  long.  117°  45'  west,  and  nt  an  altitude  of  778  feet,  the  cul- 
ture of  this  grain  is  said  to  be  equnlly  precarious.  It  grows,  how- 
ever, freely  on  the  banks  of  the  Saskatchewan,  except  near  Hud- 
son's Bay,  where  the  summer  temperature  is  too  low.  From  Mr. 
M'Pherson  I  learnt,  that  on  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
good  crops  of  wheat  are  raised  with  facility  at  Alexandria,  on  Fra- 
zer's  River,  in  lat.  52°  30'  north,  long.  122°  40'  west,  and  300  or 
400  feet  above  the  sea;  also  at  Fort  George,  on  the  same  river, 
more  than  a  degree  further  north,  and  100  feet  higher. 

At  Fort  James,  on  the  borders  of  Stuart's  Lake,  in  lat.  54^° 
north,  in  a  mountainous  region  near  the  source  of  Frazer's  River, 
wheat  continues  to  grow,  but  often  suffers  from  the  summer  frosts. 
In  these  quarters  the  grain  comes  to  maturity  in  about  four  months* 
In  the  colony  of  Red  River  its  growth  is  luxuriant,  though  the 
upper  part  of  that  country,  which  touches  the  49th  parallel  of  lati- 
tude, is  elevated  about  1000  feet  above  the  sea.  Periodical  ravages 
of  grasshoppers,  however,  frequently  destroy  the  hopes  of  the  hus- 
bandman. 

At  Fort  Francis,  situated  on  the  banks  of  Rainy  River  in  lat. 
48°  35'  north,  long.  93°  28^'  west,  wheat  is  generally  sown  about 


WIIEAT.-OAT8.— BARLEY. 


411 


js  not 
ives  a 
56°  6' 
le  cul- 

how- 

Hud- 
Mr. 

ntains 

FlH- 

00  or 
river, 

iRiver, 
frosts, 
lonthst 
[h  the 
)f  Inti- 
lavnges 
le  hus- 

1  in  lat. 
Rbout 


tlio  let  of  Miiy,  and  is  ronpod  in  the  Inftor  end  of  Aup;ust,  after  an 
intervnl  of  aljout  120  days.  In  1847  multitudes  of  caterpillars  spread 
like  locusts  over  the  neighborhood.  They  traveled  In  a  stniight 
line,  crawling  over  houses,  across  rivers,  and  into  large  iires  kindled 
to  arrest  them.  Throughout  the  whole  length  of  Rainy  River,  on 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and  on  the  River  Winipeg,  they  stripped 
the  leaves  from  the  trees,  and  ate  up  the  herbage.  They  destroyed 
the  J'olle  avoine  on  Rainy  Lake,  but  left  untouched  some  wheat 
that  was  just  coming  into  ear.  This  was  the  first  time  that  Fort 
Francis  had  experienced  such  a  visitation.  When  we  passed  that 
way  in  1848,  the  still  leadess  trees  were  covered  with  the  cocoons 
of  last  year,  in  each  of  wliich  there  renuiined  the  hairy  skin  of  a 
caterpillar. 

On  the  island  of  Sitka,  lying  in  57° — 58°  north  latitudes,  though 
the  forest,  nourished  by  a  comparatively  high  mean  tempera- 
ture and  a  very  moist  atmosphere,  is  equal  to  that  of  the  richest 
woodlands  of  the  northern  United  Status,  yet  corn  does  not 
grow. 

In  the  middle  temperate  zone  of  France  wheat  is  cultivated  to 
the  height  of  5400  feet  only.  In  Mexico  its  culture  commences  at 
the  altitude  of  2500  or  3000  feet,  and  ascends  to  more  than  9000 
feet.  On  the  plateau  of  southern  Peru,  80OO  feet  above  the  sen, 
its  yield  is  extraordinary;  and  on  the  foot  of  the  volcano  of  Arequi- 
pa  it  succeeds  as  high  as  10,000  ;  but  it  will  not  grow  in  the  equa- 
ble temperature  of  Lake  Titicaca,  the  heat  there  not  being  sufficient 
to  ripen  either  it  or  rye.  It  requires  for  its  growth,  says  Meyen, 
the  mean  annual  heat  of  56°  Fall. ;  a  much  inferior  heat  is,  however 
HiifTicient  in  the  extreme  climate  of  subarctic  America,  provided  the 
SI. II liner  heat  for  100  or  120  days  be  great  enough. 

Oats  are  litle  cultivated  in  Rupert's  Land  ;  they  require  longer 
time  than  barley  to  ripen,  and  are  therefore  not  likely  to  grow  so 
far  north.  They  have  not  been  tried  at  Fort  Norman,  however, 
which  is  the  most  advanced  post  in  that  direction  where  barley  is 
cultivated.  Mr.  M^Pherson  finding  some  grains  of  oats  accident- 
ally in  a  barley  field,  propagated  them,  and  raised  some  good  crops 
on  the  River  of  the  Mountains,  and  I  believe  also  at  Fort  Simpson. 
On  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  this  grain  is  said  to  extend  to  62^° 
N.  and  65°  N.,  but,  even  on  the  latter  parallel,  falling  five  degrees 
short  of  the  latitude  which  barley  reaches.  Meyen  saw  ripe  oats 
at  Lake  Titicaca. 

In  good  seasons  barley  ripens  well  at  Fort  Norman  on  the  65th 
parallel,  as  has  been  mentioned  in  the  Narrative  (page  104.)  All 
Mr.  Bell's  attempts  to  raise  it  at  Fort  Good  Hope,  two  degrees 
further  north,  failed.  It  reaches,  as  we  have  just  observed,  the 
70th  degree  of  latitude  on  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  and  it  is  cul- 


:    1  M 


■M 


■  ■^ 


v\- 


^    -H 


i;'': 


I  m 


•'' 


41: 


ceOGIlAPIIICAL  DISTRIBlTiOX  Ol'  I'LANTS. 


t.l 


tivated  for  grecMi  fddtlor  in  Peru  up  tlio  liei;ilit  «»("  1.3,800  foot,  but 
8ol(l(»in  lipoiis  ifd  grain  higher  than  10,000  foet.     (iMuyen.) 

Potatoes,  winch  have  been  cultivated  from  time  inunemorial  on 
the  banks  of  Lake  Titicaca,  yield  abundantly  at  Fort  Liard,  and 
grow,  though  inferior  in  quahty,  at  Fort  Simpson  and  ^^ort  Nor- 
num.  They  have  not  succeeded  at  Fort  Good  Elope,  near  the  G7th 
parallel.  At  the  latter  place  turnips  in  favorable  seasons  attained 
a  weight  of  from  two  to  three  pounds,  and  were  generally  sown  in 
the  last  week  of  May.  At  Peel's  River  the  trials  made  to  grow 
culinary  vegetables  had  no  success.  Nothing  grew  except  a  few 
cresses.  Turnips  and  cabbages  came  up  about  an  inch  above  the 
ground,  but  withered  in  the  sun,  and  were  blighted  by  early  Au- 
gust frosts. 

In  the  preceding  narrativo,  as  well  as  in  the  geographical  sketch, 
yve  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  allude  to  several  great  divisions 
of  North  America,  each  of  which  has  a  peculiar  physiognomical 
character  in  its  vegetation. 

1st.  The  eastern  woodland  country  constitutes  the  first  division, 
in  which  the  forest  extends  from  the  Atlantic  westward  till  it  meets 
the  great  prairies. 

2d.  The  second  division  lies  to  the  north,  oC  the  forest  lands, 
and  is  appropriately  named  the  *•  Barren  Grounds."  This  tract 
has  its  greatest  north  and  south  extension  on  the  eastern  coast. 
On  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  Welcome  it  reaches  from 
the  60th  or  Gist  parallel  to  the  extremity  of  the  continent,  but  nar- 
rows to  the  westward  ;  since  the  boundary  line  of  the  wood  takes 
a  diagonal  or  northellst  direction  from  the  9l8t  meridian,  and,  before 
reaching  the  120th,  has  risen  to  tht  07th  parallel.  Further  to  the 
west  the  Barren  Grounds  form  a  border  to  the  Arctic  Sea  of  greater 
or  less  breath  according  to  the  northerly  prolongation  of  the  conti- 
nental promontories,  since  the  southern  limit  is  nearly  coincident 
throughout  with  the  arctic  circle,  on  which  it  approaches  Beering's 
Straits — clumps  of  spruce  fir,*  the  usual  outliers  of  the  forest, 
having  been  observed  on  Buckland  or  Noatak  River  which  falls  into 
Eschscholtz  Bay.  The  fertile  alluvial  deposits  of  ine  well-shelter- 
ed valley  of  the  Mackenzie  interrupt  the  continental  continuity  of 
the  Barren  Grounds  by  carrying  the  woods  nearly  to  the  sea-shore ; 
but  there  seems  to  be  no  other  material  indentation  of  the  barren 
district;  and  even  on  the  Mackenzie  the  valley  is  bridged,  as  it 
were,  by  the  naked  summits  of  the  alpine  ridges. 

3d.  The  prairie  slope  forms  a  third  physiognomical  district  of 
vegetation,  which  has  the  greatest  transverse  expansion  on  the  Mis- 
souri, and,  narrowing  as  it  goes  north,  runs  out  on  the  60th  parallel, 


*  The  species  is  doubtful. 


DISTRICTS  OP 


i.TAT^'ON. 


411 


rict  of 

Mi8- 

irallel, 


having,  after  passing  the  Snskatchewm  boeu  int"  li  indented  by  the 
woods  which  feather  iho  numerous  i  vers  that  l  ruin  the  dHchvity. 
Tliese  prairies  have  much  utntlugy  with  chalk  dutvus  in  pect  ui 
well  H8  in  niinerul  constitution. 

4th.  The  Rocky  Mountain  chain,  and  the  alpine  i  t^es  and 
isolated  peaks  which  rise  to  the  westward  uf  it,  may  be  c<>nsider«ik 
as  a  fourth  district  which  nourishes  some  peculiar  species  uf  pluntH> 

5th.  And  the  lower  woodland  country  on  the  Pacitic  side  of  the 
range  forms  a  fifth. 

If  we  trace  any  one  of  these  districts  northward,  making  due  allow- 
ance for  the  varying  altitude  of  the  country  above  the  sua,  we  may 
ascertain  the  eifect  of  increase  of  latitude  on  the  vegetation  of  that 
meridian  ;  but,  if  we  compare  une  district  with  another,  we  must 
keep  in  view  the  climatulogica!  fact  of  the  rise  of  the  isothermal 
lines  in  proceeding  westward.  The  course  of  the  forest  boundary 
is  one  illustration  of  this  phenomenon;  and  we  have  another  in  the 
range  of  certain  species  or  forms  constituting  that  forest.  Thus  iho 
Cupressus  thyoides  is  rare  beyond  the  49th  parallel  in  the  eastern 
district,  and  terminates  altogether  along  with  the  Thuya  occidental  in 
on  the  53d,  while  the  magnificent  Cujiressus  or  Thuya  nutkatensia 
adorns  the  forests  of  Norfolk  Sound  on  the  5Bth  parallel  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  distribution  of  the  Pinus  inops,  Abies  cana- 
densis, Ruhus  nutkanus,  and  of  some  other  conspicuous  trees  nud 
shrubs,  show  that  the  vegetation  of  the  district  of  Sitka  on  the  north- 
west coast  is  equal  and  similar  to  that  of  the  eastern  States  of  Wis- 
consin or  Minnesota  eight  degrees  further  south. 

The  physiognomy  of  the  woodland  district  through  which  the 
canoe  route  lies  has  been  incidentally  touched  upon  in  the  descrip- 
tions of  several  localities  that  have  been  introduced  into  the  narrative, 
yet  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  recall  its  general  features  here. 
Of  this  district,  which  has  a  breadth  of  about  600  geographical 
miles  between  the  50th  and  55th  parallels,  the  white  spruce  is  the 
most  abundant  and  characteristic  tree ;  yet  up  to  the  54th  parallel 
it  is  conjoined,  and  especially  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  with  other 
trees  which  break  the  monotony  of  the  dark  evergreen  forest.  Be- 
yond the  banks  of  the  Saskatchewan  the  oaks,  elms,  ashes,  maples, 
bass-wood,  white  thorns,  Virginian  clematis,  and  various  other  trees 
and  shrubs  cease  to  grow;  and  the  white  spruce  may  be  said  to 
cover  the  face  of  the  country,  except  on  the  alluvial  borders  of 
rivers  and  lakes,  where  the  aspen,  balsam  poplar,  balsam  fir,  alder, 
and  multitudes  of  willows  usurp  its  place,  or  on  the  edges  of  swamps 
where  the  black  spruce  leads  a  lingering,  unhealthy  existence. 
With  the  black  spruce  the  larch  is  often  associated ;  though  it  is 
not  confined  to  morasses,  yet  it  is  too  much  isolated  in  its  distribution 
to  produce  a  difference  of  tintsuiKiciently  massive  to  please  the  eye, 


Ml 


1| 


411 


GEOGRAPHICAL  nifiTRinCTION  OF  PLANTS. 


ii   ;i 


!  'i 


I  '  I 


except  in  very  few  localiries.  The  Rnnksian  pine  is  more  fre- 
quently seen  in  conaiderable  pntcheo,  nnd  its  nppeiirnnce  is  agree- 
able to  the  voynger  ;  fur,  independent  of  the  fiict  that  its  sprending 
branches  nnd  general  form,  resembling  that  of  the  Scotch  fir,  is  a 
rest  to  the  eye  wearied  with  the  tapering  stiffness  of  the  spruce,  it 
otters  the  prospect  of  a  dry  nnd  comfortable  encampment.  It  always 
grows  in  n  sandy  soil,  nnd  is  remarkable  among  the  Rupert's  Land 
trees  for  its  freedom  from  underwood.  Not  so  the  white  spruce, 
which  admits  of  a  thick  undergrowth  of  willows,  cornel  bushes, 
viburnum,  roses,  brambles,  and  goosberries;  and  in  the  country 
south  of  Lake  Winipeg,  of  maples,  American  yews,  and  many 
other  shrubs  and  trees.  The  willows,  especially  when  conjoined 
with  the  falling  or  inclined  stems  of  forest  trees — the  growth  of  by- 
gone centuries — form  a  barrier  to  the  progress  of  a  white  man  in 
the  forest ;  but  the  slim  and  agile  native  glides  through  the  tangled 
thicket  with  a  noiseless  and  ghust-like  ease,  impassive  to  the  annoy- 
ance of  the  musquito  clouds  that  darken  the  air.  The  prickly 
twining  Panax  horridum,  which  interlaces  and  arms  the  brushwood 
on  the  north-west  coast  up  to  the  58th  parallel,  has  no  representative 
on  the  east  side  of  the  continent,  except  perhaps  the  Aralia  hispida^ 
which,  though  of  the  same  family,  has  feeble  defenses,  and  is  not  a 
climber.  The  Crateegi  have  the  most  offensive  weapons  of  any 
of  the  shrubs  in  Rupert's  Land. 

Even  beyond  the  Saskatchewan,  where  the  maples,  ampelopsis, 
and  some  other  trees  and  shrubs  whose  lenves  nssume  the  ornnga 
and  red  tints  before  they  fall,  cense  to  grow,  the  river  banks  nre 
enlivened  by  the  bright  purplish  shoots  of  the  white  cornel  berry 
{osier  rouge)  nnd  the  gay  spires  of  the  Epilobium  angustifolium, 
which  rise  nbove  n  man's  height  in  the  alluvial  deposits,  nnd  nre 
varied  niso  by  other  shrubs  that  have  been  noticed  in  the  descrip- 
tions interspersed  through  the  preceding  pages.  These  nre  merely 
the  foreground  incidents,  however ;  the  sombre  spruce  every  where 
forms  the  bnckground. 

The  ngency  of  man  is  working  a  change  in  the  aspect  of  the  forest 
even  in  the  thinly  peopled  north.  The  woods  are  wasted  by  ex- 
tensive fires,  kindled  accidentnlly  or  intentionally,  which  spread 
with  rapidity  over  a  wide  extent  of  country,  nnd  continue  to  burn 
until  they  are  extinguished  by  heavy  rains.  These  conflngrations 
consume  even  the  soil  of  the  drier  tracts;  and  the  bare  and  whiten- 
ed rocks  testify  for  centuries  to  the  havoc  that  has  been  made.  A 
new  growth  of  timber,  however,  sooner  or  later  springs  up;  and 
the  soil,  when  not  wholly  consumed,  being  generally  saturated  with 
alkali,  gives  birth  to  a  thicket  of  aspens  instead  of  the  aboriginHl 
spruce. 

The  frozen   subsoil  of  the  northern  portions  of  the  woodland 


\VOUl»V  DlSi'lKIC  1'. 


M 


niaud 


country  does  not  prevent  the  timber  from  iittiiining  n  good  size,  for 
tliu  routs  of  the  white  spruce  Rprend  over  the  icy  suhstratuni  as  thny 
would  over  smooth  rock.  As  mny  be  expected,  however,  the  growth 
of  trees  is  slow  in  the  high  hititudes.  On  the  borders  of  Great 
Bear  Lake,  four  hundred  years  are  required  to  bring  the  Btetn  of 
the  white  spruce  to  the  t!iickness  of  a  matrs  waist.  When  the 
tree  is  exposed  to  high  winds,  tiie  fibres  of  the  wood  are  spirally 
twisted ;  but  in  sheltered  places,  or  in  the  midst  of  thu  forest,  the 
grain  is  straight  and  the  wood  splits  freely. 

At  the  limit  of  the  woods  the  white  spruce  is  every  where  the 
most  advanced  tree,  growing  either  solitarily,  with  its  branches 
clinging  to  the  ground  and  its  dwarfed  top  boot  from  the  blast,  or  in 
small  clumps  in  some  favorable  locality.  The  Sali.r  .speciosa  may 
indeed  be  said  to  pass  beyond  the  spruce  ;  but  it  does  so  only  on  ''le 
alluvial  points  of  rivers,  and  not  in  its  treo  form. 

Though  the  species  of  plants  become  loss  numerous  as  we  ad- 
vance northward  through  the  woody  region,  thore  is  no  falling  otf 
in  the  number  of  individuals  of  the  species  that  remain.  For  not 
only  is  the  forest  crowded,  and  often  almost  impenetrably  so,  when 
the  trees  are  young,  but  on  the  margins  of  rivers,  and  other  open 
places,  there  is  a  dense  herbaceous  vegetation,  which  clothes  the 
ground  in  Rupert's  Land  as  perfectly  as  it  is  covered  in  a  lower 
latitude,  though  the  vegetation  be  less  rank.  On  the  inundated 
alluvial  flats  tall  carices  grow  as  closely  as  thoy  can  stand,  and  furn- 
ish an  abundance  of  nutritious  hay.  Ther>  is,  however  a  total  ab- 
sence in  the  north  of  the  Lianas,  Tillatidsiee,  and  parasitic  Orchidea 
which  impart  so  peculiar  an  aspect  to  the  forests  in  some  of  the 
warmer  districts  of  the  earth.  The  great  hedge  bindweed  [Caly- 
stegia),  the  Virginia  creeper,  the  hop  plant,  and  the  twining  her- 
baceous Stnilacina,  with  its  grape-like  clusters  of  blackberries,  dis- 
appear on  the  south  side  of  Lake  Winipeg,  and  the  only  aerial 
parasite  in  the  north  is  the  leafless  ArceuOiohhua  oxycedri,  which 
seats  itself  on  the  branches  of  the  Banksian  pine.  The  graceful 
Usneee  which  hang  from  the  branches  of  the  ancient  black  spruces  in 
long,  thread-like  hanks,  have,  it  is  true,  some  resemblance  to  the 
Tillandsiee  which  forms  an  elegant  drapery  to  the  evergreen  oaks 
of  Georgia  and  Florida. 

In  the  eastern  woodland  district,  from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the 
Saskatchewan,  the  Compositee  are  the  most  numerous  family  of 
plants,  and  they  form  between  the  sixth  and  seventl.  of  the  whole 
phsenogamous  vegetation.  Next  to  them  come  the  Cyptrcceee,  which 
owing  to  the  great  development  of  the  genus  Carex,  constitute  more 
than  one-ninth  of  the  Phanerogamia  o(  the  district. 

In  the  second,  or  barren  ground  district,  in  places  where  the  soil 
is  formed  of  the  coarse  sandy  debris  of  granite,  and  is  moderately 


^1 


[^ 


410 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


dry,  the  surface  is  covered  by  a  dense  carpet  of  the  Cornicularia: 
iristis,  divergens,  ochroleuca,  and  pubescens,  mixed  in  damper  spots 
with  Celrariee  cucullata  and  islandica.  In  more  tenacious  soils 
other  plants  flourish;  not,  however,  to  the  exclusion  of  lichens,  ex- 
cept in  tracts  of  meadow  ground.  The  Rhododendron  lapponicum, 
Kalmia  glauca,  Vacciniam  uliginosum,  Empetrum  nigrum.  Ledum 
jmlustre.  Arbutus  uva  ursi,  Andromeda  telragona,  and  several  de- 
pressed or  creeping  willows,  lie  close  to  the  soil,  their  stems  short, 
twisted,  and  concealed,  with  only  the  summits  of  the  branches 
showing  among  mosses  or  lichens.  Here  and  there,  on  the  moister 
sides  of  the  hills,  there  is  a  gay  display  of  saxifrages,  pediculares, 
or  primroses ;  and  a  few  of  the  sandy  spots  on  the  coast  are  en- 
livened by  a  beautiful  dwarf  phlox  or  a  handsome  dodecatheon.  On 
the  alluvial  banks  of  rivers  only  are  willows  of  erect  growth  to  be 
found,  and  of  the  Salix  speciosa  is  the  most  robust  and  the  hand- 
somest. On  the  sandy  shore  of  the  sea  the  Pisum  (or  Lathyrus) 
mariiimum,  the  Polemonium  caruleurn,  various  blue  and  yellow 
Astragali,  and  several  Artemisiee  flourish.  Most  of  these  plants 
also  occur,  though  more  sparingly,  in  the  interior.  One  circum- 
stance which  came  under  my  observation,  and  has  been  cursorily 
alluded  to  in  the  Narrative  (page  192),  is  the  existence  of  very 
ancient  stumps  of  trees,  either  solitary  or  grouped,  in  various  places 
of  the  barren  grounds,  seemingly  the  vestiges  of  the  forest,  which 
had  spread  more  widely  over  the  country  some  centuries  ago  than 
in  the  present  day.  Further  evidence  that  such  was  the  case  may 
be  obtained  in  the  extension  of  Pyrola,  and  some  other  woodland 
plants  to  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  On  the  sheltered  banks  of 
rivers,  even  in  the  barren  grounds,  clumps  of  living  trees  occasion- 
ally occur ;  but  the  stumps  I  speak  of  stand  often  on  the  exposed 
side  of  a  hill,  and  indicate  a  deterioration  of  climate,  however  that 
may  have  been  produced.  We  saw  no  young  firs  growing  up  in 
such  situations  to  leave  similar  vestiges  in  a  future  age. 

In  many  sheltered  valleys  on  the  sea-coast,  and  even  in  the  more 
elevated  interior,  especially  where  a  fertile  soil  has  been  formed  by 
the  decomposition  of  trap  rocks,  there  is  a  good  growth  of  grasses, 
several  of  which  flourish  well  on  lands  that  are  occasionally  inun- 
dated by  the  sea.  Among  these  are  Elymus  mollis,  Spartina 
cynosuroides,  Calamagrostis  striata,  Carices  stans,  compacta,  glarc- 
osa,  membranacea,  and  livida,  Colpodium,  Deschampsia,  Festuca, 
and  several  Poee,  In  some  of  the  maritime  meadows  to  which  the 
reindeer  resort  to  bring  forth  their  young,  there  are  treacherous 
mud-banks,  which  are  soft  enough  and  deep  enough  to  swallow  up 
a  'ieer  or  musk  ox,  that  may  rush  heedlessly  into  them  when  chased 
by  a  wolf;  but  in  general  the  frozen  subsoil  is  so  near  the  surface 
us  to  preclude  any  such  accident.     The  existence  of  these  boggy 


"i- 


ARCTIC  CIRCLE. 


417 


,  j  I 


more 
[led  by 
rasseu, 
inun- 
\artina 
Iglare- 
fstuca, 
:h  the 
lieruus 
)W  up 
thRsed 
u'face 
Iboggy 


places,  which  were  seen  only  on  the  seu-coast,  scarcely  affords  a 
satisfactory  solution  to  the  problem  of  the  entombment  of  a  living 
elephant  or  rhinoceros,  and  the  subsequent  preservation  of  the  en- 
tire carcass  in  the  frozen  soil.  But  in  whatever  manner  this  may 
have  taken  place,  I  should  infer,  from  the  economy  of  the  arctic 
regions,  that  these  animals  were  migratory,  like  the  reindeer  of  the 
present  day,  and  wintered  in  milder  climates. 

On  approaching  the  arctic  circle  the  relative  proportion  of  the 
Composita:  greatly  decreases,  and  that  of  the  Cyperaceee  increasos 
within  the  woody  tracts,  though  it  falls  off  on  the  barren  grounds- 
Taking  the  whole  zone  between  the  arctic  circle  and  the  extremity* 
of  the  continent,  which  includes  much  woodland,  the  Cyperaceee  are 
the  most  numerous  family  of  plants,  and  are  more  than  double  the 
Gramineee.  The  Crucifcra  come  next  to  the  Cijperaceee  in  this 
zone.  In  the  polar  regions  beyond  the  continent,  the  Cruciferfe 
take  the  first  place  in  respect  of  number  of  species,  then  come  the 
Gramineee,  which  are  closely  followed  by  the  Saxifrages. 

The  third,  or  prairie  district,  has  the  prevailing  aspect  of  a  grassy 
plain,  the  herbage,  however,  having  a  considerable  intermixture  of 
carices  among  the  true  grasses.  The  herbage  grows  up  rather 
wiry  in  the  dry  suinujers  of  that  region  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the 
fires  that  frequently  spread  over  vast  tracts,  a  young  growth  takes 
place,  to  which  the  bison  and  deer  resort.  On  the  Arkansas,  tlie 
"  buffalo  or  bison  grass"  is  the  Sesleria  dactijloides.  Whether  this 
species  extends  to  the  Saskatchewan  or  not,  I  am  unable  to  say  : 
we  certainly  did  not  gather  it  there;  but  at  the  time  that  Mr. 
Drummond  and  I  visited  that  part  of  the  prairie,  recent  fires  had 
made  flowering  specimens  of  grasses  very  rare.  Of  the  phienogu- 
mous  prairie  plants  actually  collected,  the  Gramineee  form  about  the 
eleventh,  and  the  Cyperaceee  the  sixteenth.  On  the  plains  the 
Compositee  are  numerous  and  showy ;  there  is  a  considerable  variety 
of  handsome  Leguminosee,  with  sotne  pretty  Boragineee;  and  the 
Artemisiee,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  surface  they  cover,  though  the 
species  are  not  numerous,  contribute  greatly  to  the  hoary  aspect  of 
the  prairie  vegetation.  Tlie  Rosaces  vie  with  the  Cyperacea  in 
number  of  species;  but  many  of  them  are  fruit-bearing  shrubs, 
growing  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  that  serpentine  among  alluvial 
points,  in  channels  sunk  deeply  below  the  general  surface  of  the 
prairie. 

Between  the  32d  and  33d  parallels,  on  the  Gila  and  Rio  del  Norte, 
west  of  the  Kocky  Mountain  ridge,  Colonel  Emory  gathered  many 
examples  of  Cadi,  of  which  Dr.  Engelman  has  described  fifteen 
species  belong  to  the  genera  Mammillaria,  Echinocactus,  Opuntiu, 
and  Cereus.  Among  these  the  Pitahaya,  or  Cereus  giganteus,  is 
the  most  remarkable,  as  it  grows  in  the  shape  of  a  candelabra,  or 

8* 


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fl 


1 

ii 

M 

11 

418 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


Titanic  tuning-fork,  with  three  or  four  prongs,  to  the  height  of  sixty 
feet.  Cncti  are  numerous  also  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  mount* 
uins  in  the  same  parallel ;  and  the  smaller  kinds,  chiefly  Opuntiee, 
range  northward  over  the  prairies  to  the  49th  parallel,  and  perhaps 
still  further  north.  We  gathered  Opunlia  glotnerata,  or  the  crapaud 
verd  of  the  voyagers,  on  the  Lake  of  the  Woods ;  and  a  species  of 
the  same  section  of  the  genus  attains  an  equally  high  parallel  on  the 
Pacific  coast. 

With  the  physiognomy  of  the  vegetation  on  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  of  the  district  to  the  west  of  that  range,  I  have  no  personal  ac- 
quaintance, and  borrow  the  following  notice  of  the  vegetation  of 
Sitka  from  Bongard.  Sitka  is  situated  in  the  entrance  of  Norfolk 
Sound,  on  the  57th  parallel,  near  an  extinct  volcano,  named  Mount 
Edgecumbe,  which  marks  the  entrance  of  the  sound.  The  most 
remarkable  mountain  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  settlement  is 
WesterwSi,  which  is  300U  Parisian  feet  in  height,  and  is  clothed 
to  its  summit  by  a  dense  forest  of  pines  and  spruces,  some  of  which 
acquire  a  diameter  of  seven  feet,  and  the  prodigious  length  of  160 
feet.  The  hollow  trunk  of  one  of  these  trees  formed  into  a  canoe, 
is  able  to  contain  thirty  men.  with  all  their  household  effects.  The 
climate  of  Sitka  is  very  much  milder  than  that  of  Europe  on  the 
same  parallel.  The  cold  of  winter  is  neither  severe  nor  of  long  con- 
tinuance ;  but  the  atmosphere  is  charged  with  vapors,  whose  con- 
densation occasions  almost  constant  rains.  In  the  month  of  July  the 
sun  is  seldom  visible  on  more  than  three  or  four  days,  and  then  only 
for  an  instant.  This  humidity  gives  astonishing  vigor  to  the  vegetu- 
tion,  yet  corn  does  not  grow  there  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  want  of  level  sur- 
face is  an  impediment  to  cultivation.  In  six  weeks  the  botanists  col- 
lected 222  species  of  plants,  of  which  thirty-five  were  new  to  science 

Of  the  Polar  plants,  amounting  to  ninety-one  species,  which  in- 
habit Melville  Island,  the  shores  of  Barrow's  Straits  and  Lancaster 
Sound,  and  the  north  coasts  of  Greenland,  between  the  73d  and 
75th  parallels  of  latitude,  about  seven-ninths  range  to  Greenland, 
Lapland  or  Northern  Asia.  Of  the  remainder,  some  have  been 
gathered  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea  from  Baffin's  Bay  to  Beer- 
ing's  Straits ;  find  it  is  probable  that  if  these  high  latitudes  were 
fully  explored,  the  flora  of  the  entire  zone  would  be  found  to  be 
uniform.  Some  of  the  more  local  plants  will  perhaps  be  ascertain- 
ed, on  further  acquaintance,  to  be  mere  varieties  altered  by  pecul- 
iarities of  climate.  That  the  flora  as  well  as  the  fauna  in  the  high 
northern  latitudes  is  nearly  alike  in  the  several  meridians  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America,  has  long  been  known.  And  even  when  we 
descend  to  some  distance  south  of  the  arctic  circle,  we  find  that  this 
law  is  superior  to  the  intrusion  of  high  mounta' ;  chains,  and  is  but 
partially  infringed  upon.     In  taking  the  St.  Lawrence  basin  for  in- 


POLAR  PLANTS. 


410 


stance,  if  wo  allow  for  the  rise  of  the  isothertnal  lines  on  the  west 
coast,  and  make  our  comparisons  in  an  oblique  zone,  including  Sitka 
and  Wisconsin,  we  shall  find  that  there  is  much  similarity  in  the 
floras  on  the  two  sides  of  the  continent.  The  Rocky  Mountain 
ridge  is  not  by  any  means  a  boundary  to  the  peculiar  vegetable 
forms  of  the  Pacific  coast ;  on  the  contrary,  many  of  them  cross  the 
ridge  to  its  eastern  declivity,  though  they  do  not  descend  into  the 
low  country ;  and  there  is  actually  more  similarity  between  the 
vegetation  of  the  prairies  of  Oregon,  and  those  of  the  Missouri  and 
Saskatchewan,  than  there  is  between  the  latter  and  eastern  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  In  still  more  southern  latitudes 
the  case  may  be  different;  and  Ehrenberg  has  found  a  totally  dif- 
ferent group  of  Infusoria  in  California  from  that  which  exists  on  the 
east  side  of  the  continent;  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  his  opinion, 
proving  a  complete  barrier  to  these  organisms. 

The  families  oi  Polar  plants  which  are  most  rich  in  species  are 
the  Crudferee,  Gramineee,  Saxifrageee,  Caryophylleee,  and  Compo- 
sites. Of  these  the  Saxifrageee  are  most  characteristic  of  extreme 
northern  vegetation.  All  of  them  that  inhabit  the  74th  parallel  in 
America  are  found  also  in  Spitzbergen,  Lapland,  or  Siberia;  and 
even  the  polar  species  are  twice  as  numerous  as  those  which  exist 
in  the  wide  district  which  Gray's  "Flora  of  the  Northern  States" 
comprehends.  If  we  reckon  all  that  enter  the  arctic  circle,  we 
shall  find  them  to  be  four  times  as  many  as  those  which  Dr.  Gray 
enumerates ;  and  we  may  add  that  the  plant  which  Humboldt 
traced  highest  on  the  Andes  was  a  saxifrage.  The  Caryophylle(e 
and  Cruciferea,  which  vie  with  the  saxifrages  in  number  on  the  74th 
parallel,  include  many  of  the  doubtful  local  species  above  alluded  to. 
Of  tl'.e  most  northern  Gramineee,  about  one  half  are,  as  far  as  we 
yet  know,  exclusively  American  ;  the  few  species  which  the  other 
families  contain  have  as  extensive  a  lateral  range  as  the  saxifrages. 

Arctic  zone. — On  descending  to  the  main  land  from  the  7l8t 
parallel  down  to  the  arctic  circle,  including  a  zone  of  four  degrees 
of  latitude,  we  find  that  the  species  have  increased  eight-fold  in 
number,  and  there  is  a  large  addition  of  generic  forms,  as  might  be 
expected  on  entering  within  the  limits  of  the  forest. 

The  Polar  families  are — 


\n 


;-i 


•   ;l 


'M' 


I      ■   IT     I 


B.anunculacoBB 

Papaw.'racero 

CrucifcriB 

Caryophylleae 

LeguminosfB 

R,os>aci'!B 

Onaprarirw 

baxifragoae 


Compositae 
Cichoracece 
Eupatoriaccce 
Setiecionidece 

CampanulaceoB 

EriceiE 

Polemoniaceae 

Scrophularinere 


PolygonesB 

Salicacese 

Junceas 

CyperaccBB 

GraminesB 

LycopodinesB 

Equistacese 

Cryptogamia 


490 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION   OF   PLANTS. 


I  !i1 


In  addition  to  the  above  the  following  enter  the  Arctic  Circle — 


Sarracenioae 

FumariacecB 

VioiarieJB 

Broseraceao 

PolygalotB 

Lineao 

BalsaminccQ 

CelastrineaB 

HaluragesB 

CeratophyllesB 

Portulaceie 

CrassulaceoB 

GrossularieaB 

UinbelliferoB 

AraliaceoB 

CuincJB 


Caprifoliaceoa 

ValerianefB 

Composit.'B 

Asteroidete 
Vaccinieio 
Monotropeaa 
GentianecB 
DiapensiacesB 
HydrophyllesB 
BoraginejB 
OrobanchesB 
LabiatED 
VerbenacesB 
PritnulacesB 
Plumbagineae 
Plantangitiese 


Chenopodieae 

EleagneoB 

SantalacesB 

EmpetresB 

Urticero 

BetulacesB 

ConifersB 

Juncaginese 

Aroideae 

Naiades 

Smilaceae 

MelanthacesB 

AspbodelesB 

Orchidei3B 

IridesB 

Filices 


I  made  a  pretty  full  collection  of  lichens  and  mosses  within  the 
arctic  circle ;  but  since  so  many  of  them  are  alhiost  cosmopolites, 
and  a  still  greater  number  are  common  to  both  the  temperate  and 
frigid  zones,  under  similar  conditions  of  moisture  and  exposure,  I 
have  avoided  swelling  the  lists  with  their  names.  Fungi  are  not 
wanting  in  the  northern  regions,  but  the  difficulty  of  preserving 
them  prevented  me  from  gathering  many.  All  the  families  in  the 
above  two  lists  are  represented  in  England,  except  Diapensiacea, 
which  is  a  Lapland  form ;  and  Sarracenicfe  and  Araliaceee  which 
are  more  purely  American. 

Between  the  arctic  circle  and  the  south  side  of  the  Winipeg  or 
Saskatchewan  basin  on  the  50th  parallel,  embracing  the  entire 
width  of  the  continent,  the  following  families  make  their  appear- 
ance— 


Berberidere 

NyinphjEacePB 

Capparideee 

CistinejB 

MalvaceoB 

TiliacesB 

llypericinesB 

Acerineaj 

AmpelidesB 

Geraniacea) 

Oxalideae 

RhamnesB 


TerebinthacesB 

CucurbitacesB 

LoranthacesB 

Paronychieaj 

Jasmineee 

ApocynejB 

AsclepiacesB 

ConvolvulacesB 

Solaneee 

AmaranthaceaB 

AristolochiesB 


EuphorbiacesB 

UimacesB 

CupuliferesB 

Myriceae 

LiliaoesB 

Alismaceas 

PontederiacesB 

RestiacesB 

HydrocharidesB 

Marsiliacese 

SalvinaceaB 


The  families  which  reach  the  St.  Lawrence  basin,  but  do  not 
extend  northward  to  the  Winipeg  valley,  or  enter  the  western 
prolongation  of  that  zone,  are — 


ST.    LAWKEiNCE   PLANTS. 


421 


MttjiispermaceaB 

PodophylU'as 

LimiiaiithacoiB 

Oxalidea3 

Rutacea) 

LythrariejB 

CactesB 


HainamelideiB 
(JoinpoaitfB 

ycrnoniacece 
Acanthaci'io 
NyctaginpjK 
Phytolacceifl 
Laurinea3 


Saiirurea; 

Juglandacea; 

Platanacux 

Cainelineie 

IlypoxidetB 

JDioscorcjB 


To  give  a  further  view  of  the  accession  of  famiUes  in  going  south- 
ward, the  following  are  added  from  Dr.  Gray'a  "  Botany  of  the 
Northern  States" — 


Magaoliaceifi 

Anoiiac€» 

Cabombacesa 

HesedaceEB 

Elatinaceu) 

AnacardiacesB 


HippocastanaccsB 

MeiastomaceiB 

Hydrangoae 

Aquifoliaceap 

EbenacefB 

BignoniacesB 


NyssaceaE5 

Podostomere 

EalsarniflusB 

AmaryllidacejB 

Haemodoracea) 

XyridaceoB 


In  tracing  individual  species  to  their  northern  limits,  we  did  not 
discover  in  any  one  instance  that  the  crest  of  a  water-shed  between 
successive  transverse  river  basins  was  a  boundary  to  the  plant. 
Many  of  the  more  remarkable  trees,  oaks,  &c.,  flourish  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Rainy  Lake  and  on  the  upper  part  of  Red  River, 
but  die  out  on  approaching  the  south  end  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
Others  go  a  degree  or  two  further  north  to  the  banks  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan, about  Cumberland  House,  and  there  make  their  last 
appearance  ;  among  these  are  the  ashes,  elms,  and  maples.  Somo 
which  are  not  seen  beyond  that  locality  on  the  canoe  route,  go 
three  or  four  degrees  further  north  on  the  western  side  of  the 
prairies,  in  the  sheltered  valleys  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  these 
valleys  also  the  lamented  Drummond  found  a  considerable  number 
of  the  species  of  the  Pacific  coast,  their  range  not  being  cut  short 
by  the  dividing  ridge,  but  being  seemingly  more  effectually  limited 
by  the  dry  prairies.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  vertical  limits  of 
the  species  gathered  by  Drummond  in  the  mountains  were  not 
noted,  as  a  careful  list  containing  that  element,  and  which  no  one 
was  more  able  than  he  to  make,  would  have  conveyed  much  in- 
formation with  respect  to  the  distribution  of  plants.  T'le  statistical 
enumeration  oT  the  mountain  species,  collected  b^  ween  52°  and 
57°,  in  the  subjoined  table  evidently  contains  a  mixed  flora;  some 
families  having  an  arctic,  almost  a  polar  character ;  others  a  sub* 
arctic,  or  almost  temperate  one. 


1  ■i1 
I' 


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v'-i 


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422  GEOGRAPHICAL  DFSTIUBL TIOX  OF  PLANTS. 

LIST  OF  TREES  AND  SHRUBS.* 

Ranunculace^  — Clematis  virginiana  is  common  to  Oregon,  the  east- 
ern United  States,  and  Canada,  and  extends  northward  to  the  Saskatche- 
wan. 

Berberide.e. — Berberis  vulgaris  has  been  found  in  Canada,  Newfound- 
land, and  New  England,  and  is  considered  as  having  been  introduced  from 
England.  The  pinnate-leaved  barberries  or  MahonioR  are  natives  of  Oregon, 
and  perhaps  extend  northward  into  New  Caledonia  or  Vancouver's  Island. 

CisTiNEiE. — Hudsonia  tomentosa  grows  in  New  Jersey  and  Canada,  on 
the  borders  of  all  the  great  lakes,  and  onward  on  the  canoe  route  to  Clear- 
water River  on  the  57th  parallel,  beyond  which  it  was  not  observed. 

TiLiACE^. —  Tilia  glabra,  the  lime  tree,  white-wood,  or  bass-wood,  is  a 
familiar  ornamental  and  useful  tree  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
We  observed  it  as  far  north  as  Lake  Winipeg,  but  only  as  underwood, 
sending  out  long  flexible  branches,  whicii  the  natives  convert  into  tem- 
porary cordage. 

AcERiNE.E. — jicer  montanum  (vel  spicatum),  the  mountain  maple,  has  a 
range  from  Maine,  Pictou,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  to  the  River  Winipeg, 
and,  from  the  beautiful  orange  and  red  tints  which  its  leaves  assume  in 
decay,  is  a  great  ornament  to  the  woods  in  autumn.  ^.  circinatum  is 
confined  to  the  west  coast,  is  common  in  Oregon,  and  extends  to  the 
British  territory  on  that  side  of  the  mountains.  It  grows  in  the  woody 
countr  only,  and  chiefly  in  the  pine  forests,  where  its  pendulous  branches, 
taking  root,  form  almost  impenetrable  thickets.  The  close-grained  tough 
wood  is  used  by  the  natives  for  making  hoops. 

^.  saccharinum,  sugar  maple,  with  the  variety,  or  perhaps  species, 
named  ^.  nigrum  by  Michaux,  has  been  traced  by  Dr.  Asa  Gray  along  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  to  Georgia.  In  the  low  country  it  scarcely  passes  to 
the  south  of  Pennsylvania,  but  on  the  west  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Missis- 
sippi is  found  as  far  south  as  Arkansas.  Its  northern  limit  is  a  short  way 
beyond  the  49th  parallel  on  the  elevated  southern  water-shed  of  Lake 
Winipeg ;  but  it  may,  perhaps,  attain  a  greater  northern  latitude  in  the 
lower  country  of  Canada.  A  little  to  the  south  of  Rainy  Lake  it  yields 
abundance  of  good  sugar.  The  variety  named  bird's-eye  maple  grows  on 
one  of  the  islands  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and  has  been  employed  for 
making  gun-stocks.  Goat  Island,  at  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  according  to 
Mr.  David  Douglas,  nourishes  some  of  the  largest  sugar  maples  in  North 
America. 

.4.  rubrum,  red  or  swamp  maple,  ranges  southward,  according  to  Dr. 
Gray,  to  Florida,  and  round  the  whole  Gulf  of  Mexico  to%orthern  Texas ; 
but  some  of  the  southern  forms,  he  says,  would  probably  be  considered  by 
European  botanists  to  be  specifically  distinct  from  the  northern  tree.  It 
grows  in  Nova  Scotia,  throughout  Canada,  westward  to  Lake  Winipeg  and 
the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  52d  or  53d  parallel,  and  also  crosses  that 
chain  to  the  head  waters  of  the  Columbia. 

vl.  pennsylvanicum,  striped  maple,  or  moose- wood,  comes  down  along  tho 

*  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Asa  Gray  for  some  valuable  information  respecting  the  range  in 
the  United  States  of  some  of  the  trees  in  the  following  list.  The  Northern  States  referred 
to  in  the  list  extend  from  New  England  to  Wisconsin,  and  south  to  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania, 
inclusive. 


LIST  OF  TREES  AXD  SHRUBS. 


423 


coast  to  Boston,  and  follows  the  mountains  from  Pennsylvania  to  the  bor- 
rlers  of  Georgia,  to  which  Dr.  Gray  has  traced  it.  It  grows  also  in  Ken- 
tucky, and  was  seen  by  us  on  the  banks  of  the  Winipeg,  where  it  has  more 
the  character  of  a  flexible  willow  than  of  a  tree.  ^.  macrophyllum  is  oou- 
fined  to  the  mountainous  country  on  the  Pacific  up  to  the  50th  parallel, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  graceful  trees,  rising  to  the  height  of  ninety  feet, 
with  a  circumference  of  sixteen.  A.  dasycarpum,  white  or  silver  maple,  is 
a  fine  large  ornamental  tree,  well  known  in  the  United  States.  It  is  found 
on  Lake  Huron,  but  does  not  appear  to  rise  northward  out  of  the  i;i. 
Lawrence  basin.     Good  sugar  is  made  from  the  juice  of  this  tree. 

Negundo  fraxinifolium  or  accroides,  ash-leaved  maple,  does  not,  to  Dr. 
Gray's  knowledge,  grow  wild  in  New  England.  It  abounds  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  extends  westward  to  western  Texas  and  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
growing  at  the  high  elevation  of  6000  or  7000  feet  near  Santa  Fe  and  the 
Pawnee  Fork,  according  to  Lieut.  Abert.  It  terminates  northward  about 
the  54th  parallel  on  the  banks  of  the  Saskatchewan,  and  is  the  tree  which 
yields  most  of  the  sugar  made  in  Rupert's  Land.  Though  this  product 
varies  much  with  the  skill  of  the  operator,  the  kind  obtained  from  the 
juice  of  this  tree  is  generally  of  a  darker  color  than  that  which  the  true 
sugar  maple  yields. 

Ampelide;e. — Ampclopsis  quiuqucfolia,  Virginia  creeper,  or  American 
ivy,  extends  northward  to  Lake  Winipeg,  and  is  a  great  ornament  to  the 
protruding  rocks  over  which  it  creeps.  It  is  a  familiar  shrub  in  the  Norlh- 
crn  States,  but  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  its  southern  limit.  The 
Vitis  cordifolia  or  riparia^  frost  grape,  grows,  on  the  evidence  of  collections 
made  on  my  former  journeys,  as  far  north  as  the  south  end  of  Lake 
Winipeg,  on  the  50th  parallel.  I  did  not  observe  it  on  my  late  voyage,  in 
which,  indeed,  I  had  very  little  leisure  to  search  for  plants ;  and  if  it 
actually  grows  in  so  high  a  latitude,  it  does  not  produce  edible  fruit  so  as 
to  attract  the  attention  of  the  residents,  who  could  give  me  no  information 
concerning  it.  Together  with  the  Vilis  cBstivalis,  or  summer  grape,  it  is 
common  in  Wisconsin  and  Minesota.  Some  of  the  native  American  vines 
are  cultivated  in  the  Eastern  States;  and  the  Isabella  grape,  a  variety  of 
the  Vitis  labrusca,  has  an  agreeable  though  peculiar  flavor. 

Zantholace*:. — Zanthoxylum  aniericanum,  northern  priekly  ash,  and 
Ptelea  tri/oliata,  the  shrubby  trefoil,  grow  ia  Canada  and  Wisconsin,  where 
they  seem  to  find  their  northern  limit. 

Celastrine/e. — Staphylea  trifolia,  bladder  nit;  Euonymus  atropurpu- 
re%M,  burning  bush ;  E.  americanus,  strawberry  bush ;  and  Celastrtts  tcan- 
dens,  inhabit  Canada  and  Wisconsin,  but  were  not  observed  to  the  north 
of  Lake  Superior.     E.  atropurpureus  crosses  the  continent  to  Oregon. 

Rhamne£. — Rhamnus  alnifoliits^  alder-leaved  buckthorn,  grows  from 
Maine  and  Michigan  northward,  to  about  the  58th  parallel.  It  is  a  low 
shrub,  and  ia  applied  to  no  economical  purpose.  R.  purshianus  is  an 
Oregon  plant,  which  extends  to  Vancouver's  Island  and  New  Caledonia. 
Ceanothus  americanus,  New  Jersey  tea,  ranges  from  Maine,  Michigan,  and 
Wisconsin,  to  Canada  West,  but  was  not  gathered  by  us  to  the  north  of 
Lake  Superior.  The  C.  IcBvigatus,  a  west-coast  species,  which  exteiuls 
from  Oregon  to  Vancouver's  Island,  seems  to  be  the  only  member  of  lh« 
genus  that  enters  the  British  territory.  C.  sanguineus  is  common  in  the 
valley  of  the  Columbia,  and  crof^ses  the  mountams  to  the  upper  tributaries 


!    t 


I    ! 


I  I  ^1 


424 


UEOGKAI'HICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  I'LAN'IS. 


of  the  Missouri,  forming  one  of  tlie  many  instunccs  of  wfst-tuiist  plants 
traversing  tlie  dividing  ridge  to  the  eastern  prairies,  but  not  <xtonding  to 
the  eastern  woodland  districts. 

TEREBiNTHACEAi:,  or  ANACARPiACEiE. — Rhus  raduaus  or  toxicodendron^ 
the  poison  ouIj;  R.  aromatica,  the  fragrant  sumaeh ;  and  R.  glabra,  the 
smooth  sumach,  reach  the  banks  of  the  Saskatchewan,  or  latitude  45°. 
72.  typhina  and  R.  venenata  extend  to  Canada,  but  have  not  been  dis- 
covered north  of  Lake  Superior. 

Leguminos/T::. — jlmorpha  fruticosa,  false  indigo;  ^.  cancscens,  lead 
plant;  and  .//.  nana,  grow  abimdantly  on  the  prairies  of  Osnaboya,  and 
are  the  only  shrubby  leguminous  plants  which  extend  to  Rupert's  Land. 
Robinia  pseudacacia  is  plentiful  in  Canada  East. 

CitsALViNKiE. — Gymnocladus  canadensis,  the  Kentucky  colfee-bean  tree; 
Ccrcis  canadensis,  red  bud ;  and  Cassia  ehamcBcrista,  partridge  pea,  have 
their  northern  limits  in  Canada  or  Wisconsin. 

llosACEyK. — Pruntis  americana,  the  wild  yellow  plum,  seems  to  reach  its 
northern  boundary  on  the  lliver  Winipeg,  not  having  been  observed  by  me 
beyond  the  50th  parallel.  Lieut.  Abort  gathered  its  fruit  as  far  south  as 
the  banks  of  the  Canadian  and  Pawnee  forks  of  the  Arkansas,  on  the  40th 
parallel.  It  is  a  common  bush  on  the  river  banks  in  the  Northern  States. 
The  American  plums  and  cherries  require  further  investigation,  as  tho 
number  of  the  species  and  their  distinctive  characters  arc  imperfectly 
known.  This  one  grows  to  the  height  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet  on  the  Winipeg, 
l>roducing  in  the  woods  long  flexible  branches,  armed  with  a  few  slender 
sharp  thorns.  Its  ripe  fruit  is  fleshy  and  well  flavored,  but  rather  mealy, 
of  a  yellowish  color  inclining  to  orange.  It  has  an  ovoid  shape,  with  a 
siidUow  groove  on  one  side  like  a  peach,  is  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
its  stone  is  so  much  compressed  that  its  thickness  is  less  than  half  iis 
width;  while  its  length,  being  0"63  inch,  exceeds  the  width  by  a  fourth 
part.  Tiie  nut  is  oblique,  with  convex  valves,  being  circumscribed  by 
two  unequal  curves.  One  edge  is  acute,  with  a  groove  on  each  side  of  it ; 
the  other  edge  is  occupied  by  a  narrow  groove.  1  have  been  thus  particu- 
lar in  the  description  of  the  northern  fruit,  that  it  may  bo  compared  with 
plums  growing  in  other  districts.  The  fruit  is  the  Pucktsdminan  of  tho 
Crees  ;  and  La  Prune,  or  the  plum,  of  the  white  residents. 

The  Nekd-u-mina  of  the  Chippeways,  or  Thekd-u-mina  of  the  Crees,  and 
sand  cherry  of  the  residents  on  E,ainy  River  and  Lake  Winipeg,  is  a  bush 
or  sm.all  shrubby  tree,  a  foot  and  a  half  high,  which  grows  on  sand  hills. 
The  bark  of  its  annotlnous  and  biennial  shoots  is  reddish,  and  the  older 
twigs  are  brownish,  with  small  warty  specks.  When  in  fruit  (in  which 
state  only  I  examined  it  in  September,  1849)  the  fruitstalks  are  solitary, 
and  spring  from  the  base  of  the  summer's  growth ;  they  are  rather  more 
than  half  an  inch  long,  or  about  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  fruit,  which 
is  black  and  rather  austere,  but  edible.  The  stone  is  0"38  inch  long, 
almost  regularly  elliptical,  and  acute  at  the  ends,  but  more  so  at  one  end 
than  the  other.  Its  valves  are  very  convex,  so  that  its  width  exceeds  its 
thickness  very  little.  The  sides  are  not  acute-edged :  one  suture  is  de- 
pressed, forming  a  shallow  groove ;  on  the  other  side,  which  is  very  obtuse 
and  almost  flattened,  there  is  a  furrow  above  and  below  the  suture,  and 
rather  remote  from  it.  The  annotinous  shoots  are  smooth,  angular,  and 
generally   ll',x'iot;c,   v.'iih  tho  leaves  springing  alternately  at    the   curves 


LIST  OF  TREES  AND  SllUUBS. 


425 


lead 


The  leaves  measure  two  inches  and  a  half,  the  footstalk  forming  about  one 
fifth  part  of  this  length.  The  lauiiiiii  is  laneeolato>elliptical ;  that  is, 
nearly  regularly  elliptical,  with  an  acute  eml,  and  a  gradual  tapering  into 
the  footstalli  ;  it  is  serrated  by  acute,  appressed  teeth  at  the  uppir  end, 
and  is  entire  toward  the  footstalk  ;  its  under  surface  is  pale  and  somewhat 
glaucous,  the  upper  one  dark  green,  and  both  sides  are  perfectly  smooth. 
The  footstalks  are  edged  by  the  decurrent  lamina  for  more  than  half  their 
length,  and  the  deciduous  linear-lanceolate  stipulie  are  incisco-pinnate  in- 
feriorly.  This  cherry  is  probably  the  Ccrasus  puinila  of  Michaux  and  later 
American  botanists.      It  was  not  traced  by  mo  beyond  the  50th  parallel. 

Another  small  shrubby  cherry  grows  on  moist  sandy  soil,  by  the  banks 
of  rivers  and  lakes,  from  Lake  Superior  to  the  Elk  River  on  the  57th  par- 
allel. Its  fruit  is  scarcely  half  the  size  of  tlie  preceding,  but  is,  like  it, 
black,  and  hangs  generally  on  solitary  footstalks,  thougli  the  flowers  grow 
by  twos  or  threes  in  short  racemes.  This  shrub  lies  close  to  the  ground ; 
makes  no  approach  to  the  tree  form ;  seldom  exceeds  a  foot  in  height ;  and 
so  much  resembles  the  Salix  tnyrsinites  and  some  other  depressed  willows, 
that,  on  looking  for  catkins,  I  have  not  b<.*en  undeceived  until  I  found  the 
footstalks  of  the  last  year's  cherries.  The  fruit  of  this  sand  cherry  is 
sweeter  than  that  of  the  preceding  one.  Whether  it  be  the  Ccrasus  de- 
pressa  of  some  botanists  I  can  not  determine  ;  nor  do  I  pretend  to  clear  up 
the  confusion  that  exists  in  botanical  works  respecting  C.  puinila  and 
deprcssa. 

C.  pcnnsylvanica,  wild  red  cherry,  the  Pdsis-so-wcy-minan  of  the  Chippe- 
ways,  and  Pcisi-d-wcy-minan  of  the  Crees,  produces  a  small  sour  red  fruit, 
which  grows  in  a  inany-ilowered  raceme  on  long  slendtjr  footstalks.     Its 
equatorial  limit,  according  to  the  United  States  botanists,  is  the  New  En- 
gland States  and  Pennsylvania,  where  it  is  a  slender  tree  20  or  25  feet 
high.     Its  polar  limit  is  within  the  Saskatchewan  basin,  which  it  ascends 
toward  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  nearly  to  the  height  of  2000  feet 
above    the    sea.      C.   virginiana,   choke-cherry,    is    named  by  the  Crees 
Ta-kwoy-minan,  and  by  the  Dog-ribs  Ki-e-dunne-yerre.     It  was  found  by 
Lieut.  Abert  on  the  Kansas  and  Arkansas,  and  on  Purgatory  Creek  ;  and  is, 
in  northern  latitudes,  a  shrub  with  long  branches.     At  Fort  Liard,  on  the 
6 1  st  parallel,  it  is  20  feet  high,  and  on  the  confines  of  the  arctic  circle,  where 
it  terminates,  it  does  not  exceed  four  or  five  feet.     The  fruit  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  be  edible  by  itself;  but  it  is  often  pounded,  stones  and  all.  and 
mixed  with  pemican.      C.  serotina,  wild  black  cherry,  is  a  general  inhabit- 
ant of  Rupert's  Land,  extending  westward  to  the  valleys  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  on  the  Pacific  side,  where,  however,  it  is  generally  dwarfed  ;  and 
northward  to  near  Great  Slave  Lake.     It  is  said  by  Dr.  Gray  to  be  a  fuie 
large  tree  in  the  Northern  States,  with  purplish-black  fruit,  having  a 
pleasant  vinous  flavor.     Besides  these  I  gathered  specimens  of  a  cherry- 
tree,  not  in  flower,  on  Athabasca  and  Slave  Rivers,  which  Sir  William 
Hooker  is  inclined  to  con3id3r  as  the  C.  mollis,  discovered  by  the  unfortunate 
David  Douglas,  on  the  banks  of  the  Columbia,  growing  on  subalpine  hills 
to  the  height  of  from  12  to  25  feet. 

Purshia  tridentata  inhabits  the  Rocky  Mountain  prairies  near  the  head 
waters  of  the  Missouri  and  Columbia,  and  extends  northward  to  the  49th 
parallel.  Spiraa  opulifolia,  nine-bark,  ranges  from  Maine,  Canada,  and 
Wisconsin,  westward  to  the  valley  of  Oregon,  in  which  it  is  found  from  the 


I  .!' 


'Y    '■■■  liH 


•t'Ht 


rii:()<in.\nii(.\i.  ihhtrihi  thin  of  tlants. 


h;. 


iii'i 


I'll 


rii 


iNonri'OM  nf  till'  ('olnmliia  (lowiiwiiiil.  It  is  rdiniium  «tii  tho  low  inlniidM  of 
l.iilii'  Su|)i'ii()r,  iniii  Iimh  it.s  pfpliir  limit  in  lli«  rojony  of  Fled  Hivor. 
S.  rli(itittr(h'i/i>liii  iiiliiil>it,s  1ln'  iH'illiui-si  idjist  ii|i  to  Sicdpi'  lulnnd  in 
Hoj'iiiiK'N  Strnit.H,  and  Cliiunissn  Isiiind  in  Kol/cluic  Soniid.  It  dooH  not 
(MOSS  till'  Hocky  MonntiiinH,  nor  dms  iiiiy  otlur  Sjiitan  fro  no  far  north  on 
tin"  t'ast  ,sidi'  of  Ihi'  cnnliniiil.  N.  hitulifoUa  is  iiiiollicr  wrsti'm  Mpccios 
which  inhaliits  llif  lUui'  MonntaiiiH  and  I\loinit.  llood,  and  itohhcs  tli«i 
Rocky  Monntains  to  tlnir  fastnii  valleys  luMwri-n  latitndis  52"  and  54^^, 
luit  dooM  not  descend  to  tin'  lo\\  t  catslcin  conntry.  S.  loincntnua,  hard- 
hack  or  Htoc|)Ii'-l)n.sli,  is  connnon  in  the  nn'adows  and  low  i^nunids  of  New 
Kngland,  and  spreads  thron^h  Nova  Scotia,  Citnnda,  and  Hniicrt's  Land  to 
l.akc  Winipcfi;.  N.  ({ini^litsii  is  an  Ort'pnn  .sjx-cics  rc.si'inMinfi:  (ho  preceding, 
which  extends  to  the  Straits  id"  l>a  Knca.  S.  (i)iirf'iiliii  forms  part  of  the 
nnderwood  in  forests  on  the  I'acitic  coast,  on  the  Kooskoosky,  Spokan, 
Khithead,  Salmon,  and  M'tiillivray  Hivers,  np  to  (he  dlMh  i)arallcl.  S. 
faliiij'olia  is  very  almndant  on  (lie  hanks  of  every  lake  and  river  in  tho 
St.  Lawrence  and  Saskad-hcwan  hasins,  and  northward  to  Slave  lliver, 
It  In  often  associated  with  the  I\Iyrita  ,i,'<r/('.  growing  in  the  water.  In  itn 
northern  range  it  approaches  tin'  >S.  rlutDurilriJolia  of  the  west  coast,  hut 
ilocH  not  attain  so  high  a  latitnde,  owing  to  the  greater  Hovority  of  tho 
dinnitc  on  the  c'ast  side  of  tjie  mmnitains. 

litibus  orriiicnfalin.  Mack  ras|tl>erry  or  thimhlelierry,  extends  from  tho 
Northern  Stat<'s  to  the  Saskatchewan  hasin,  and  also  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
li.  Btrigosun,  wild  red  rasplierry,  is  also  fonnd  itn  hoth  sides  of  the  conti- 
nent;  on  the  east  side  it  inhahKs  the  United  Statrs.  Ncwfoinullund,  and 
Canada,  and  nniy  he  traced  in  the  interior  canoe  rente  thronghont  the  Sas- 
katchewan basin.  R,  nutkanus,  white  llowering  raspberry,  was  discovered 
in  Queen  Charlotte's  Sonnd  by  Mr.  Menzies  in  lat.  51°  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  since  which  time  it  has  been  found  in  Norfolk  Sound,  lat.  57'^,  and 
traced  down  to  Cape  Orford  in  lat.  43°,  and  to  the  head  waters  of  tho 
Columbia  in  52°.  On  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  it 
grows  between  latitudes  52°  and  54"^,  and  vn  the  River  VVinipeg,  Lake 
Superior,  and  Upper  Michigan.  Near  the  Pacific  it  is  ten  feet  high,  and 
forms  the  underwood  on  the  island  (>f  Sitka;  hut  in  the  passes  of  tho 
Rocky  Mountains  dwindles  down  to  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches.  In  thickets 
on  the  Winipeg  its  leavi-s  attain  remarkable  dimensions :  the  fruit  is 
inedible.  R.  odointus.  purple  (lowering  rasplterry,  is  a  native  of  the  North- 
ern States,  Canada,  and  the  country  between  Lake  Superior  and  the  Sas- 
katchewan. R.  sfurtahilis  is  a  prickly  shrub,  ten  tei>t  high,  inhabiting  the 
Pacific  coast  from  Oregon  to  Umilashka.  R.  subcnctus,  bramble.  This 
species,  which  is  also  Eurojiean,  is  ati  inhabitant  of  Newfoundland,  and  of 
the  country  between  Lake  Superior  and  the  Saskatchewan,  where  it  was 
found  both  in  1825  and  184S.  R.  villosits  is  common  in  the  Northern 
States,  and  is  fonnd  also  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Cuinida  West  up  to  Lake 
Huron  and  Wisconsin.  It  is  included  in  Elliott's  "Flora  Carolina,"  but  I 
have  not  ascertained  its  equatorial  limit.  R.  hispidus  i^rl  obovalis,  running 
Bwamp  blackberry,  is  comnion  in  the  Northern  States,  and  extends  through 
Canada  to  Lake  Superior.  R.  ranndcngis  (L.),  vcl  trivialis  (Pursh),  low 
blackberry  or  dewberry,  has  a  similar  range  with  the  j)receding  species. 
R.  nivalis  (Douglas),  is  an  alphic  shrub,  foi-nd  on  the  snowy  ridges  of  the 
Ilocky  Mountains,  and  not  growing  more  than  six  inches  high.      There  aro 


I.IWT  OF  TRF.KS  AM»  HIIKIIH. 


■Ii1 


iIho  Hovorftl  li<<rl)iii'f(ius  s|iccicM  of  lliin  ri-iius  ;  iis  li.  fri/Jnrux,  dwarf  r.nsj)- 
Itcrry,  wliidi  is  roniiiioi)  in  |||..  Nurllp'rii  Slntcs  ami  tliioiif^liniit  |{ii|MTt'M 
I, Mini,  northwiiiil  lu  Siiivc  ami  Miifkiii/ii-  Kivrs.  'I'ln-  hn^-rilis  niiiii)-  it 
Tiisillr-/,i-rli.  lis  imrtlii'm  limit  is  alxnit  lat.  fiS  '.  J{.  rlianmiii(irii.i, 
oliiuillicrry,  in  fciiuil  nn  tlic  Whili-  Moiiiitiiiiis  of  Nfw  |{:iiii|(Hhiri-  in'itr  liin 
limit  (if  hfi's  ;  also  in  MHiiii-  immI  Nnvn  Scotia,  Ni'wrouiKllaiiil  ami  liabriulnr. 
In  Int.  51"^',  ami  ninn'  to  tim  mulli,  it  ci-ohhcs  tin-  (niitiucnt,  mid  is  found 
oil  tho  Hiimmitrt  of  tin-  IJocUy  MomitaiiiH  l)i'l\Vf<'n  IntiliidrH  52"  ami  r)(r'  ; 
ill  Unalaslika,  on  tin'  sIhuch  of  Uci  iii)^',s  Stiiiitu,  ami  on  thn  iiumt  noitlicm 

pron:  >iiloricH  of  lli iiilincnt.      Nrar  tlic  Arctic  Sea  it  is  a  <'oiiiinon  ]daiiL 

on  iiuiH.sy  plaiiiH,  ImiI  produccH  fruit  flicrc  only  in  fine  .h»'»«uiih.  TIic  fruit, 
which  has  a  rich  honey  (lavor,  perishes  with  Ihn  early  frosts.  it  is  perlnips 
the  niost  i|elici(His  of  the  arctic  herries,  vvlu'ii  in  perfection,  lull  cloys  if 
ratrn  in  quantity.  li.  shllaluf,  reseinlijiiif;;  the  precedinjr,  has  hfcti  fonml 
tiuiy  at  Fof^gy  Ilarhor  on  the  northwest  ci'itsl.  li.  itrrlintif  and  A',  oatulis 
inhabit  tho  shores  of  Hudson's  Uay,  Labrador,  and  tln^  country  westward 
to  Kotzebue  Sound.  'J'heir  soutlicrn  limit  seems  to  bo  in  the  Saskatchewan 
basin,  in  about  lat.  ,'>;{".  On  many  parts  of  tho  flat  beaohoH  of  Slave  and 
Mackonzio  Hivcrs  the  lively  red  Howers  of  It.  itcatiliH  cover  larj^e  patclies 
of  groiiml  which  are  jiartially  Hooded  by  small  rivulets.  In  woods  Iho 
la8t-inontiuno<l  Hpocies  ha.s  a  .stouter  growth,  and  omits  long  llagclli  which 
run  among  the  mosses. 

Potcnlilla  findroxa,  the  shrubby  rinqnofoil,  prows  abundantly  from  thn 
North«»rn  States  to  tho  Arctio  Soa,  by  rivor  banks  as  woll  as  in  tho  most 
ox[)()Hod  and  elevated  situations.  It  occurs  in  tho  high  valleys  of  tho 
Rocky  Mountains,  at  I'olly  Banks  on  the  west  side  of  that  range,  and  in 
Kotzobuo  Sound.  On  tho  Copporiiiinc  Rivor  near  tho  soa  it  is  almost  her- 
l)acoous,  the  woody  stem  being  extremely  short  and  Hubtorranoan. 

liosn  ivood»ii,  R.  Carolina.,  R.  hlnnda,  R.  cinnnmomea,  R.  viajalin^  and 
R.  ttricta  grow  in  tho  wooded  district-s;  but,  from  thoir  similarity  to  each 
other,  their  respective  liniit.s  have  not  boon  ascertained.  R.  blanda  wan 
found  flowering  freely  near  the  mouth  of  tho  Mackenzie  on  the  69th  par- 
allel. This  species  and  R.  rmnamomfa  cross  to  the  Pacific  coast.  R. 
woodsii  and  majalis  have  been  traced  as  far  north  as  the  Mackenzie.  R. 
iiitida  and  lurida  grow  in  Newfoundland  and  in  the  Nt!W  England  States. 
R.  fraxinifolia  is  confined  to  the  Pacific  coast;  and  R.  Icpingata  has  not 
been  found  beyond  l^ake  Huron.  R.  seligera,  a  fine  climbing  rose,  grows  from 
Ohio  to  Wisconsin,  but  has  not  been  detected  to  the  north  of  the  great  lakes. 

Cratcrgun  punrtata.,  dotted  thorn,  is  found  every  where  in  the  Northern 
States,  extends  northward  to  Wisconsin,  and  crosaeH  the  continent  to  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific  ;  but  has  not,  so  far  as  I  have  learnt,  been  found 
within  the  British  territory.  C.  glandnlosa  occurs  iti  Canada,  and  north- 
ward to  the  south  side  of  the  Saskatchewan  basin  ;  probably  also  on  tho 
Pacific  coast.  C.  coccinea,  scarlet-fruited  thorn,  i.s  a  common  low  tree  in 
the  Northern  States  ;  was  found  by  Lieut.  Abert,  as  far  south  as  Stranger 
Creek,  in  lat.  39° ;  and  extends  to  Wisconsin  and  the  great  lakes.  C. 
cordata,  Washington  thorn,  is  supposed  by  Dr.  A.iia  Gray  to  have  been  in- 
troduced into  New  Englant,  but  to  grow  wild  in  Pennsylvania  and  the 
more  southern  States.  It  is  found  from  Canada  to  the  Saskatchewan  and 
the  valleys  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  about  the  sources  of  the  Colum- 
bia, in  between  lat.  52°  and  54*^.     The  CratiFgi  flourish  on  tho  banks  of 


(    ,  ■ 


I 


Iti 


I: 


\\  "i  *  f. 


Iff 


4Ji» 


GEOGRAPHICAL    DlSTHIUUTlON    OF   PLANTS. 


f 


If 


I'  i 


Rainy  ami  Wiiiipcg  Rivers;  but  are  searco  fiirliicr  iiortli.  Mfrti^ns  fuuiid 
boveral  in  the  funvst  lands  of  Sitkti.  Jimclnnchitr  cunadenais  (botryapium 
et  ovalis,)  shad-buHh  and  servicc-lierry,  is  La  Poire  oi  the  voyagers,  the 
Mi8asB'ku-tu-mi»a  of  the  Crees,  and  the  Tche-ki-eh  of  the  Dog-ril>s.  This 
Hhrub  extends  along  the  banks  of  rivers  nearly  as  far  northward  as  the 
woods  go,  and  produces  fruit  up  to  the  65th  parallel  on  the  Mackenzie.  It 
is  common  in  the  Northern  States,  in  Nova  Seotia,  Newfoundland,  and 
Labrador,  and  westward  to  the  Pacilie.  The  black  fruit  is  about  the  size 
of  a  pea,  is  well  tasted,  dries  well,  and  in  that  states  is  mixed  with  peini- 
can,  or  used  for  making  puddings  :  for  whieh  purpose  it  nearly  equals  the 
Zante  currant.  Its  wood,  being  tough,  is  used  by  the  natives  for  making 
arrows  and  pipe-stems,  and  has  obtained  on  that  account  the  name  ^>i  boia 
de  fleche  from  the  voyagers ;  but  in  the  United  States  the  name  of  arrow 
wood  is  given  to  a  dillerent  tree.  The  variety  or  species  named  Jl.  san- 
guinca  was  traced  up  to  the  60th  parallel. 

Pyrus  rivularis,  Powitch  tree,  hihabita  Oregon  and  Vancouver's  Island. 
Its  fruit  is  edible,  and  its  wood,  which  is  hard  enouph  to  take  a  fine  polish, 
is  used  for  wedges.  P.  amcricana,  the  American  mountain  ash,  is  found 
on  the  southern  parts  of  the  Allcglnmies,  and  more  commonly  in  the  swamps 
and  mountain  woods  of  the  Northern  States.  It  is  frequent  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Huron  and  Superior  ;  but  is  seldom  seen  on  the  canoe  route  beyond 
Lake  Winipeg.  On  the  acclivities  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rocl'.y  Mount- 
ains, however,  it  ranges  northward  to  Fort  Liard,  near  the  60th  parallel. 
It  has  been  observed  as  high  as  the  56th  degree  of  north  latitude  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  from  whence  it  extends  southward  through  the  subalpine  re- 
gions of  Oregon.  P.  arhuiifoUa^  choke-berry,  is  common  in  the  damp 
thickets  of  the  Northern  States,  in  Newfoundland,  in  Canada,  and  onward 
to  the  Saskatchewan  basin ;  but  was  not  observed  so  far  north  as  the  im- 
mediate banks  of  that  stream. 

Grossularie*. — The  species  of  this  family  seeui  to  attain  their  max- 
imum number  to  the  north  of  the  United  States.  Ribes  oxyacanthoides^ 
sharp-thorned  gooseberry,  inhabits  Newfoundland,  Canada,  and  the  canoe 
route  northward  to  the  62d  parallelj  or  perhaps  further.  R.  cynosbati, 
prickly  gooseberry  is  common  in  the  rocky  woods  of  the  Northern  States, 
and  accompanies  the  preceding  species  northward  to  Slave  Lake.  R.  sax- 
osum  inhabits  New  England,  the  shores  of  Lake  Huron,  and  the  valley  of 
the  Saskatchewan,  extending  also  probably  to  Oregon.  R.  hirtellum,  short- 
stalked  wild  gooseberry,  the  most  common  species  in  New  England,  extends 
to  Canada,  Wisconsin,  and  northward  to  Great  Slave  Lake.  The  preced- 
ing one  seems  to  be  considered  by  Dr.  Asa  Gray  to  be  a  variety  of  this 
species.  R.  lacustre,  swamp  gooseberry,  is  common  in  the  most  northern 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  Nova  Scotia;  crosses  the  mountains  to 
North  California  and  Oregon ;  and  extends  northward  along  the  Mackenzie, 
nearly  or  quite  to  its  delta.  It  is  the  Tagossay-ki-eh  of  the  Hare  Indians, 
which  name  ia  common  to  several  kinds  of  gooseberry  in  the  Dog-rib  coun- 
try, where  there  is  a  greater  variety  of  species.  R.  divaricatum  is  com- 
mon near  Indian  villages  on  the  northwest  coast,  from  45°  to  52°  north 
lat.  i?.  rotundifolium,  Michx.  (triflorum^  Willd.,)  is  a  rare  inhabitant  of 
the  mountainous  districts  of  Oregon,  and  inhabits  the  Northern  States  from 
Massachusetts  to  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  but  has  not  been  found  on  the 
north  side  of  Lakes  Superior  or  Huron.     R.  rubrum,  the  common  red  cur- 


i 


I,!ST  OF  TUKKH   AXI»    SlllUms. 


4'i9 


rant,  nativ  both  of  Kurop*"  and  Ann*ri<'!i.  rxtfnilM  from  tlw  Nf>rthfrn  Stnti-n 
very  nearly  to  thi>  short's  of  thi'  Arctic  Si'ii,  havinp  ln'on  Rallifrfil  hoyoml 
tlif  69th  parnllcl ;  and  it  ranpis  w«>stwnr.l  to  Kotzi'liiii''H  Snuutl.  It  is  tht> 
Ki-ch-rth-lulr-n:c  of  tlu'  Dug-rihs  anil  Uarc  Fiulians.  li-  ]irontnrtinn,  ft'tiil 
currant,  inhabits  oold  damp  woods  from  Nova  Scotia  and  tljf  North«rn 
States  northward  to  the  Athal)as(<a,  and  westward  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  Oregon.  The  fruit  is  produced  in  copious  racemes;  but,  in  common 
witli  tlie  foliage,  it  has  an  impb-asant  odor,  and  a  strong  taste  of  turjMm- 
tine.  R.  hudsonuinum.  This  is  the  Nut-sinnr  of  the  Dog-ribs,  and  is  a 
common  gooseberry  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  tlie  Rocky  Mountains  and  sub- 
alpine  districts  of  Columbia;  also  in  a  northerly  direction  on  the  Macken- 
zie to  lat.  67°.  li.  floridum,  wibl  blackcurrant,  resembles  the  preceding, 
and  is  a  common  species  in  the  Northern  States,  westward  to  Wisconsin, 
and  ranges  northward  to  lat.  54°.  R.  sanguhuum,  which  has  become  so 
common  an  ornament  of  our  gardens,  is  a  native  of  the  Pacific  coast  only, 
where  it  ranges  from  38°  north  lat.  to  52°.  There  are  several  other  very 
handsome  species  in  Oregon,  and,  among  others,  the  rich  P.  aureum  ;  but 
they  have  not  been  traced  beyond  the  49th  parallel. 

Araiaacejr. — Panax  horridttm,  prickly  nsh-leaved  panax,  a  twining 
shrub  common  in  California,  Oregon,  and  New  Caledonia,  as  far  north  as 
57°  or  58°,  crosses  the  Rocky  Mountain  ridge  to  the  upper  tributaries  of 
the  iSaskatchewan,  but  does  not  descend  to  the  eastward,  ^ralia  hispida, 
bristly  sarsparilla,  may  bo  considered  as  the  eastern  representative  of  the 
preceding,  though  it  is  scarcely  shrubby,  having  merely  a  very  short,  tough 
stem,  almost  buried  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  from  which  it  springs. 

CoRNEiK. — Cornus  alba  vcl  stolonifcra,  red  osier  cornel.  This  willow- 
like shrub,  which  is  the  osier  rougr  of  the  voyagers,  ornaments  the  river 
strands  from  the  Northern  States,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Newfoundland,  north- 
ward to  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  westward  to  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific.  It  is  named  by  the  Creos,  on  account  of  the  bright  red  color  of 
its  twigs,  Mithu'ka-pe-)nin-ahtik  (red  stick,)  and  its  fruit  Muskwavuna  (bear- 
berry,)  because  the  bears  eat  it.  The  Dog-ribs  call  this  berry,  Kai-gossai- 
ki'ch.  A  warm  decoction  of  the  bark  and  twigs  is  used  by  the  natives  for 
bathing  their  limbs  when  swelled  by  fatigue.  C.  alternifolia,  C.  panicu- 
lata,  C.  sericea,  and  C.  circinata,  which  are  inhabitants  of  the  Northern 
States,  are  said  to  extend  to  Canada  ;  but  except  the  last  named,  which 
occurs  on  Lake  Superior,  none  of  them  were  gathered  by  us  on  the  canoe 
route.  C.  rericea  and  C.  florida,  also  Canadian  species,  cross  the  conti- 
nent to  Oregon,  but  do  not  occur  north  of  the  great  lakes.  The  herbaceous 
C  canadensis  reaches  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  crossing  the  continent 
from  east  to  west ;  and  the  P.  suecica  a  European  plant,  is  found  in  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  on  the  west  coasts  of  arctic  America  as  high  as 
Kotzebue  Sound,  and  southward  to  Oregon ;  but  has  not  been  detected  in 
the  interior  districts. 

LoranthacejE. — Arccuthobium  oxycedri,  this  leafless  parasitical  shrub, 
is  common  to  Europe,  Central  Asia,  and  North  America,  where  it  grows  on 
cedars  and  pine  trees.  On  the  eastern  declivities  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
it  ranges  from  lat.  52°  to  57°  north,  and  also  eastward  to  Hudson's  Bay, 
growing  on  the  Pinus  banksiana.  On  the  western  side  of  the  mountains, 
from  the  Spokan  River,  in  47°  north  lat.,  to  near  the  sources  of  the  Colum- 
bia, it  infests  the  Pinus  ponderosa.  ' 


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u 


n 


I  ' 


M 


!     •• 


'••J 


..... 


430 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION   OF  PLANTS. 


CaprifoliacejG. — Sanibucus  canadensis,  black-fruited  elder,  was  gath- 
reed  by  Lieut.  Abert  on  the  Cottonwood  Creek  of  the  Neosha,  in  lat.  38^° 
north,  at  an  altitude  of  about  ]400  feet.  It  hay  its  northern  limit  in  the 
Sascatchewan  basin,  and  ranges  westward  from  Nova  Scotia  across  the 
prairies.  S.  racemosa  vel  pubens,  the  red-fruited  elder,  is  common  in  the 
Northern  States  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  going  northward  to  the 
Saskatchewan,  and  westward  to  Oregon.  Its  polar  limit,  as  far  as  ascer- 
tained, is  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  between  52° 
and  59°  north  lat.  V.  prmiifolium,  black  haw,  or  sloe-leaved  viburnum, 
reaches  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Huron ;  but  is  more  common  in  New  York 
and  Ohio.  V.  lentago,  sweet  viburnum,  is  a  handsome  tree  in  the  North- 
ern States,  grows  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Wisconsin,  and  extends  northward 
to  the  south  side  of  the  Saskatchewan  basin.  V.  nudum,  withe-rod,  is 
more  common  from  New  Jersey  southward  than  toward  the  great  lakes ; 
but  occurs  as  far  northward  as  the  last-named  species.  V.  dentatwn,  ar- 
row wood,  is  common  in  the  low  grounds  of  the  Northern  States  up  to 
Wisconsin,  and  is  said  by  Pursh  to  extend  to  Canada;  but  it  seems  to  be 
rare  in  that  country.  V.  acerifolium,  maple-leaved  arrow-wood,  is  a  more 
northern  species ;  and,  in  common  with  other  shrubs  that  approach  the 
arctic  circle,  it  crosses  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  valley  of  Oregon,  and 
also  to  Sitka.  It  has  been  traced  as  far  north  as  Great  Slave  Lake,  occurs 
also  in  Newfoundland,  and  is  common  in  the  rocky  woods  of  the  Northern 
States.  V.  opulus  vel  oxycoccus.  Sir  William  Hooker  is  inclined  to  con- 
sider the  European  and  American  shrubs  known  by  these  names — and  of 
which  the  handsome  snow-ball  tree,  or  guelder  rose,  is  a  cultivated  varie- 
ty— to  be  one  species,  and  Dr.  Asa  Gray  unites  them.     In  America  the 


68^ 


on 


shrub  extends  from  the  Northern  States  and  Nova  Scotia  to  lat 
the  Mp.ckenzie,  and  perhaps  very  nearly  to  the  verge  of  the  woods.  It  also 
crosses  to  the  Pacific  coast,  having  been  found  in  the  valley  of  Oregon. 
Its  fruit,  of  a  bright  pinkish  red  color,  has  a  sharp  acid  taste,  and  is  the 
Mongs'6-a  mina  (moose-berry)  of  the  Crees,  and  the  Duwne-ki-e  or  Indian- 
berry  of  the  Dog-ribs  and  Hare  Indians.  The  fruit  being  sometimes  used 
as  a  poor  substitute  for  cranberries,  has  obtained  for  the  bush  the  name  of 
cranberry  tree  in  the  Northern  States.  V.  edule,  the  pembina  of  the  voy- 
agers, was  traced  by  us  northward  to  the  Elk  River.  It  is  much  less  com- 
mon than  the  prciceding,  and  has  a  more  fleshy  and  less  acid  fruit,  of  an 
orange-red  color.  The  voyagers  relish  this  fruit;  and  it  has  given  name 
to  many  of  the  rivers  of  Rupert's  Land.  It  is  the  Nipi-minan  (water-berry) 
of  the  Crees.  Michaux,  Dr.  Asa  Gray,  and  other  authors  consider  it  to  be 
scarcely  a  variety  of  V.  opulus.  I  have  found,  however,  its  foliage  retain- 
ing pretty  constantly  its  peculiar  character.  In  V.  oxycoccus  the  lobes  of 
the  leaves  are  separated  by  acute  sinuses,  and  have  long,  tapering,  jagged, 
or  deeply  serrated  points.  In  V.  edule  the  sinuses  between  the  lobes  are 
rounded,  and  the  lobes  themselves  are  shorter,  though  the  lamina  of  the 
leaf  is  cut  to  within  a  short  distance  of  its  base.  The  European  V.  opulus 
has  generally  obtuse  sinuses,  and  a  less  deeply  cut  lamina,  but  the  lobes 
also  short.  Pursh,  who  separated  V.  oxycoccus  from  edule,  described  the  bases 
of  the  leaves  of  the  one  as  acute  and  of  the  other  obtuse ;  but,  as  there  seems 
to  be  no  difference  in  that  respect,  it  is  probable  that  he  meant  the  sinuses. 
Diervilla  trifida  vel  canadensis,  bush  honeysuckle,  has  a  herbaceous  as- 
pect, and  i8  one  of  the  most  common  tmdorwoods  on  the  portages.     It  oc 


i  ;-il 


LiaT  OF  TREES  AM)  SHRUBS. 


431 


oa 


curs  in  all  the  woody  districta  of  the  Saskatchewan  basin  uj)  to  the  acclivi- 
ties of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  but  is  rare  to  the  North  oi  Cuaibcrland  House. 
It  grows  also  on  Lake  Superior,  in  Wisconsin,  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  North- 
ern States.  Lonicera  parviflora,  small  honeysuckle,  has  a  conterminous 
range  with  the  preceding.  L.  douglasii  gathered  on  Saskatchewan  is  con- 
sidered by  Dr.  A.  Gray  to  be  merely  a  variety  produced  by  cultivation. 
L.  hirsuta,  hairy  honeysuckle,  is  a  coarse-leaved  climber,  common  in  moist 
rocky  woods  of  the  Northern  States  and  Canada  as  far  as  Lake  Huron.  L. 
ciliati,  fly  honeysuckle,  grows  at  Pictou,  on  the  Catskill  Mountains,  in 
Ohio,  Wisconsin,  generally  throughout  the  rocky  woods  of  the  Northern 
States  ;  also  on  Lake  Superior,  and  northward  along  the  whole  Saskatche- 
wan basin.  L.  ceerulea,  the  mountain  fly  honeysuckle,  extends  northward 
to  the  arctic  circle  ;  it  likewise  ranges  from  the  Labrador  coast  and  New- 
foundland to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  we  should  suppose  also  to  the  Pa- 
cific coast,  since  it  is  both  a  European  and  a  Siberian  species;  but  it  is 
not  named  by  Mertens  or  Bongard  among  the  Sitka  plants,  nor  does  it  ap- 
pear to  have  been  found  by  Douglas,  Tolmie,  or  Scouler  in  Oregon.  It 
grows  in  Wisconsin,  New  Hampshire.  Massachusetts,  and  New  York. 

Symphoricai-pus  racemosus,  snow-berry,  and  S.  occidcntalis,  wolf-berry, 
range  from  Vermont,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  over  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Saskatchewan  basins,  to  the  60th  parallel  on  the  Mackenzie.  They  also 
occur  in  the  Oregon  valley,  Vancouver's  Island,  and  doubtless  much  fur- 
ther along  that  coast. 

RuBiACEiG. — Cepkalanthus  occidcntalis,  button  bush.  This  shrub,  which 
belongs  to  the  sub-family  of  CinchonecB,  occurs  in  thickets  of  the  Northern 
States  and  Canada,  but  does  not  extend  to  Lake  Superior. 

Composite. — Of  this  large  family  no  shrub  has  been  detected  in  the  ca- 
noe route  north  of  Lake  Superior  ;  though  the  Crinitaria  viscidiftora  grows 
as  high  as  the  55th  parallel  on  the  banks  of  the  Salmon  River,  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  on  the  upper  branches  of  the  Columbia  above  the 
Kettle  Falls.  A  small  annual  herb  was  found  on  the  Saskatchewan,  which 
Sir  William  Hooker  placed  next  this  species  ;  but,  frojn  ihe  imperfect  spec- 
imens, he  could  not  ascertain  its  genus  satisfactorily. 

VACCiNEiE. — Gaylussacia  resinosa,  black  huckleberry,  is  common  in  the 
Northern  States  westward  to  Wisconsin,  and  extends  northward  to  the  Sas- 
katchewan. Vaccinium  corymbosum,  common  swamp  blueberry,  extends 
from  the  Northern  States  to  Newfoundland  and  Canada,  as  far  north  as 
Quebec,  but  has  not  been  gathered  to  the  westward  of  Lake  Superior.  V. 
pcnnsylvanicum,  low  shining-leaved  blueberry,  is  very  common  in  the  dry 
rocky  woods  of  the  Northern  States,  Canada,  and  the  country  between  Lakes 
Superior  and  Winipeg.  V.  canadcnse,  downy-leaved  blueberry,  is  the  most 
abundant  species  by  the  sides  of  streams  and  in  thickets,  from  Maine  and 
Michigan  to  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay,  and  northward  in  the  woody  dis- 
tricts to  the  arctic  circle.  It  extends  also  westward  across  the  mountains 
to  the  upper  feeders  of  the  Columbia.  V.  uliginosum,  bog  bilberry,  occurs 
on  the  summits  of  the  New  Hampshire  Alps ;  on  the  Green  Mountains  of 
Vermont,  and  on  Essex  county  mountains  of  New  York ;  on  the  Newfound- 
land. Labrador,  and  Greenland  coasts ;  also  from  Lake  Superior  northward 
to  the  Arctic  Sea.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  it  has  been 
gathered  on  Sitka,  Unalashka,  and  Kotzebue  Sound.  In  Europe  it  grows 
in  the  forests  of  the  higher  Jura,  in  England,  and  the  Scandinavian  penin- 


! 

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43!: 


GEOURAPIUCAL   DISTRIBUTION    OP  PLANTS. 


'il 


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1  ;i 


I  I  i 


111 


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llj  *. 


i:| 


sula.  Bcyc)n«l  the  arctic  circle  its  fruit  is  not  abundant  every  year ;  but 
in  good  seasons  it  is  plentiful  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  and  is  of  a  finer 
quality  than  in  more  southern  localities.  It  then  aifords  food  to  the  bears 
and  large  flocks  of  geese,  which  fatten  on  it,  and  acquire  a  fine  flavor.  The 
berries,  when  frozen  by  the  autumnal  frosts,  remain  hanging  on  the  bushes 
imtil  the  snow  melts  in  the  following  June,  and  may  be  then  gathered  in  a 
very  juicy  but  tender  condition.  V.  salicinum,  willow-leaved  bilberry,  is 
an  inhabitant  of  Unalashka.  V.  myrtillus,  myrtle-leaved  bilberry,  was 
gathered  by  Mr.  Driiinmond  on  the  summit  of  the  pass  between  the  head 
waters  of  the  Saskatchewan  and  Columbia,  but  has  not  been  detected  fur- 
ther to  the  east,  though  it  is  a  European  plant.  Chamisso  found  a  Vac- 
cinitim  on  Unalashka,  which  he  was  inclined  to  refer  to  this  species;  but 
his  specimens  were  imperfect.  Bougard,  however,  enumerates  it  as  exist- 
ing among  the  plants  gathered  by  Mertens  on  Sitka.  V.  myrtUloides  vel 
angustifolium  is  fovmd  in  Canada,  and  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  the  woody 
declivities  of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  between  the  52d  and  54th  parallel^. 
It  crosses  the  dividing  ridge  also  to  the  alpine  valleys  of  Oregon,  and  to  the 
sea-coast  further  north,  where  the  purplish-brown  fruit  is  eaten  with  relish 
by  the  natives.  V.  ccpspitosum,  dwarf  bilberry,  grows  on  the  Alps  of  New 
Hampshire,  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior  near  Jam'\s's  Bay,  and  northward 
to  the  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  between  52° 
and  57°  north ;  also  in  the  Oregon  valley.  V.  ovalij'olimn  grows  in  Ore- 
gon from  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  up  to  the  Portage  River,  near  the  crest 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on  the  50th  parallel,  and  also  on  the  island  of 
Sitka  at  lat.  57°  north.  V.  vitis-idcea,  cow-berry,  or  alpine  cranberry,  is  the 
Wi-m-gu-niina  of  the  Cro'-s,  and  the  cranberry  most  plentiful  and  most 
used  throughout  Rupert  s  Land.  This  berry  is  excellent  for  every  purpose 
to  which  a  cranberry  can  be  applied  ;  and  though  inferior  to  the  V.  oxijcoc- 
cus  in  flavor  in  autunm,  is  far  superior  to  it  after  the  frosts  ;  and,  as  it  may 
be  gathered  in  abundance  in  a  most  juicy  condition  when  the  snow  melts 
in  June,  it  is  then  a  great  resource  to  the  Dog-ribs  and  Hare  Indians,  as 
well  as  to  the  immense  flocks  of  water-fowl  that  are  migrating  to  their 
breeding  places  at  that  date.  It  grows  in  perfection,  in  the  most  exposed 
situations,  round  a  boulder  or  granite  rock,  over  whose  face  its  branches  may 
spread,  and  where  it  can  ha\e  at  one  time  both  moisture  and  the  reflected 
heat  of  the  sun's  rays.  It  is  found  at  Danvers,  in  Massachusetts,  in  Maine, 
and  the  higher  mountains  of  New  England,  where  its  fruit  is  reported  by 
Dr.  Asa  Gray  to  be  barely  edible,  bitter,  and  mealy.  In  the  parallel  of 
Lake  Superior  it  spreads  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  (being  absent, 
however,  on  the  prairies.)  In  a  higher  latitude  it  crosses  the  continent 
also  from  Churchill  Fort  to  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  Sound,  and  it  extends  in  the 
middle  districts  to  the  Arctic  Sea  in  latitude  71°.  In  Sitka  its  leaves  are 
said  to  be  small.  In  Rupert's  Land  they  vary  in  size,  according  as  the 
plant  is  exposed  or  under  shade.  V.  ovatum  is  common  in  Oregon  and 
rocky  places  of  the  west  coast  northward  to  the  49th  parallel.  V.  oxycoC' 
CMS,  dotted  cranberry,  is,  like  the  preceding,  common  to  the  New  and  Old 
World.  It  grows  in  peat  bogs  from  New  Pingland  and  Wisconsin,  north- 
ward to  the  arctic  circle,  and  from  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  between  52°  and  57°  north  lat.;  in  Sitka  on  the  latter  paral- 
lel, and  in  Kotzebue  Sound.  V.  viacrocarpum,  American  cranberry,  is  com- 
mon in  tho  pflat  bogs  of  the  Northern  Statcis,  and  has  its  limit  in  the  Sa»- 


I 


y,  13 


I 


LIST  OF  TREES  AND   SHRUBS. 


433 


katchewan  basin.  It  crosses  the  continent  from  Newfoundland  to  Oregon ; 
and  the  natives  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  eat  its  fruit,  when  boiled, 
under  the  name  of  Su-labich.  Chiogenes  hispidula,  creeping  snowberry,  is 
common  in  the  Northern  States,  where  it  grows  under  evergreens  in  turfy 
places.  It  extends  across  the  continent  from  Newfoundland  to  the  sources 
of  the  Columbia,  and  northward  along  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  55th 
parallel. 

Erice/b. — GaultheriaprocumbenSf  creeping  winter-green  tea-berry,  check- 
er-berry, partridge-berry,  or  box-berry.  This  fragrant  creeping  shrub  is  a 
great  ornament  of  the  woods  north  of  Lake  Superior.  It  innabits  moist 
woods  in  the  Northern  States,  grows  at  Pictou  and  on  Lakes  Huron  and 
Superior,  and  was  traced  by  us  northward  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  or 
near  the  dOth  parallel.  G.  ?  myrsinites  has  hitherto  been  found  on  the  de- 
clivities of  the  Rocky  Mountains  only  between  the  52d  and  57  th  parallels. 
Mr.  Drummond  says  that  its  small  berries  have  a  delicious  pine-apple  fla- 
vor. The  plant  was  cultivated  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Glasgow,  but  I 
have  not  heard  that  it  produced  fruit  there.  G.  thallon  is  an  Oregon  plant 
growing  between  Cape  Mendocino  and  Fuget  Sound,  but  not  extending  in- 
land more  than  a  hundred  miles  from  the  sea-coast.  Epigaa  repens,  groimd 
laurel,  or  trailing  »^rbutus,  inhabits  sandy  and  rocky  woods  in  the  Northern 
States,  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  and  Rupert's  Land,  as  far 
north  as  the  Saskatchewan.  Arbutus  menzietii  and  A.  tomentosa  inhabit 
Oregon  northward  to  Puget  Sound  ;  but  no  true  Jtrbutut  has  been  detecti^d 
on  the  cast  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Arctoitaphylos  uva-ursi^  bear- 
berry,  is  common  to  Europe  and  America,  and  descends  from  the  Arctic 
Sea  coast  to  Rainy  Lake  and  the  rocks  and  hills  of  the  Northern  States. 
It  crosses  the  continent  to  the  valley  of  Oregon,  where  the  Chenook  Indians 
mix  its  dried  leaves  with  tobacco.  It  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  by  the 
Crees,  who  call  it  Tchakashe-pukk ;  by  the  Chepe\»7^an8,  who  name  it 
Klih  ;  and  by  the  Eskimos  north  of  Churchill,  by  whom  it  is  termed  At- 
tung-U'wi-at.  On  account  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  officers  carrying  it  in  bags 
for  a  like  use,  the  voyagers  gave  it  the  appellation  of  Sac-a-commis.  On 
the  northwest  coast,  Mertens  found  it  at  Sitka,  and  it  doubtless  extends 
along  the  whole  coast.  Its  dry  farinaceous  berry  is  utterly  inedible.  A. 
alpina,  alpine  bear-berry,  though  a  herbaceous  plant,  may  be  mentioned  with 
the  others  :  it  is  also  European.  In  the  United  States  the  only  habitat 
given  is  the  Alps  of  New  Hampshire ;  but  it  grows  at  a  much  lower  alti- 
tude in  Newfoundland  and  Canada.  It  was  found  by  Drummond  on  the 
Rocky  Mountain  ridge,  and  is  very  common  on  the  bfirren  grounds  beyond 
the  woody  district,  and  along  the  whole  arctic  coast  to  Kotzebue  Sound. 
There  are  two  varieties,  one  with  bright  red  and  more  juicy  fruit ;  the  oth- 
er, having  a  dark  purplish-black  berry,  of  more  fleshy  consistence,  and  a 
stronger  peculiar  flavor.  Both  are  eaten  in  the  autumn  ;  and,  though  not 
equal  to  some  of  the  other  native  fruits,  are  not  unpleasant.  The  two 
kinds  are  exactly  alike  in  foliage.  Andromeda  hypnoides,  moss-like  andro- 
meda,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Alps  of  New  Hampshire,  Mount  Marcy  in  New 
York,  Labrador,  and  the  northwest  coast,  was  not  detected  by  us  on  the 
interior  canoe  route.  A.  lycopodioides,  a  Kamtschatka  plant,  was  found  by 
Chamisso  on  Unalashka.  A.  cupreasina  inhabits  the  Rocky  Mountains  in 
lat.  66°  north.  A.  nurtensiana  and  A.  Btelleriana,  so  named  by  Bongard, 
were  discovered  on  Sitka  by  Mertenn.     A.  tetragona  io  one  of  fh*>  most 

T 


v' 


I'll 


•i't 


.   «' 


\( 


434 


f;F,of;u.\riiicAii  maTRiniiTmN  of  plants. 


I  i 


11 


!i 


r 


northorii  plants,  boing  an  inha1)itant  of  the  north  end  of  Spitzbergen.  It 
occurs  on  all  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  from  Greenland  to 
Kotzebne  Sound,  at  Sitka,  and  as  far  soutli  as  Mount  Hood  on  the  45th 
parallel.  It  is  also  a  Lapland  and  Siberian  plant.  LiI>o  the  two  preced- 
ing species,  it  is  rather  a  wiry  herb  than  a  shrub.  The  withered  leaves  of 
past  years  remain  attached  to  the  thread-like  stem,  and  may  bo  used  as 
fuel,  a  fact  which  Mr.  B^ao  so  fully  demonstrated,  as  wo  have  mentioned, 
in  a  preceding  page.  A.  polifolia,  rosemary  antlromeda,  inhabits  the  Alps 
of  New  Hampshire  and  New  York,  Wisconsin,  Lake  Superior,  and  the  coun- 
try nortliward  to  the  Arctic  Sea ;  also  the  whole  breadth  of  the  continent 
from  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  to  Sitka  and  Kotzebue  Sound,  with  the 
exception  of  the  prairies.  It  is  an  inliabitant  also  of  the  higlier  Jura. 
./I.  ralyiulata,  rusty-leaved  andromeda,  grows  in  sphagnous  bogs  and  on 
the  flooded  strands  of  clear  streams  in  the  Northern  States  and  Rupert's 
Land  as  far  as  tlie  upper  part  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  also  on  the  shores  of 
Beering's  Sea.  Jl.  raccmosa,  clustcr-bearing  andromeda.  grows  in  the  moist 
copses  of  Canada,  Massachusetts,  and  New  Jersey  near  the  coast,  extend- 
ing from  thence  southward.  A.  ligustrina,  privet  andromeda,  a  common 
shrub  of  the  Northern  States,  extends  nortliward  to  the  Saskatchewan  ba- 
sin. In  this  genus  and  in  Arbutus  it  may  be  noticed,  that  the  more  herba- 
ceous species  have  generally  the  highest  range. 

Phyllodocf  laxifolia,  or  Mcnziesia  ccrrulca.  This  Knglish  plant  grows 
on  the  New  Ilampsliirc  Alps,  and  has  been  found  on  the  Labrador  coast. 
Steller  is  also  said  to  have  gathered  it  on  the  American  coast  and  islands 
( pposito  Kamtschatka.  M,  ferruginca  and  M.  aleutica  were  found  by 
Mertens  at  Sitka;  the  former,  which  is  one  of  Menzies's  discoveries,  has 
tiiuoo  been  gathered  by  Seeman  on  the  coast  of  Beering'.s  Sea,  and  the  lat- 
I'^r  was  previously  found  by  Chamisso  on  Un?lashka.  Menziesia  glandu- 
lifora  is  one  of  Mr.  Drummond's  discoveries  on  the  Smoking  River,  an 
I'levated  tributary  of  Peace  River,  on  the  55th  parallel.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  gracefully  drooping  yellow  flowers.  M.  empctriformis  inhabits  Van- 
couver's Island  and  the  Alpine  districts  of  Oregon.  M.  grahatnii  and  M. 
intrrmedm  grow  on  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  lat.  55'^  eastward  of  their 
crest.  M.  globularis  inhabits  the  same  districts  on  the  Smoking  River 
northward  to  56°  ;  and,  according  to  Pursh,  it  occurs  also  on  the  high 
mountains  of  Carolina,  and  on  the  Cacapon  Mountains,  near  Winchester, 
in  Virginia.  None  of  the  Mcnziesia?.  are  mentioned  by  Dr.  Asa  Gray  as 
existing  in  the  Northern  States ;  and  it  would  appear  that  many  of  the 
species  are  very  local,  particularly  the  alpine  ones. 

Kalmia  latifolia^  calico  bush  , mountain  laurel,  or  spoon-wood,  forms 
dense  thickets  on  the  mountains  of  Carolina  and  Pennsylvania,  and  is 
common  northward  from  Maine  to  Ohio  and  Canada,  where  it  is  a  much 
humbler  shrub.  It  was  not  observed  by  us  on  the  north  side  of  the  St, 
Lawrence  basin.  K.  glauca  inhabits  moorish  places  from  the  Northern 
States  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  crosses  the  continent  to  Sitka.  K.  angus- 
tifolia,  sheep  laurel,  is  common  in  the  Northern  State^i  and  Canada,  to 
James's  Bay  and  Newfoundland.  We  did  not  observe  it  on  the  canoe 
route  north  of  Lake  Superior.  Azalea  viscosa  inhabits  the  Northern  and 
Eastern  States  and  Canada,  but  was  not  seen  by  us  beyond  the  St.  Law- 
rence basin.  A.  ntuiijiora,  purple  azalea,  or  pinxter  flower,  a  common 
ehrub   in   the  Northern    States,   extendi  to  Canada.     Tho   Phododendron 


iil 


LIST  OF  TREE8  AND  flIIRUBS. 


436 


tgus- 
a,  to 
;anoe 
and 
jaw- 
imon 
ulron 


maximum,  which  is  common  on  the  monntaina  of  Carolina  ami  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  is  more  raro  in  thn  Northern  States  and  Canada,  grows  also  in 
Oregon,  on  the  subalpinc  range  of  Mount  Hood,  and  more  to  the  north  on 
the  high  mountains  near  the  "  Rapids"  of  the  Cohunbia.  R.  lapponi- 
cum,  Lapland  roae-bay,  is  another  arctic  plant  which  is  found  isolated  on 
the  peaks  of  the  White  Mountains  of  Nfw  Hampshire,  and  on  Mount 
Marcy  in  the  north  corner  of  New  York.  It  has  been  gathered  as  far  south 
on  the  coast  as  the  Labrador  peninsula  and  the  shore  between  York  Fac- 
tory and  Churchill  River,  and  grows  on  the  summits  of  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains on  the  56th  parallel,  and  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  barren 
grounds  from  Repulse  Bay  to  Norton  Sound,  and  northward  to  the  Arctic 
Sea.  An  infusion  of  the  leaves  and  flowering  tops  was  drunk  by  ua  in- 
stead of  tea,  but  it  makes  a  less  grateful  bevmage  than  the  Ledum palustre. 
It  is  a  Scandinavian  plant.  Ji.  kamtsrhaticum  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
northwest  coast  in  lat.  53°,  and  of  Uiialaslika,  as  well  as  of  the  Asiatic 
shore.  R.  albiflorum,  an  elegant  and  ornamental  ))lant,  was  discovered  by 
Drummond  on  the  Rocky  Mountains  between  52°  and  57°  of  north  lati- 
tude, where  alone  it  has  been  found. 

Loiseleuria  vel  azalea  procumbens  inhabits  the  Alps  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland,  Labrador,  Hudson's  Bay,  and  the  Arctic 
Sea ;  also  the  northwest  coast  at  Mount  Edgecumbe,  Sitka,  and  Kotzebue 
Sound.  Ledum  palustre,  narrow-leaved  Labrador  tea,  the  Ka-ki-ki-pukwa 
(perennial  leaves),  or  the  maskego-pukwa  (medicine  leaves),  of  the  Crees, 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  colder  parts  of  Canada,  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland 
and  Labrador,  and  the  whole  of  Rupert's  Land  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  on  whose 
shores  it  grows  from  Repulse  Bay  and  the  mouth  of  the  Thlewee-choh  to 
Kotzebue  Sound.  It  is  also  found  at  Sitka ;  but  Dr.  Asa  Gray  has  seen 
no  specimens  gathered  south  of  the  United  States  boundary  line.  It  is 
frequently  used  as  a  substitute  for  tea.  L.  latifoltum  grows  in  the  woody 
districts  of  Rupert's  Land,  often  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  other 
species ;  but  extends  further  south,  being  common  in  cold  boggy  grounds 
in  the  Northern  States. 

Monotrope;k.  —  Cladothamus  pyrolifolius  {Tolmiea,  Hook.)  inhabits 
Norfolk  Sound  on  the  Pacific  coast  in  lat.  57°,  and  the  country  southward 
to  Puget  Sound.  Chitnaphila  umbellata,  Pruice'a  pine,  Pipsissewa,  goes 
northward  to  53°  on  the  Rocky  Mountains,  but  does  not  pass  the  50th 
parallel  in  the  much  lower  country  through  which  the  canoe  route  lies.  It 
cros.se8  the  dividing  range,  descends  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  and  is 
common  in  the  Northern  States.  The  Chippeways,  in  whose  country  it 
grows  abundantly,  do  not  appear  to  have  discovered  its  admirable  diuretic 
qualities.  C.  maculata  is  a  more  southern  species  :  it  was  gathered  by  us 
on  the  great  lakes,  but  is  not  common  north  of  the  Middle  States. 

Jasminjb. — Fraxinus  sambucifolia,  black  ash,  is  said  to  grow  in  Virginia, 
and  by  Dr.  Asa  Gray  to  range  from  Maine  to  Wisconsin.  It  also  inhabits 
New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Canada.  F.  americana,  white  ash, 
was  found  by  Lieut.  Abert  on  the  Arkansas,  high  up  on  the  western  slope 
of  the  Mississippi  valley.  It  is  a  large  forest  tree  in  the  Northern  States. 
It  grows  at  Pictou,  also  on  Lake  Superior,  Rainy  Lake,  the  River  Winipug, 
and  the  banks  of  the  Saskatchewan,  to  latitude  54°  north,  where  it  is 
still  a  tree.  F.  pubeHcens,  red  ash,  doen  not  grow  thicker  than  a  man's 
thigh  on  Rainy  River,  wh^ro  it  terminates  near  the  49th  parallel.     It 


IM 


496 


REOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


li 


extends  southward  to  the  Middle  States,  and  also  across  the  mountains  to 
Oregon. 

I!.i.KAGHACEJE.^Eleagnu4  argentea,  silver-berry,  is  a  very  common  ehrub 
on  the  banks  of  rivers  throughout  the  basins  of  the  Saskatchewan  and 
Mackenzie,  up  to  the  68th  parallel  of  latitude.  Its  dry  husky  berries  are 
covered  with  the  same  silvery  epidermis  that  gives  the  hoary  appearance  to 
the  leaves,  and  are  used  by  the  Kutchin  to  ornament  their  dresses.  This 
apparently  sapless  fruit  is  often  found  in  the  stomachs  of  geese  on  their 
northerly  migrations.  It  is  the  wapow-muekwa-minan,  or  "white-bear 
berry,"  of  the  Crees ;  and  the  branches,  which  harden  in  drying,  are  used 
by  the  natives  for  making  pipe-stems.  It  ascends  the  Saskatchewan,  and 
occurs  in  Canada,  but  does  not  find  a  place  an  Gray's  "Flora  of  the  North- 
ern States  "  Shepherdia  canadensis  grows  from  Vermont  and  Wisconsin 
northward  to  beyond  the  arctic  circle,  and  is  very  common  on  the  Mackenzie. 
Its  small,  red,  juicy,  very  bitter,  and  slightly  acid  berry  is  useful  for  mak- 
ing an  extempore  beer,  which  ferments  in  twenty-four  hours,  jtnd  is  an 
agreeable  beverage  in  hot  weather.  S.  argentea  is  a  prairie  shrub  com- 
mon to  the  plains  of  the  Missouri  and  Saskatchewan,  but  which  does  nut 
grow  in  the  eastern  districts.  It  is  the  Mith-yH'tmna  or  blood-red  berry 
of  the  Crees. 

THYMEt.X£.-~Dirca  palmtris,  leather-wood,  is  common  in  the  Northern 
States,  and  extends  to  the  north  side  of  Lake  Superior,  dis&ppearing  about 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods. 

Empetre^. — Empetrum  nigrum  occurs  on  the  Alps  of  New  Hampshire 
and  New  York,  and  is  found  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  Rupert's  Land 
up  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  along  which  it  ranges  to  Kotzebue  Sound,  descending 
the  western  co&st  to  Sitka,  and  perhaps  lower.  It  is  absent  only  on  the 
prairies.  In  the  more  sandy  tracts  of  the  barren  grounds  it  covers  the 
«urf_ce  with  its  prostrate  branches,  that  are  loaded  with  fruit  in  favorable 
seasons.  The  snow-geese  feed  and  fatten  on  the  berries,  which,  after  the 
fresh  frosts,  become  very  juicy,  and  are  highly  refreshing  to  the  weary  and 
thirsty  traveler. 

Ulmace£. — Ulmus  atnericana,  white  elm,  was  found  by  Lieut.  Abert 
on  the  Pawnee  Fork  in  latitude  38°  10'  N.,  at  an  elevation  of  1658  feet; 
and  Dr.  Asa  Gray  informs  me  that  it  descends  to  Texas.  It  is  a  majestic 
tree  in  the  Northern  States,  much  prized  for  its  rapid  growth  and  the 
beauty  of  its  form.  Its  wood  is  in  requisition  there  for  the  use  of  wheel- 
wrights. On  the  north  banke  of  the  Saskatchewan,  in  about  latitude  54^, 
which  is  its  polar  limit,  it  grows  only  in  rich  alluvial  soil,  and,  being 
crowded  among  balsam  poplars  and  other  trees  which  inhabit  such  places, 
does  not  exhibit  its  handsome  outline  so  as  to  strike  the  eye.  Its  timber 
there  is  often  decayed  at  heart,  and,  even  when  sound,  is  so  porous  that 
we  found  it  to  be  unfit  for  planking  boats.  It  is  probable  that  the  U.  fulva, 
filippery  or  red  elm,  known  by  the  corky  and  angled  bark  of  its  branches, 
has  an  equal  northerly  range ;  but  we  did  not  trace  it,  though  two  kinds 
extend  to  the  Saskatchewan,  and  we  gathered  their  flowers.  It  is  perhaps 
an  elm  of  which  I  heard,  but  did  not  see  in  leaf,  which  inabits  wet  places 
on  the  banks  of  Rainy  River,  and  produces  a  wood  that  is  considered  there 
to  be  of  no  value.  Dr.  Asa  Gray  has  not  traced  U.  fulva  on  the  Atlantic 
side  of  the  Alleghanies  further  south  than  Maryland.  Celtit  occitientalit, 
BUgar-berr)'  or  hackberry,  is  common  in  the  Northern  States,  and  <?xtend«  to 


LIST  OF  TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 


437 


itains  to 

on  shrub 
van  and 
irriea  are 
t.rance  to 
B.     This 
on  their 
hite>bear 
are  used 
kvan,  and 
le  North- 
Visconsin 
ackenzie. 
for  mak- 
Lnd  is  an 
rub  corn- 
does  not 
•red  berry 

Northern 
ing  about 

[ampshire 

irt's  Land 

[escending 

ly  on  the 

overs  the 

favorable 

after  the 

veary  and 

!«t.  Abert 
658  feet ; 
,  majestic 

and  the 
of  wheel- 
tude  54«', 
nd,  being 
ch  places, 
ts  timber 
rous  that 
U.  fulva, 
branches, 
two  kinds 
a  perhaps 
vet  places 
ered  there 

Atlantic 
ciclentaUtf 
ixtwds  to 


Wisconsin  and  to  the  Oregon,  but  was  not  seen  by  us  on  the  north  side  of 
Lake  Superior. 

JuoLANDiNE*. — Juglttitt  citierea,  butter-nut ;  /.  nigra,  black  witlnut ; 
Carya  alba,  shell-bark  or  shag-bark  hickory ;  C.  amara,  bitter-nut  or  swamp 
hickory;  and  C.  glabra,  pig  nut  or  broom  hickory,  reach  Wisconsin,  and  the 
basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  but  were  not  seen  by  us  north  of  Lake  Superior. 

CupuLiFER^. — Q^ercut  obttmloba  vel  stellatu,  post  oak,  abounds  in  Texas 
as  far  as  San  Antonio  de  Bexar,  wherever  any  hard  wood  grows.  It  was 
traced  with  Q.  rubra,  red  oak,  as  far  as  the  River  Winipeg.  Of  the  latter. 
Dr.  Asa  Gray  says  that  he  does  not  know  whether  it  extends  to  Texas  or 
not.  It  is  a  good-sized  tree  in  the  Northern  States,  and  common  in  rocky 
woods.  Q.  alba,  white  oak.  This,  a  most  valuable  forest  tree  in  the 
Northern  States,  ranges  northward  to  Lake  Winipeg,  where  it  has  a  crooked 
and  rather  unsightly  growth  of  20  feet.  Michaux  states  that  its  southern 
limit  is  in  Florida ;  but  I  do  not  And  it  in  the  lists  of  plants  gathered  by 
Messrs.  Emory  and  Abert  in  their  journeys  from  Fort  Leavenworth  on  the 
Missouri  to  North  Mexico  and  California.  Q.  bannisteri ;  Q.  tinctoria, 
quercitron  or  black  oak  ;  Q.  macrccarpa,  burr  oak  ;  Q.  bicolor,  swamp  oak  : 
Q.  prinos,  swamp  chestnut  oak  ;  and  Q.  palustris,  pin  oak,  grow  in  Canada 
or  Wisconsin,  but  were  not  detected  by  us  to  the  north  of  the  great  lakes, 
with  the  exception  perhaps  of  Q.  tnacrocarpa,  since  I  gathered  the  imma- 
ture acorns  of  an  oak  resembling  this  on  Rainy  River.  Q.  garryana,  in- 
habits Oregon,  northward  to  Puget  Sound,  is  a  tree  which  reaches  80  feet 
in  height,  and  is  well  adapted  for  shipbuilding. 

Fagua  ferruginea  et  sylvestrii,  American  beech :  is  said  by  Pursh  to 
range  southward  to  Florida;  it  ceases  at  Mackinac  on  Lake  Huron,  and 
does  not  grow  on  Lake  Superior,  but  reappears  further  to  the  northwest  on 
the  Red  River  of  Lake  Winipeg,  beyond  which  it  was  not  seen.  Carpinua 
americana,  hornbeam,  blue  or  water  beach,  called  also  iron-wood,  inhabits 
Canada,  Wisconsin,  and  the  other  Northern  States,  but  was  not  seen  by 
us  on  the  canoe  route.  Oatrya  virginica,  hop  hornbeam.  This  tree,  which 
has  also  the  trivial  name  of  iron-Wood,  grows  as  far  north  as  the  River 
Winipeg,  and  is  plentiful  on  Rainy  And  Red  RiverS.  Its  southern  range, 
according  to  authors,  is  to  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

Corylus  arhericana,  hazel  nut,  and  C.  rostrata,  beaked  ha^el  nut,  range 
northward  to  the  Saskatchewan,  the  former  also  crossing  the  continent  to 
the  Pacific  coast. 

Myricace^. — Myrica  gale,  sweet  gale  or  Dutch  myrtle,  is  also  a  Eu- 
ropean shrub.  It  is  common  in  North  America,  on  the  stony  .  .  .•gins  of 
lakes,  and  in  peat  bogs,  from  Virginia  to  the  arctic  circle,  and  in  the 
island  of  Sitka.  The  native  population  of  Rupert's  Land  use  the  buds  as 
a  material  for  dyeing.  Comptonia  aspienifolia,  sweet  fern,  is  common  in 
the  Northern  States,  and  terminates  On  the  northern  slope  of  the  Saskat- 
chewan basin ;  it  ranj^es  southward  alotig  the  mountains  of  Carolina  and 
Georgia. 

Betulace^. — Bettda  papyracea,  paper  or  canoe  birch,  is  an  invaluable 
tree  to  the  population  of  Rupert's  Land.  Its  bark  is  indispensable  for  the 
construction  of  their  canoes,  and  also  serves  for  the  covering  of  tents,  in 
localities  where  the  skinr  of  large  animals  are  scarce.  Neatly  sewed  and 
ornamented  with  porcupine  quills,  it  is  moulded  into  baskets,  bags,  dishes, 
plates,  and  drinking  vessels ;  in  flhort  it  is  the  material  of  which  most  of 


!!■ 


H, 


,      i'. 

t 


\l 


438 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DI8TRIBUTION  OP  PLANTS. 


,/!;! 


the  light  and  easily  transported  household  furniture  of  the  Crocs  is  formed. 
The  ruder  'Tinne  use  it,  but  dispense  with  many  of  the  forms  into  which 
it  is  worked  by  their  southern  neighbors.  The  wood  serves  for  paddles, 
the  framework  of  snow-shoes,  sledges,  hatchet  helves,  and  occasionally  for 
gun-stocks ;  and  in  spring  the  sap  forma  a  pleasant  sweet  drink,  from 
which  a  syrup  may  be  manufactured  by  boiling.  Beyond  the  arctic  circle 
it  is  a  scarce  and  crooked  tree,  but  occurs  of  a  small  size  as  high  as  the 
69th  parallel.  It  grows  in  perfection  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Fort  William,  where,  owing  to  the  ample  supply 
of  good  bark,  a  manufactory  of  canoes  for  the  use  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  has  been  established.  As  the  Kolushes  north  of  Sitka  use  birch- 
bark  canoes,  I  infer  that  this  tree  extends  to  the  Pacific ;  but  I  have  not 
seen  it  in  the  lists  of  plants  of  that  coast.  Pursh  mentions  Hudson  B,iver 
as  its  southern  limit ;  and  Gray  states  its  range  as  extending  from  New 
England  to  Wisconsin,  but  chiefly  through  the  northern  parts  of  that  dis- 
trict. It  grows  in  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  and  Labrador.  B.  occi- 
dcntalis  occurs  in  Oregon,  along  the  Rocky  Mountains,  northward  to  the 
straits  of  Da  Fuca,  and  crosses  the  ridge  to  the  vicinity  of  Edmonton 
House,  on  the  64th  parallel.  B.  cxcelsa,,  yellow  birch,  was  not  traced  by 
us  beyond  the  banks  of  the  Kamenistikwoya,  which  falls  into  Lake  Superior. 
In  the  Northern  States  it  is  a  stately  tree,  60  feet  in  height.  B.  lenta. 
cherry  or  sweet  birch,  is  a  rather  large  tree,  which  is  common  in  the  North- 
ern States,  Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  and  Newfoundland;  but  does  not  appear 
to  go  far  westward,  as  it  was  not  found  by  us  nor  by  Agassiz  on  Lake 
Superior.  B.  pumila  vel  glandulosa,  little  birch,  is  rare  in  New  England, 
but  grows  in  bogs  of  the  northern  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan, 
and  Wisconsin ;  also  in  Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  Newfoundland,  and  Labrador. 
It  goes  considerably  beyond  the  arctic  circle,  being  found  on  the  banks  of 
the  Thlewee-chow,  the  Coppermine  River,  and  other  arctic  streams,  and 
also  on  the  Mackenzie  to  about  the  68th  parallel.  It  is  very  like  the  fol- 
lowing, but  has  a  more  erect  and  slender  growth,  which  may  be  perhaps 
owing  to  locality.  The  leaves  are  generally  longer.  B.  nana,  dwarf 
birch,  exists  on  the  summits  of  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  of  the  Essex  Mountains  of  New  York.  It  grows  also  in  the  higher 
parts  of  Labrador  and  Canada,  along  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  from 
Davies'  Straits  to  Kotzebue  Sound ;  and  generally  throughout  the  Barren 
Grounds.  Alnus  viridis,  green  or  mountain  alder,  and  A.  incana,  speckled 
or  hoary  alder,  range  northward  to  the  delta  of  the  Mackenzie  on  the  68th 
parallel,  and  from  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  to  Kotzebue  Sound ;  the 
first  species  being  also  found  on  Sitka.  They  are  common  bushes  in  New 
England  and  Wisconsin ;  but  I  have  not  seen  their  southern  limits  men- 
tioned. A.  rubra,  red  alder,  is  an  inhabitant  of  Sitka  and  Norfolk  Sound, 
and  extends  southward  to  Oregon.  It  seems  to  be  the  western  representa- 
tive of  the  A.  serrulata  of  the  southern  parts  of  New  England. 

Salicace*. — Willows  are  numerous  on  the  east  side  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  seem  to  attain  the  maximum  development  of  species  m  the 
southern  parts  of  Rupert's  Land,  but  to  be  less  abundant  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  except  to  the  north  of  the  peninsula  of  Alashka.  From  Lake  Superior 
to  the  Arctic  Sea  they  form  dense  thickets  on  the  shores  of  every  river  and 
lake.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  note  the  range  of  willows,  or  to  collect 
satisfactory  specimens  of  the  species  on  a  rapid  journey,  as  many  of  them 


-^_^.  -it- 


Rocky 

in  the 

Pacific 

iuperior 

ver  and 

collect 

)f  them 


LIST  OF  TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 


439 


which  perfect  their  catkins  l)eforo  the  evolution  of  tlieir  loaves,  remain  un- 
determined in  the  herbarium.  Of  twenty- two  species  described  by  Dr. 
Asa  Gray  as  inhabitants  of  the  Northern  States,  only  S,  tristis,  Alton ; 
S.  huniilis,  Marshall;  S.  sericea,  Marshall ;  S.  alba,  L.  ;  and  S.  angnstata, 
Pursh,  were  not  collected  by  us  on  our  northern  voyages.  iS.  uva  Mrs/', 
S.  repent  vel  fusca,  and  S,  herbacea,  which  grow  on  the  Alps  of  New 
Hampshire,  extend  beyond  the  arctic  circle  on  both  sides  of  tht;  continent, 
the  latter  being  one  of  the  most  northern  plants,  as  it  grows  on  the  north 
end  of  Spitzbergen.  The  other  fourteen  named  by  Dr.  Gray  reach  one  or 
more  of  the  northern  basins. 

The  following  were  traced  from  Lake  Superior  to  the  arctic  circle,  or 
beyond  it :  S.  villosa,  S.  rostrata,  S.  discolor,  S.  viminnlis,  S.  hicida,  S. 
longifolia,  S.  cordata,  S.  rigida,  S.  planifolia,  and  »S'.  pedkellaris.  Some 
others  were  not  gathered  higher  than  the  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan,  but 
their  southward  range  included  the  St.  Lawrence  basin :  as  S.  Candida  ; 
S.  petiolaris,  S.  rosmarinifolia,  S.  purpurea,  and  S.fragilis. 

S.  drummondii,  S.  barattiana,  and  S.  cordifolia  were  gathered  near  the 
elevated  sources  of  the  Saskatchewan  only,  though  the  last  named  has 
been  detected  by  other  collectors  on  the  Labrador  coast.  Salix  sitchensis 
is  known  only  as  an  inhabitant  of  the  island  from  whence  it  derives  its 
name.  Salix  richardsonii  and  S.  acutifolia  are  common  to  the  Saskatche- 
wan and  Mackenzie  River  basins,  the  former  being  also  an  inhabitant  of 
the  coast  between  York  Factory  and  Churchill. 

The  following  are  specially  arctic  in  their  habitats  :  S.  myrsinites,  S. 
vestita,  S.  speciosa,  S.  reticulata,  and  S.  nivalis,  which  grow  on  the  peaks 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  between  52°  and  57°  north,  and  within  the  arctic 
circle,  some  of  them  reaching  very  high  latitudes.  S.  retictdata  grows  on 
the  coast  between  York  Factory  and  Churchill.  S.  speciosa  inhabits  the 
Arctic  Sea  coasts  from  Coronation  Gulf  to  Kotzebue  Sound,  and  ranges 
southward  on  the  Mackenzie  to  about  the  60th  or  61st  parallel.  It  is 
perhaps  the  handsomest  of  the  genus,  having  an  agreeable  growth,  and 
very  large  leaves,  which  are  of  a  silvery  whiteness  beneath,  and  when 
bruised  have  a  rather  pleasant  odor.  On  the  Mackenzie  it  grows  to  the 
height  of  15  feet,  in  form  of  a  bush,  with  very  stout  and  long  yearly 
shoots,  which  distinguish  it  from  all  the  other  willows  of  the  same  locali- 
ties. On  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  wherever  the  rivers  aiford  a  suitable 
point  of  alluvial  soil,  a  thicket  of  this  willow  may  be  expected,  as  tall  as  a 
man.  Mr.  Seeman  observed  it  in  the  tree  form  on  the  northwest  coast, 
where  it  is  from  18  to  20  feet  in  height,  and  having  a  stem  five  inches  in 
diameter.  It  resembles  S.  lapponum  in  its  habit.  S.  stuartiana  and  S. 
retusa  grow  on  the  more  northern  banks  of  the  Mackenzie  and  in  Kotzebue 
Sound,  and  have  not  as  yet  been  detected  south  of  the  arctic  circle.  S 
rostrata,  S.  speciosa,  S.  lucida,  S.  longifolia,  S.  deprcssa,  S.  reticulata,  S. 
arctica,  and  S.  polaris,  have  been  enumerated  by  authors  as  crossing  to  tlie 
Pacific  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  their  respective  zones.  Salix  glauca 
was  found  by  Seeman  on  the  shores  of  Beering's  Sea. 

The  following  are  not  confined  to  the  American  continent,  but  range  to 
either  Europe  or  Asia,  as  well  tis  to  Rupert's  Land,  or  the  arctic  coasts  : 
S.  petiolaris,  S.  rosmarinifolia,  S.  viminalis,  S,  purpurea,  S.  fragilis,  S. 
acutifolia,  S.  fusca,  S.  myrsinites,  S.  stuartiana,  S.  reticulata,  S.  hcrbacea, 
S.  polaris  and  S.  ammaniana. 


W 


im 


I  ? 


*  i 


Ik 
r  ii 

'  hi 


i' 


440 


OEOGRAPIIICAL  DISTltlBUTrON  OP  PLANTS. 


The  moat  common  in  Rupert's  Land  are  the  S.  roi'.rata,  which  extends 
■outhward  to  New  England,  and  in  the  north  forms  almost  impenetrable 
thickets  20  feet  or  more  in  height,  in  which  the  old  twisted  and  sordid  gray 
stems  spread  in  all  directions.  S.  longifolia,  which  has  the  growth  of  an 
osier,  covers  the  now-formed  sandbanks  of  the  rivers  up  to  the  68th  paral- 
lel, its  flexible,  densely  growing  young  stems  serving  to  arrest  the  mud, 
and  speedily  to  raise  the  bank  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  water.  In 
drier  spots,  by  river  banks  in  the  Saskatchewan  basin,  it  forms  bushes  from 
20  to  25  feet  in  height.  Even  in  the  passes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  as 
at  Jasper  Lake,  it  grows  freely  on  drifting  sands.  Lieut.  Abert  found  it 
growing  at  Council  Grove,  and  Hundred-and-ten-mile  Creek,  at  the  height 
of  1200  feet  above  the  sea,  between  the  38th  and  39th  parallels.  It  in* 
habits  also  the  banks  of  the  Susquehanna,  and  all  the  Northern  States. 
The  soft  pliable  twigs  are  a  favorite  food  of  the  moose-deer,  and  might,  in- 
deed, as  they  grow  on  the  flooded  sandba.iks,  bo  mowed  like  hay.  Populus 
balsatnifera,  balsam  poplar,  or  tacamahac,  was  found  growing  on  the  banks 
of  the  Mackenzie  up  to  lat.  59°,  where  it  makes  a  very  slender  tree.  In 
the  southern  part  of  the  delta  of  that  river  it  forms  groups  of  healthy  young 
trees,  and  from  thence  to  the  United  States  it  flourishes  on  rich  alluvial 
and  occasionally  flooded  banks  of  rivers  to  the  exclusion,  on  such  spots,  of 
most  other  trees  :  its  trunk  attains  a  greater  circumference  than  any  other 
member  of  the  northern  forest,  but  its  wood  is  of  no  value,  except  for  fuel ; 
and,  when  old,  the  tree  is  unsightly  from  having  very  generally  lost  its 
top.  Its  grov/th  is  rapid,  and  its  decay  apparently  equally  so.  I  measured 
some  drift  logs  of  this  tree  which  were  floating  down  the  Mackenzie,  and 
found  them  to  be  about  15  feet  in  circumference,  with  a  very  moderate 
tapering  upward.  The  Crees  name  it  Matheh-metus,  or  ugly  poplar.  Dr. 
Asa  Gray  gives  as  its  southern  limit  New  England,  Wisconsin,  and  perhaps 
?ennsylvania,  but  not  further.  It  crosses  Beering's  Sea  to  Kamtschatka ; 
and  on  the  rivers  of  Oregon  it  grows,  according  to  Douglas,  to  the  height 
of  140  feet,  and  20  feet  in  diameter.  P.  candicans,  balm  of  Gilead,  which 
greatly  resembles  the  preceding,  has  not  been  detected  north  of  Wisconsin  : 
it  is  the  common  balsam  poplar  of  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  New  En- 
gland. P.  monilifera,  leevigata  vel  canadensis  (Mx.),  is  a  more  southern 
species,  being  rare  in  New  England,  but  taking  the  place  of  P.  candicans 
in  Western  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Kentucky.  It  grows  on  the  banks  of 
the  Arkansas  and  other  southern  tributaries  of  the  Missouri.  P.  tremuloi- 
des,  aspen.  Dr.  Gray  believes  that,  oouth  of  Pennsylvania  and  Kentucky, 
this  tree  is  confined  to  the  Alleghanies,  and  even  on  these  mountains  it  is 
rare.  In  the  Northern  States  it  is  common,  and  varies  in  height  from  20 
to  50  feet.  It  abounds  in  Rupert's  Land  in  the  more  fertile  soils,  and  very 
generally  springs  up  in  place  of  the  white  spruce,  when  that  tree  has  been 
destroyed  by  fire.  Its  range  is  co-extensive  with  the  forest  land ;  but 
toward  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  in  lat.  69°  on  the  Mackenzie,  it  is  a  slender 
willow-like  tree.  It  is  the  best  fire-wood  in  the  country,  but  is  applied  to 
no  other  economical  purpose,  except  that  its  ashes  are  collected  on  account 
of  the  abundance  of  potash  they  contain.  I  do  not  know  whether  it  in- 
habits the  Pacific  coasts  or  not.  P.  grandidenta,  big-toothed  aspen,  is 
common  in  the  Northern  States,  and  reaches  New  Brunswick  and  Canada, 
but  did  not  come  under  our  notice  on  the  canoe  route. 

Platanacex. — PlatanuM  occidentalis,  American  plane-tree,   resembles 


i^i^A'  UP   inEES  ANU  SHRUBS. 


441 


j^«*} 


IB 


an  ad  a, 
embles 


the  well-known  P.  orientnlia  in  the  way  that  itB  exterior  bark  falls  off  in 
thin  plates.  It  extcnda  northward  to  Canada,  but  does  not  appear  north 
ct'  Lake  Superior. 

Conifer*. — Pinui  bankriana,  gray  pine,  the  Cypres  of  the  voyafera, 
grows  from  the  arctic  circle  on  the  Mackenzie,  down  to  the  great  Canaiia 
lakes,  south  of  which.  Dr.  Gray  has  scarcely  seen  it,  but  has  heard  that  it 
is  found  in  the  northern  districts  of  Maine ;  and  it  occurs  in  the  list  of 
Wisconsin  plants  published  by  the  American  Association.  It  crosses  th>^ 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Spokan  River  in  latitude  47°  north.  This  would 
be  an  ornamental  tree  on  many  sandy  and  otherwise  unproductive  wastes. 
P.  resinota,  red  pine,  has  its  southern  limit,  according  to  £morson,  at 
Wilkesbarre,  in  Pennsylvania  (latitude  41^°  north).  1  have  traced  it  to 
56j°  of  laC.'tude  on  Methy  River,  and  it  crosses  the  Rocky  Mountains  to 
latitude  43°  in  Oregon.  Dr.  Gray  says  that  its  height  in  the  Northern 
States  is  from  60  to  80  feet,  and  Emerson  relates  that  a  few  years  ago  it 
was  not  uncommon  to  find  trees  of  this  species  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Maine  exceeding  100  feet  in  height,  with  a  stem  four  feet  in  diameter. 
P.  inopa,  which  was  not  seen  by  us  on  the  canoe  route  to  the  north  of  the 
United  States  boundary,  extends  on  the  northwest  coast  from  Oregon  to 
Sitka,  and  ascends  Mount  Rainier  to  near  the  snow  limit.  P.  ttrolna, 
white  or  Weymouth  pine,  has  its  equatorial  limit  on  the  Alleghanies  of 
Virginia  or  North  Carolina,  and  it  ranges  northward  to  the  south  end  of 
Lake  Winipeg.  In  the  Middle  States  this  tree  bM  a  shaft  of  100  feet ;  and 
Emerson  has  collected  instances  of  trees  formerly  existing  which  had  thA 
extraordinary  length  of  from  220  to  260  feet.  Even  near  its  northern 
termination  it  is  still  a  stately  tree. 

^bies  balsamea,  balsam  fir,  was  not  traced  beyond  the  62d  parallel  on 
the  canoe  route.  It  is  Le  Sapin  of  the  voyagers,  who  prefer  its  spray  to 
that  of  any  other  tree  for  laying  the  floor  of  a  tent  or  winter  bivouac. 
Dr.  Gray  traced  it  on  the  AUeghanies  only  to  Pennsylvania.  In  the  lati- 
tude of  Norfolk  Sound  (57°)  it  crosses  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific. 
In  Virginia,  Ngrth  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  PinuM  fraseri,  or  the  small 
fruited  balsam  fir,  occupies  the  AUeghanies  to  the  exclusion  of  the  preceding. 
It  does  not  reach  the  great  lakes.  j1.  canadentia,  hemlock  spruce,  was 
observed  on  the  Kamenistikwoya,  but  not  further  north  than  the  49th  par- 
allel ;  though  Mr.  Tolmie  traced  it  up  to  the  67th  degree  of  latitude  on  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  it  was  observed  by  Mertens  on  Sitka.  In  Mary- 
land this  species  is  found  on  the  AUeghanies  onlyj  and  Dr.  Gray  thinks 
that  it  ceases  to  grow  in  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  j3.  alba,  White 
spruce.  Of  this  species  we  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  speak  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages,  as  it  is  especially  the  forest  tree  in  Rupert's  Land.  It  is 
L^epinette  blanche  of  the  voyagers,  and  the  Mina-hik  of  the  Crees.  Within 
the  arctic  circle  it  seldom  exceeds  40  or  50  feet  in  height;  though  in 
ravines,  where  it  is  well-sheltered,  and  has  a  suitable  soil,  it  attains  twice 
that  altitude.  Its  age  in  these  high  latitudes  exceeds  400  yean  before  it 
shows  signs  of  decay.  It  most  probably  has  a  range  from  ohe  side  of  the 
continent  to  the  other,  but  has  not  yet  been  detected  on  the  west  coast. 
From  the  69th  parallel  on  the  Mackenzie,  it  crosses  obliquely  to  the  6lBt 
or  Both,  on  the  coast  of  Hudson's  Bay ;  and  it  is  the  common  spruce  in 
Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  New  England,  but  its  southern 
limits  are  unknown  to  Dr.  Gray.     In  Canada  the  sweet  cedar  is  much  used 


i   *1| 


n.i 


1 


I 


:  I 


442 


UEOCRAPIIICAIi  niSTRIBUTION  OF  TLANTfl. 


for  thn  thin  hoopH  (varatidea)  nnd  lining  of  tht*  baric  canoes,  being  a  Htraight* 
grained  light  wuud  ;  but  in  more  northern  districts  the  whito  Hprucu  sup< 
pli»'8  its  place.  It  is  also  exclusively  used  north  of  Lake  Winipeg,  for 
building  purposes,  sawing  into  deals,  and  boat-building.  With  its  tough 
roots  split  to  a  convenient  thickness,  and  used  under  the  Oree  appellation 
of  Watap,  the  pieces  of  canoe  bark  are  sewn  together ;  and,  in  districtii 
where  birch  bark  is  scarce,  a  rude  canoi;  is  formed  of  the  bark  of  a  spruce 
tir.  A  well  grown  tree,  with  30  feet  or  so  free  from  branches,  is  chosen ; 
an  incision  made  down  to  the  wood  along  one  side ;  and  the  bark,  being 
skillfully  raised  in  one  piece,  receives  the  cunoe  shape  by  the  two  ends  being 
skewered  together  and  stutled  with  a  few  branches  to  add  stillness.  The 
cargo  is  then  placed  in  the  middle,  and  two  or  three  Indians  will  descend 
a  rapid  river  in  this  extempore  vessel.  Before  many  days,  however,  it  bo« 
comes  water-logged,  and,  losing  its  stillness,  spreads  out  flatly  almost  to 
the  level  of  the  water,  so  as  to  be  nearly  useless  as  well  as  dangerous. 
Pieces  of  the  bark  are  sometimes  used  for  covering  the  roofs  of  houses. 

^.  nigra,  black  spruce,  falls  little  short  in  its  northern  range  of  the  pro- 
ceding,  but  in  the  higher  latitudes  it  is  a  much  inferior  tree  in  numbers, 
beauty,  and  utility,  and  is  almost  confined  to  swamps  and  bogs.  Accord- 
ing to  Emerson,  it  is  in  perfection  in  the  northern  parts  of  Maine,  or  about 
the  46th  parallel,  and  is  less  flourishing  in  more  southern  localities.  It  id 
found  on  the  higher  mountains  of  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  Up  to 
the  Saskatchewan  it  retains  a  vigorous  growth,  beyond  which  it  becomes 
visibly  inferior  to  the  white  spruce,  its  branches  being  short,  irregular,  and 
overgrown  with  utnea  and  other  parasitic  lichens.  ^.  mertenaiana  and 
j1.  sitchensis  grow  in  the  forests  of  Norfolk  Sound  on  the  northwest  coast 
in  lat.  57°  ;  Mr.  Seeman  found  the  latter  extending  northward  to  the  coa.st3 
of  Becring's  Sea ;  and  a  spruce  which  grows  on  the  banks  of  the  Niatok  or 
Buckland  River  is  thought  by  Sir  William  J.  Hooker  to  be  one  of  these 
Sitka  species,  and  decidedly  diflerent  from  ^.  alba,  to  which  Mr.  Seeman 
at  first  referred  it. 

Larix  americana,  American  larch,  tamarack  or  hackmatack,  L^epinette 
rouge  of  the  voyagers,  and  the  Waggina-gan  or  "tree  that  bends"  of  the 
Crees,  ranges  northward  to  the  arctic  circle,  and  from  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador  across  the  continent  to  the  Pacific.  It  grows  in  the  swamps  of 
the  Northern  States,  and  extends  southward  to  Virginia,  where  it  is  con- 
fined to  the  mountains.  In  high  latitudes  this  tree  yields  a  very  heavy 
wood,  so  much  twisted  in  the  grain  as  not  to  be  readily  worked,  but  it  is 
tough  and  very  durable.  It  is  a  tree  of  no  great  importance,  and  is  gen- 
erally thinly  scattered  through  the  forest,  and  if  it  is  any  where  grouped  in 
numbers  it  is  on  the  borders  of  swamps,  where  it  never  attains  much 
height. 

Cupressus  thyoides,  white  or  sweet  cedar,  extends  from  North  Carolina  to 
the  south  side  of  the  Saskatchewan  basin.  Clumps  of  it  grow  on  the  west 
side  of  Eainy  Lake,  and  solitary  trees  range  northward  to  the  vicinity  of 
Cumberland  House  in  latitude  54",  where  a  specimen  was  gathered  by  Mr. 
Drummond.  C  nutkatensis  vel  Thuja  excelsa  inhabits  the  Pacific  coast 
from  Norfolk  Sound  down  to  Observatory  Inlet  and  Vancouver's  Island. 
Thuja  occidentalism  American  arbor  vitse,  also  called  white  cedar,  has  its 
northern  limit  on  the  east  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  at  Lac  Bourbon  or 
Cedar  Lake,  a  dilatation  of  the  Saskatchewan  lying  between  the  53d  and 


LltiT  OF  TUECM  AND  UIIUIJUS. 


413 


fi4tli  parallulH.  Mu-liiiux  iiKntioiiH  tlio  inountaiiiM  of  Virpriuia  as  '\\h  hoiUIi- 
crn  limit.  It  is  a  haruliioiii)'  oriuuncnt  to  tlu;  haiiiiH  of  Rainy  River  ninl 
th«i  Rivor  Winijx'ff,  whfro  it  ovfihangs  tho  watt-r  in  a  jiii't\ir«'S(iiie  inann<'r ; 
but,  an  it  coinnioiily  grows  on  t\u'  ocviiKionaliy  iiuimlati-il  points  of  lakcH 
an<l  ill  swamps  unmixf^il  with  oth*'r  tr«>)<H,  it  tias  a  somlirn  aspect ;  ami  its 
Btoms  arfl  gonorally  inclined,  crooked,  and  even  ctmtracted.  T.  gigantea, 
tho  Wyeth  of  the  Wallamot  Indians,  Rrow.^  in  the  valli>y  of  Oregon  from 
the  Rocky  Mountains  to  tho  sea,  and  northward  to  Vancouver's  Island. 
Mr.  Douglas  found  it  growing  to  the  height  of  170  feet,  with  a  trunk  4U 
feot  in  circumferenco. 

JuniperuB  communis  extends  from  tho  vicinity  of  tho  Arctic  Sea  to  tlm 
New  England  States  and  Newfourdland.  It  produces  berries  freely  on 
elevated  grounds  within  tho  aret'j  circle.  /.  prostrata  (Persoon),  rfpetu, 
vel  humilis  aliorum,  is  conRi''..-;red  by  Sir  William  Hooker  to  be  a  variety  of 
/.  sabina,  which  includes  the  /.  virginiana.  It  has  always  the  prostrate 
form  in  Rupert's  Land,  and  was  observed  within  tho  arctic  circle,  1000  feet 
above  the  sea,  associated  with  the  preceding,  and  bearing  fruit.  Dr.  Gray 
informs  me,  that  it  is  not  foun-l  in  this  prostrate  liageliiform  condition  south 
of  New  York  and  Northern  Peji  isyIv!Miia.  Tho  rdiuary  /.  virginiana^  red 
cedar  or  savin,  ranges  to  the  h.rthest  limits  of  Texas,  and  to  the  country 
about  Santa  Fe  and  Tampas  Creek,  which  w  elevated  from  3000  to  5000 
feet  above  the  sea.  Col.  Emory  found  it  on  the  35th  parallel,  at  an  altitude 
of  from  6000  to  7000  feot,  in  firm  of  i  large  tr  ■.  'J\;ais  canadensis, 
American  yew  or  ground  hemlock,  grows  m  Massa  '  u.setts  and  Newfound- 
land,  and  on  the  borders  of  the  great  lakes  nortb.viia  to  the  southern  slope 
of  the  Saskatchewan  basin.  It  is  a  very  plea.ing  under'vood,  with  an 
almost  herbaceous  aspect,  which  growf  la  'kly  under  the  ..'lade  of  many 
kinds  of  trees.  On  the  canoe  route  it  r  ever  tvssumes  the  tree  form  ;  but  in 
the  valley  of  Oregon  Mr.  Douglas  found  yew  trees  as  large  as  those  of 
Europe. 


i 

■ill 


The  following  table  is  founded  on  Sir  William  J.  Hooker's  Flora 
Boreali- Americana.  Since  the  publication  of  that  work,  Sir 
George  Back's  voyage  down  the  Thlewee-choh,  Messrs.  Dease 
and  Simpson's  through  the  Arctic  Sea,  Mr.  Rae's  from  York  fac- 
tory to  Repulse  Bay,  the  voyage  detailed  in  the  preceding  pages,  a 
list  of  Nova  Scotia  plaii  )  mtributed  by  Mr.  Dawson  of  Pictou,  a 
collection  of  plants  gathui  jd  by  Mr.  Campbell  at  Pelly  Banks,  and 
Dr.  Asa  Gray's  important  Botany  of  the  Northern  States,  have 
contributed  to  our  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  species,  and 
have  been  severally  had  recourse  to. 

The  first  zoue  extends  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent  from 
latitude  45°  to  55°,  or  it  comprehends  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Sas- 
katchewan basins :  it  rises  obliquely,  in  accordance  with  the  course 
of  the  isothermal  lines,  in  going  westward,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast 
it  includes  the  49th  and  58th  parallels,  or  Vancouver's  and  Sitka  Jg'- 


I  i 


U 


w 


:  »-■ 


4.1.^ 


r.KOORAI'lIICAL  DI8TmBlTTU)N  Ol'  PLANTS. 


nndfl.  It  19  subdivided  into  three  districts ;  viz.,  the  enstern  forest 
country  the  enstern  prairies,  and  the  country  west  of  the  crest  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

The  second  zone  comprehends  all  the  country  lying  between  the 
arctic  circle  and  the  extremities  of  the  continent  in  latitude  72°. 
It  was  not  found  practicable,  owing  to  the  way  in  which  the  herba- 
ria were  formed,  to  separate  llie  barren  ground  species  from  those 
growing  in  the  woody  country,  and  the  zone  has  been  made  to  in- 
clude three  districts,  one  of  which  is  Kotzebue  Sound,  where  273 
species  have  been  collected  by  Chamisso  and  others.* 

The  Rocky  Mountain  ridge,  between  the  52d  and  57th  parallels, 
has  been  made  a  second  district  of  this  zone,  as  many  arctic  species 
go  southward  along  the  elevated  crest  of  the  ridge.  I  have  not 
been  able,  however,  to  separate  the  species  collected  by  Drummood 
in  the  lower  valleys  of  the  ridge  from  those  gathered  high  up  on 
the  peaks.  From  the  untiring  diligence  and  unrivaled  quickness  of 
eye  of  this  celebrated  collector,  we  may  consider  the  district  as 
well  explored  ;  and  had  the  vertical  ranges  of  the  species  been 
noted,  there  would  be  nothing  more  required  for  the  present  inves- 
tigation. 

The  third  district  of  the  zone  comprises  the  entire  arctic  country 
from  Barrow's  Point  to  Davis'  Straits. 

The  third  zone  lies  to  the  north  of  the  73d  parallel,  and  extends 
from  Melville  Island  to  Spitzbergen,  including  a  few  species  gath- 
ered above  that  parallel  in  Baffin's  Bay,  and  some  collected  by  Dr. 
Scoresby  on  the  east  coast  of  Greenland.  No  American  lAnd  to 
the  westward  of  Melville  Island  in  so  high  a  latitude  has  been  dis- 
covered ;  and  I  have  met  with  no  flora  of  the  polar  Asiatic  islands ; 
but  it  is  probable  that,  so  far  north,  a  nearly  uniform  vegetation  en- 
circles the  earth. 

'**'  Mr.  Secman,  who  was  cmpIo}rcd  as  botanist,  in  the  Herald's  late  voy- 
ages to  that  quarter,  has  made  a  much  more  ample  herbarium  of  the 
northwest  coast ;  but  as  he  has  just  arrived  in  England  as  these  pages 
are  passing  through  the  press,  1  can  avail  myself  only  partially  of  his  re- 
■earche"  for  the  improvement  of  the  table. 


li 


NUMBERS  OF  SPIICICS  IN   DIFFERENT  ZONEH. 


Ub 


Statistical    Knvmeration    of   the    Niimbbrs    of    Spkcies    by    their 
Families  A^o  Genera  in  different  Zones. 

(For  the  plantn  marked  *  see  correctionH  on  p.  462.] 


m 


rAHILIBt. 


DICOTYLEDON  E;E* 
I.  Hanunculack«*.  . 

Clematli 

Thalictrum 

Anemone 

HepaUca  

ilydraatU 

Adonli 

Rnnunculiu 

Caliha 

Trolliiu 

ieopyrum 

Coptis 

Aqiiilegla 

Dtilphinium 

Aconilum....^.... 

AcUBft 

Clmlcifuga 

Hydraatis 

Pamnla  brownii .  • . 


II.  Menirpikmackj 
Menispermum . . . 


III.  Ubrberidis 

Berberls 

Lontice 

Ept.nediuni . . 


IV.  PonOPHYLLKS  . 

JefDsrsotiia 

Podophyllum  .. 
Hydropeltia  — 

V.   NTMPB«ACEiK. 

Nymphaia 

Niiphar 

Nelumbium.... 


VI.  SARRArBNIlA 

Sarrar'  la.... 


VII.  Papavrracbs  . 

Papaver 

Stylophorum... 
Sanguinaria.... 


Firnt  Ztin«. 

Bittweeii  I.at.  4/>* 

to  ttf,"  on  Rmit  kiiIh, 

an  J  I. at  i'i"  to  Mt« 

Weit  vide. 


1718 

78 

3 

5 

II 

1 

1 

1 

30 

4 

1 

1 


1400 
50 
3 
4 
0 
I 
1 
I 
33 
3 

I 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 


408 
24 
3 
2 
4 
1 


301 
10 
1 
2 
4 
1 


1130 
4 


20 


flnc-iMiii  7.nn«. 

Krom  Art'lic 

Circin  nortliwiird 

tuH"  N. 


531 

42 

1 

2 

8 


230 
12 

1 
2 


340 

31 

I 


376 
23 

2 
4 


Third  or 
Pillar  Zone. 
I.>ing  Nurtli 
ol  73»  LaU 


70 


■a 


403 
23 

I 

0 
1 


;i  ' 


^;i' 


\i 


446 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


I 


FAMILIES. 

i 

H 

s 

1 

tr. 

1 

First  Zone. 

Between  Lat.  Af,« 

to  66"  on  Emt  side. 

and  Lat  49°  to  58<> 

West  side. 

Second  Zune. 

From  Arctic 

Ciiole  northward 

to  72"  N. 

Third  or 

Polnr  Zone. 

Lyinfc  North 

of  73"  Lat, 

•< 

B 
K 

.2 

■< 

3 

w 
2 

1 
1 

50 

3 
3 

1 
4 
4 

1 

15 

1 
4 
3 

1 

2 
3 
<2 

2 
1 
1 

1 

1 

4 

3 
1 

29 
1 

i 

3 
N 

s 

(•4 

e 

i 

1. 

1 

u 
I 

a 
C 

I 

I 

A. 

e 

a 

c 
a 
W 

B 

o 

1 

1 

21 

1 
2 
3 
3 
2 

3 

1 

5 
2 

5 
5 

3 

a 

T 

13 

.1 
Q 
>> 

1 

u 

a 

5 
1 

1 
2 

1 

48 

3 
2 
4 
6 
5 
2 

1 
5 

1 
1 
3 

1 
1 
7 
1 

2 
2 
1 

5 

1 
3 

1 

15 
IS 

G 
4 
2 

7 
33 

i 

0 
N 

-o 

1 

l 

I 

tn 

4 

1 

3 

66 

1 
1 
« 
2 
6 

2 
2 

22 

3 

o 

2 

1 

2 
2 

6 
2 
4 

1 

1 

35 
1 

1 
S 
1 

o 

2 
1 

1 

16 

1 

1 
4 

1 

5 

1 

1 

1 
1 

3 

1 
2 

15 

1 

S 
% 

m 

s 

>> 

1 

1 
1 

34 

1 
1 
5 
2 
3 

2 
9 

1 

5 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 
2 

6 
3 
4 

19 

% 
p 

< 

c 

1 

W 

2 
2 

53 

1 

1 
5 
2 
5 

2 

1 

16 

3 

1 

7 

4 
1 
2 

1 
1 

2 
2 

3 

1 
2 

1 

1 

25 

1 

;§ 

Is 
H 

B 

£ 
1 

VJ 

16 

1 
1 
7 
4 

2 

1 

11 

c 

i 

3 
C 

cn 

1 

14 

1 

1 
6 
3 

2 
1 

7 

"a 

O 
t 

0 

2 

7 

1 

2 
3 

1 

7 

1 

•5. 

5 

1 
1 
2 

1 

1 

VIII.   FuMARIACBf     

Dielytra 

g 

4 

1 

3 
1 

104 

1 
4 
3 
7 
7 
7 
3 
2 
3 

25 
1 
8 
3 
1 
1 
2 

lU 
o 

4 

2 
2 

1 
2 
3 

1 

2 

1 
I 

5 

3 

1 

18 

18 

9 
4 
5 

7 
7 

G6 
1 

7 
3 

1 
2 

1 

65 
1 
4 
3 
5 
7 
5 
2 

3 

8 
1 
4 
3 

1 
1 
9 

1 

1 
2 
3 

1 

2 
1 
1 

5 

1 
3 

1 

18 
18 

7 
4 
3 

7 

7 

48 

3 
3 

31 

1 
2 
2 
2 
3 
2 

1 
5 
1 
3 

6 

1 
2 

2 

1 
1 

4 
4 

3 
2 
1 

•26 

Adliiinin 

Corydalis 

Fumaria 

IX.  CRUCirKRX 

Cheiranthus 

Nasturtium 

Barbarea 

Turritis 

Arabia 

Cardamine 

Dentaria 

Parrya 

Vesicaria 

Draba 

Eropliila 

Cochlearia 

Thiaspi  

Hutchinsia 

Caklle 

Hesperis 

Sisymbrium 

Camelina 

Braya 

Platypetalum 

Eutrema 

Oreas 

Sinapis 

Ijepidiuni 

Capsella 

X.  Capparidka 

Cleome 

Polanisia 

XI.   ClBTINBC 

Helianthemum 

Lechea 

Hudsonla 

XII.   ViOLARIB JC 

Viola 

XIII.  DROSERACEiK 

Urosera 

Parnassia 

XIV.  PoLYOALB  A 

Polygala 

XV.  CARYnPHYLLBX* 

Dlanthus 

NUMBERS  OF  SPECIES  IN  DIFFERENT  ZONES. 


447 


1 


£ 

3 

w 


1 
1 

50 

3 
2 
1 
4 
4 


15 
1 
4 
3 
1 

2 
3 

Q 


3 
1 
1 


I 
1 

4 

3 
1 


29 
1 


rXMILIES. 


CARYOPHYLLKiE— (cofidnued.) 

Saponiiriu 

Silene 

Lychnis 

Agrostciniiia 

Molltigo 

Spergiila 

Larbrtea 

Stellaria 

Arenaria; 

Merckia 

Cerastiuiii 


XVI.   LiNBJE 

Linum  .. 


XVII.  Malvace£ 

Malva 

Hibiscua 

Slda 


XVIII.  TlMACKiE. 

Tilia 


XIX.  Hypericinea. 
Hypericum 


XX.    ACERINEA! 

Acer 

Negundo  . . . 


XXI.  Ampklidea 
Ainpeloiwis... 
Vilis 


XXII.   GERANiACE£. 

Geranium 

Erodium 


XXIII.   BALSAMINBiB. 

Impatienu 


XXIV.   LiMNANTHACEA 

Flo«rkla 


XXV.  OXALIDEX 

Oxulis 


XXVI.    RUTACE*, 

Xnnthoxylum . 
Ftelea 


XXVfl.  Celastrinex. 
Staphylva 


<n 

3 
a 
H 


1 

10 
3 


19 

1 

10 

3 
3 

5 
3 
1 
1 

2 

2 

8 
8 

8 
7 
1 

4 
1 
3 

6 
5 
1 

2 
2 


First  Zone. 

Between  Lat.  4/>* 

to  /US'  on  Eut  aiile, 

and  I,«t.  49"  to  58" 

West  side. 


1 

10 
2 
1 
1 
3 
1 

10 
11 


1 

2 
o 

1 
1 

5 
5 

4 
3 
1 

8 
1 


Serond  Zone. 

From  Arrtic 

Ciri-le  northward. 

to  7i"  N. 


Third  <ir 
PoIht    '/.•'!»•■ 

Lyinj  North 
ol  73'  Lat. 


f   .J 


r- 


.  1'? 

i 


•I 


Il« 


OKOGRAPIIICAL  DISTIUBUIIOiN  OF  PLANTS. 


rAMILItCS. 


CiLASTRiNEA— (conti'nurrf.) 

Kuonyiniiii 

Celnstru* 

Myxindn 

Ilex 

PlilMM 

Ncinopanthca 

XXVIII.  Rhamnba 

Rhnmnus 

Ccanothus 

XXIX.  Tbrrbinthacka... 
Rhus 

XXX.  LEouMiNoa** 

Thermopsis 

BliptlBia 

MeiUcago 

TrifoUuiii.... 

PcnrRlca 

PelAhwleinuni 

ttlyclrrhiza   

Tephniala 

AinorpliR 

Robinia 

Phiica 

Ozytropis 

Astragalus . 

Desmodium 

Hedysnrum 

I<eB|tedeza 

Vlcla 

Ervuin 

I.nthvrus 

Ampnlcarpea 

Aplos 

Phaseolus 

Lupinus 

Gymnncladus 

Cassia 

Cercis 

XXXI.  RoiACBJC* 

Cenuus 

Pruniis 

Purahla 

Liitkea 

Spirea , 

Gtllenia 

Dryna 

tieum 

Sieversia 

Coinampi«i8 


.9 
8 

i 


a 

3 
4 

0 
0 

9H 
S 
4 
3 
7 
5 
2 
I 
1 
3 
1 

12 
0 

12 
5 
2 
5 

1 
7 
1 
1 
1 
6 
1 
1 
1 

124 
8 
1 
1 
1 
8 
1 
3 
4 
5 
2 


First  Zone. 

RatwMit  l.au  4A* 

tu  AA>  on  EMt  ki<l«, 

and  L»^  M"  to  M" 

WMt  •ide. 


e 

e 
l 


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2 

4 

6 
G 

88 
2 
4 
2 
7 
.■> 
2 
I 
1 
3 
I 
10 
4 
10 
5 
I 
5 
5 
1 
7 
1 
1 
1 
6 
1 
I 
1 

106 
8 
1 
1 
1 
8 
1 
2 
4 
2 
2 


2 
1 

1 
1 
1 

3 
1 
2 

fi 
0 

51 

4 

2 
3 

2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
5 
1 
5 
4 
1 
6 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

78 
8 
1 


9f>rnn<l  7!niHi. 

Frnm  Antic 

C'lrrle  imrtliwiril 

til  TJ"  N. 


19 


11 


20 


II 


25 


Thinl  or 
Polnr  Xoiw. 
l-yo'K  North 
<.l7;i"l.iit. 


14 


4 


a 
« 

a. 
£ 


10 
1 

2 
3 


1 
2 
5 
2 


2 
1 


1    1» 


M       m 


NT7MDERS  OF  SPECIES  IN  DIFFERENT  ZONES. 


■119 


PAMILltS 


to 

1 

3 
3 


1 
2 
5 
2 


2 
1 


19 


Roi  ACK  s— (contiiiHecf.) 


Huhiis. 

Dniibania 

Frngaria 

Polentllla 

SibbHiilin 

ChniiiRrhnduH. 
ARrhnonin.... 
Alclieinilln  ,. . 
HnnKuiHdrba  .. 

Poterlum 

Rdm 

<'riitn>giifl 

AnielHiiciiier  . 
Pyrus  


XXXil.   ONAORARIiK  . 

Kplliibiuin 

(iniira , 

(Eiiothera   

Clarkia 

Unardta 

Clrciea 


XXXIII.  IIaloraoijc 

Proserpinaca 

Myriophylliim  — 

Callitrlcho 

llippuris 


XXXIV.  ('bratophtllka 
Ccratophyllum 

XXXV.  LVTHRARIJC 

Lythriiiii 

Decodon 


XXXVI.   CUCURBITACIJ 

Hicyos 

EchinociHtui 


XXXVII.  P0RTULACE«*. 

Monlla 

Portuluca 

I<ewiKia 

Tallnum 

Claytonia 


XXXVIII.  Paronycbibx  . 

Anychla 

Paronychia 


XXXIX.  CRASaULACKC. 

Scdum 

Pcnthoruiii 


ririt  Zone. 

Detwmn  Lit.  V^" 

Ui  W  on  KmI  ikiln. 

■nd  I.aU  A'.\'  lo  ftH' 

Went  mde. 


IH 
I 

3 
30 
1 
1 
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I 
2 
1 
0 
8 
2 
0 

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4 
7 
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2 
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1 
2 

10 
1 

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1 

2 
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« 
8 
2 
3 


•'incond  Zone. 

Kroiii  Arctic 

('ircle  niirthwrnrd 

to  ri'  N. 


10 


Tliiril  or 

I'oliir  Zone. 

l.yiiiK  Noitli 

ol'TlJ"  I..it. 


3    2 


A    ;  It, 


I 
i    i 


\% 


h 


f  '1' 


i. 


4^0 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


m 


m 


FAMILIES. 


XL.  Cactic£ 

Cactus 

XLI.   GROSHCLARIKiC  , 

Uihcti 

XLII.   SAXirRAGK£... 

Heucheru 

Tinrellu 

Telliiiia 

Mitellu 

Chrysosplenium... 

Saxifraga , 

Eriugyna 

Leptarrhena 

XLIII.  Umbklliferjc 

H  ydrocotyle 

Kryiigiuni 

Sunicula 

Cicuta 

Zizia 

Anmii 

Caruin 

CryptotKiiia 

Siuin. 

Bupleiiruin 

Seseli 

Cnidium 

ThaHpium 

Ligusticiim 

Coninselinuin 

Angelica 

Archangelica 

PleuroHperinuin . . . 

Fwrula 

Iiniteratoria 

Pastinacn 

Heracletim 

Laserpiliiiin 

Polytteiiia 

Daticiis 

Osiiiorrhiza 

Coniiirii 

Erigeneia 

XLIV.  Araliackj:  ... 

Adoxa 

Pannx 

Aralia 

XLV.  Hamamklidex. 
Haiuameliii 


t 

First  Zone. 

Between  Lat.  4ft» 

to  66«  on  Eiut  aide, 

•nil  I.at.  <M"  to  W 

West  .ide. 

Sernnd  Zone. 

From  Arrtir 

Ciri'le  northward 

to  72"  N. 

Tliird  or 
I'olar  Zone, 
l.jinc  Nortli 
of  n"  Lat. 

o 

N 

, 

t) 

N 

1 

C3 

N 

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!o 

c 
0 
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4 

1 

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1 

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9 

a 

■2 

H 
s 

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1 

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e 

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1) 

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c 

0 

as 

SI 

c 

£ 

s 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

16 

16 

8 

3 

10 

4 

1 

2 

4 

1 

16 

16 

8 

3 

10 

4 

1 

2 

4 

1 

56 

32 

13 

4 

19 

35 

23 

21 

18 

12 

11 

7 

7 

18 

6 

6 

3 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

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4 

3 

1 

2 

3 

3 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

38 

17 

7 

2 

11 

28 

20 

15 

15 

11 

10 

7 

7 

17 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

30 

36 

13 

6 

29 

10 

6 

2 

5 

10 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

3 

2 

1 

3 

1 

3 

3 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

I 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

J 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

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1 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

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1 

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1 

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7 

7 

1 

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1 

1 

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1 

2 

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3 

3 

1 

1 

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1 

1 

1 

Ifc 


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n 


1 

e 

s 

1 

1 

NUMBERS  OF  SPLCIES  IN  DIFFERENT  ZONES. 


401 


18 


FAMILIES. 


XLVI.  CoRNKiK 

CornuH 


XLVII.   LnRANTIIACEJC 

Arceiithobiuin 


XLVIII.  Caprifoliackx 

Sniiitmcus 

Viburnum 

Diervllla 

Lonicnra 

Trioaleutn 

Syniphoricnrpus  

Linncea 


XLIX.   RCBIACES 

Hedyotis 

Mitchclln 

CeplialanthuB. 

Galium 

Spigella 


L.   VaLERIANE£. 

Valeriana  ... 
Fedia 


LI.   CoMPOSITf''' 

I.  Cickoracea.. 

Snnchus 

Nabnius 

LygcHlestna  . . 
Leontodon... 

A  pargia 

Cynthia 

Lapsnna 

Cichorium  . . . 

Crepis 

Hieracium... 
Troximon  ... 
Krigia 


3.  Cynarem  . 
CentHurea 
Arctium . . 
Carduus.. . 
Cirsium  .. 
SauBSurea 


3.   Vf mania  cetB 
Vernoiiiit    . . . 


4.   Kupatoriacea 15 

Kiihnia 

Eupaturium 


i 

Firnt  Zi>n». 

Between  Lnt  4.5" 

to  An"  un  Eant  iiiiIp, 

aiij  r.nt  IK-  to  58" 

West  Hide. 

K 

fire 

I'oml 
roni 
If  n< 
U)72 

Zdne. 
Antic 
rtlinmrii 

"  N. 

Tliir. 
I'.ilar 
Lying 
ol'TS" 

lor 
/.line. 
North 
Lat 

V 

1 
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2 

7 

7 

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1 

1 

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1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

24 

24 

7 

4 

23 

6 

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6 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

2 

9 

9 

2 

2 

9 

1 

1 

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8 

8 

1 

7 

3 

1 

3 

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2 

2 

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ir> 

15 

5 

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14 

3 

3 

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3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

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9 

9 

5 

2 

8 

3 

3 

2 

2 

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6 

5 

2 

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3 

3 

1 

2 

1 

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5 

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:)2i 

285 

66 

80 

218 

85 

31 

60 

57 

7 

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46 

41 

36 

7 

9 

31 

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6 

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1 

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6 

6 

1 

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2 

1 

1 

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2 

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2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

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1 

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1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

12 

10 

10 

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2 

1 

2 

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2 

1 

2 

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1 

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» 1 


452 


Gt:OGIlAPHICAL  DISTRIBUT  ON  OF  PLAPTTS. 


FAMILIIS. 

\ 

H 
.5 

1 

1. 

1 

rir»t  Zone. 

Between  L«t.  4R» 

to  6b'  on  Xiut  lide. 

•ad  L«t.  «•  to  M" 

We»t  (id«. 

Second  Zone. 

From  Arctic 

Circle  northward 

to  li'  N. 

Third  or 

Po'-r  Zone. 

Lyi»S  North 

of7a»L»t. 

■< 
1 

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1- 

Cumposita:,     MlupMoriaeem  — 
(continued.) 

Mikania 

Liatris 

Nardosmia 

1 

5 
3 

1 

1]6 
6 
2 
5 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
3 
12 
6 
3 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 
4 
I 
1 
1 
3 
17 
6 
6 
5 
16 
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1 
5 
2 
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104 
6 
2 
5 

1 

1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
3 

12 
6 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 
3 
1 
1 
1 
3 

12 
6 
5 
4 

12 
2 

1 
1 

36 

2 

1 

2 
1 

2 
2 

1 

1 

2 
2 

1 
1 
1 
6 
1 
3 
4 
3 

1 
5 
3 
1 

74 
6 
2 

4 
1 

1 
1 
2 
1 
3 
9 
6 
1 

1 
1 

1 
3 
> 

1 

1 
2 
5 
5 
5 

10 
3 

3 
1 

35 

1 

2 
3 
1 

1 

11 

4 
3 
9 

Adenocaulon 

5.  Seneeionideie 

Silnhium 

Xanlhiuin : 

Ambrosia 

Parlheniuin 

Iva 

HelioDslfl 

Echinacea 

Rudbeckia 

I^eDach  V8 

Coreopsis 

Heliunthtis 

Bidens 

Gaillaidia 

TrichoDhvlluni 

HvnifinnDauuus 

Picradenia 

Heleniuni 

Antliemis 

Marriita 

Achillea 

Chrvsanthemiiin 

Pyrethruin 

Cotula 

Omalanthui 

Tanacetum 

A rtemisia 

CnaDhaHum 

Antennaria 

Arnica 

Senecio 

Cacalia 

fi.  Aateroidea 

134 

31 

59 

2 

1 
2 
2 

1 

17 
9 

1 
1 

1 
1 

119 
31 
49 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 

12 
9 
1 
1 
1 
1 

20 
4 

7 

G 
I 

36 

5 

10 

2 

1 
6 
6 

1 

1 

87 

.TO 

37 

2 

1 

3 

9 
4 

1 

1 

30 

3 

11 

1 

1 
12 

5 

1 
3 

1 

20 
3 
5 

1 
10 

31 
8 
9 

1 

8 

4 

1 
1 

2 

Solidaso 

Aster 

Eurvbia    

Seriocarpus 

Triuoliutn 

Galatella 

Townsendi4 

£rieeron 

Dipplopappus 

Boltonia 

Brachyrifl 

PolvniniiL 

Madia 

NUMBERS  OF  SPECIES  IN  DIFFERENT  ZONES. 


.!.':{ 


■s 

< 

9 

H 

1 

23 

FAMIUIB. 

« 

First  Zone. 

Between  L«t.  *!><> 

to  M'  on  Ku»t  side, 

and  Lat.  4W'  to  dH" 

VVMt  8ide. 

SeromI  Zone.              Third  or                                                 Jj; 

From  Arctic            Polar  Zone.                                                \\ 

Circle  northward        '.ymj  Nortli                                               1 

toTS"  N.                olTa-Lat.                                                j    ' 

1 

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1     1 

CoMPOBiTx,  ^steroidem— (con- 
tinued.) 

Crinltaria 

Donla 

LU.  Cahpanulackc 

Campanula 

Lobelia 

LIII.  Vaccink£ 

Vuccinium 

2 
4 

14 

8 
6 

16 
16 

40 
4 
4 

10 

8 
3 
1 
1 
6 
1 
2 

16 

1 
10 

1 

2 

2 

3 
3 

4 
4 

11 
11 

34 
23 

1 
1 
3 
2 

1 
2 

1 

13 
2 
9 
2 

2 
4 

11 
5 
6 

16 
16 

33 
3 
4 

9 

4 
3 
1 
1 
5 
1 
2 

15 

1 
9 
1 
2 
2 

3 
3 

4 
4 

11 
11 

27 

16 

1 

1 
3 
2 

1 
3 

1 

11 

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1 

3 

1 

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5 
5 

3 
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9 
3 
6 

10 
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2 
2 
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1 
3 
1 
1 
4 
1 
2 

10 

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1 
2 
2 

3 
3 

3 
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11 
11 

19 

11 
1 

3 
2 

1 

1 

8 
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LIV.  Ebicea* 

Gaultheria 

Arbutus 

Andromeda 

Menziesia 

Kalmia 

Epigea 

R  lodora 

Rhododendron 

Azalea 

Ledum 

LV.  MONOTROPIX 

Cladothamniis 

1 

Pyrola 

PterosDora 

1 
2 

1 
1 

1 
5 
4 
4 
1 
2 

Monotroua 

Chimauhila 

LVI.  Jasminej! 

FraxinuB 

LVII.   AvOCVHXM 

Apocynum 

LVIII.    A8CI.BPIADKJE 

Ascleoias 

LIX.  Gkntiank jc 

4                           1 

Gentiana 

1 
1 

2 

PleurcMTViiA 

Swenia 

Halenia    

Sabattia t 

Mecvanthes 

Villarski 

Limnanthemum 

T.V.    POLEMONIAGKX 

Pnleninnium .•■•>•.. 

Phlox 

Collomia 

1 

FT 


454 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OP  PLANTS. 


rAMILIES. 

I —  • 

First  Zone. 

Between  I.nt.  4ft» 

to  ft,')-  on  Kant  mile, 

and  I.nt  iit"  to  An- 

Wait  title. 

.'ieronil  Zone. 

Fnun  Arctic 

Circle  northward 

to  Ti-  N. 

Third  or 

Polar  Zone. 

I.yinic  North 

of  7a"  I.ut 

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LXI.    DlAPENSIACEjC* 

Uiapensia 

1 
1 

6 
2 

3 

5 
3 
2 

27 
4 
7 

14 

1 
1 

8 
2 

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1 

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8 
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6 
3 
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1 
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2 
2 

7 
2 

4 

1 
4 

2 
2 

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5 
2 
1 

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1 
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1 

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2 
1 

1 

6 

1 
1 
3 

1 

2 

1 

1 

3 
3 

22 

1 

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1 
1 

4 

1 
1 
3 

1 

6 
2 
2 
2 

4 
3 
1 

20 

1 

7 

11 

1 

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1 
1 
1 

4 

2 
1 

1 

2 

1 

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46 
3 
2 
3 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
8 

6 

1 
1 

2 
2 

9 

1 
2 
6 

1 
1 

20 

3 
1 

1 

3 
1 

LXII.   CONVOLVrLACBJE 

Convolvulua 

Calvstecia 

Cuscuta   

LXIII.   HVDROPHYLLEX 

Hydrophyllum 

Eutuca 

LXIV.  BORAOINBS* 

Myosotis 

Echinnspermutn 

LilhosDermiim 

Onosmofliiiin 

Kcliitun 

LXV.  SoLANES 

Solanum 

Datura 

Nicandra 

Nicntiiina 

Physiilis 

LXVI.  Orobanchxs 

Orobiinche 

Cnnophilus 

EpiuheKus 

LXVIl.    AcANTHACEiE 

Dipteracanthus 

Dianthera 

LXVIII.  SCROPHULARINXC*.. 

VKrbascuiii 

Llnaria 

CtdUnsia 

(>helone 

Pcnstemon 

Mlmulus 

Gratiola 

Synthyris 

Limosella 

Veronica 

Gy  ninandra 

Romanzoffia 

Gerardia  

Orthncarpus 

Cast'illeja 

Euphrasia 

Bnrtsia 

Rhinnntlni*; 

1 
1 

I. 

L 


NUMBERS  OF  SPECIES  IN  DIFFERENT  ZONES. 


455 


1 
1 

1 

2 
1 
1 


6 
3 

a 
1 


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21 
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6 
1 
6 
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23 
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2 
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6 
3 
6 

1 
1 

2 
2 

5 
5 

3 

1 
2 

Timt  Zone, 
netweeii  l.nt.  4ft* 

fo  ftri*  (III  Kiwt  »u\r, 

and  l.iiU  ^'l•'  to  M* 

Went  •Ids. 

Serond  Zone.             Tliiri 
From  Aritir            I'olar 
Circle  mirtliward        lyinK 
to  W  N.                ..1  W 

or              1 
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l.iit. 

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1         1 

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1        1 

2 
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1        4 

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2 

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11 

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4 

2 
2 

11 
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5 

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1 

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3 

5 

7 
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ScRoi'HULARiNiCit:,  (Continued.) 
Melainpyrutn 

1 

12 

40 

1 
4 

1 
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1 
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1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
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1 
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l.'t 
6 
1 
6 
2 

17 
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3 
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6 

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5 

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8    10 
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Pediculuris 

LXIX.  Labiatj! 

Mentha 

Lycopus 

Salvia 

Monarda 

Blephila 

Pyciiantheinum 

Cnlllnsonla 

Ciinila 

Hedeoma 

Mleromerla 

Melissa 

Prunella 

Scutellaria 

LophanthuH  

Nepeta 

Driicocephttlum 

Pliysnstegia 

Lnmiuni 

Ijenniirus 

Galeopsls 

Stachys 

Marrubluni 

Tcucrlum 

Trlchostema 

LXX.  Verbknacb^* 

Verbena 

Phryina 

Utrlcularia 

Pinguicula 

LXXI.  Primulackc 

Dodecatheon 

Androsace 

Dounlasla 

Primula 

Trientalis 

Lyslmuchla 

Glaux  

Sannol  118 

LXXII.  Plcmbaoineje 

Statice  ...    

LXXIIl.  Plantaoinea 

Planttigo 

LXXIV.   NYCTAOINEiK 

Oxybaphus 

Alllonla 

I  till 

'1 


( ^  1 

'  i 


i    *! 


f: 


ii% 


UEOGRAFUICAL  DISTRIBUTION  UF  PLANT^j. 


I  i', 


rAMILlfl. 


LXXV.  Amarajith4CK«. 

AmariinlhuB 


LXXVI.   CUBNOPODKJE. 

Ballcornia 

Salioln 

Corisperinum 

Eumtia 

BlUiiin 

Chenopodium 

Ambrina 

Atriplex 


LXXVII.    PlIYTOLACE*  . 

Phytolacca 


LXXVIII.  POLYOOKBJT. 

Knnigia 

Oxyria 

Rumez 

Polygonum 

Eriogonum 


LXXIX.  Lavrink«. 

Benzoin 

Sassafras 


LXXX.   EtBAONKC. 

Eleagnus 

Shepherdia 


LXXXI.  Thvmblba. 

Dirca 


LXXX  II.  Santalac^s 
Comandra 


LXXXIII.  Aristolochub.. 
t         Asarum 


LXXXIV.  Empbtrbjc 
Empetnim 


LXXXV.  Evphorbiack< 

Euphorbia 

Acnlypha 


LXXXVI.   URTICBiG  , 

Urtica ■ 

Pllea 

Farietaria 

Boehmeria , 

Huniulus 

Cannabis 


6 
6 

90 
2 
I 
1 
1 
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6 
1 
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1 
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34 

1 

1 
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18 

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1 
2 

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1 

2 
2 

1 
1 

1 
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8 
7 
1 

10 
5 
I 
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1 
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Kirm  Zona. 

llDtWMn  l.iit  4A» 

111  MV*  on  Kwt  iiilr, 

■nU  l.iit.  i'.f  l<>  Ah" 

Weat  Did*. 


6 
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10 
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9 
7 
1 
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32 

1 
10 
17 

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1 

3 
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1 
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7 
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10 
5 
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6 

13 
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1 
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4 

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23 


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3 
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8 
7 
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of  730  I.IL 


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17 
1 
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8 
7 


NUMUKRS  OF  til'l'X'IKH  IN  DII'FEKKNT  /DNKH. 


■1.'7 


i 


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■3 

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m 
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9 
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r  A. Ml  I. IKS. 


LXXXVII.  Uln*<kjc 

IMlllUH 

(V-lllH 


LXXXVIII.  Hai;riirk«. 
tiuuriiruH 


LXXXIX.   JUMLANDINKA. 

JiiKluns 

Caryu 


XC.  Samcack«. 
Hulix 

I'dpillUS  .... 


XCI.  Detulacks. 

Iletulii  

AInus 


XCn.   I'LATANACK* 

IMntaniiH 


XCIII.  CUPITUFERC 

QiiercuH 

FiiKii" 

Ciir|ilnua 

Ontryn 

CuryluH 


XCIV.   MVRICACBJE 

Myricn ■ 

Cuiii|»loniu 


XCV.  Conifer*. 

Pinus 

Abios 

Lnrix 

Ciipresaus . . . 

Thuja 

Junlperus.... 
Taxus 


MONOCOTYLEDON KS 

XCV(.  COMKLINBS 

Traiiescantla 


XCVII.  Ambmacka! 

Baglttaria 

Alisnia 


XCVIH.  JuNCAaiNI£. 

Scheuchzeria 

Trlglochln 


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20 
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2 
3 
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4 
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Ili-twitvii  I, III.  4.V 

III  iV'l^  nil    KiImI  mkU*, 
Mini    I.IlL  i'f  U>  HM" 

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390 
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3«     27 

32     25 

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198 


53  120 


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First  Zone 

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45" 
side, 
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Krom  Arctic 

Circle  northward 

U>W  N. 

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I.jing  Nortli 
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Acnrus 

OroiHium 

Arum 

Calla 

Hympl  Karpus 

Lenina 

Snarean  uni 

Tynlia     

C.     Naiades 

14 

1 

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11 

14 
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1 

11 

3 

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1 
1 

14 
1 
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Zaniiichellia 

Nuitis 

Ruppin 

Poiainogeton 

CL  Smilack* 

1» 
3 
3 
6 
6 
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19 
3 
3 
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6 
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6 

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1 
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16 
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Sinilax 

Sfreptopus 

Uvularia 

Sinilacina 

Pulygonatuni 

Cli.  Melanthace.b 

liiinnantheniuin 

16 

1 
1 
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7 

9 
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1 

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3 

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Zigadenus 

Xernphylluni 

Heloiiins 

Veratruni 

1'ofiekiia 

9  ' 

Me<le()la 

Trillium  

1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

CHI.    LlLIATEJE 

Lilluni 

I  ritillaria . .    . 

Erythronium 

Calochortus 

CIV.    AsPHODELK^E 

Anthericuin 

Allium 

Camassia 

Brodieea 

CV.   PONTEDERIACEJE 

Pontederia 

Leptnn  thus 

CVI.  Restiaceje    

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

i! 

Eridcaulon 

CVII.   JUNCK*    

23 

7 

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20 

6 

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6 

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North 
Lat. 


a  3I14 


NUMBERS  OF  SPECIES  IN  DIFFERENT  ZONES. 


AoO 


r  I 


FAMILIES, 


CVIII.  Hydrocharidbje. 

Valisneria 

Udora 


CIX.  Orchidkx.  , 

R!icro8lylis  . . . 

Liparis 

Corallorrhlza  . 
Am  plectrum. 
Cnlvpsn  . .  — 

Orchis 

Gyinnndenia . 
Plntanthera.. 
Peristyltis.... 
Aretliusa .... 

Pogonia 

Ciilopoeon  . . . 
Spiranthes. . . 
G(M)dyera .... 

LIstera 

Cypripedium. 


ex.  Iridea 

Iris 

Sisyriuchium  . 

CXI.  HvroxiDEiE . 
Hypnxis 


CXII.    DlOSCORKC 

Dio8corea 


CXIII.  CVPCRACEX 

Carex    

Elynn 

Eieochuris 

Bcirpiis 

Erinphorum  . . . 

Dulich'.um 

Cypenis 


2 
1 
1 

54 
3 
2 
3 
1 
1 
2 
1 

20 
2 
I 
2 
1 
3 
2 
2 
8 

8 
7 
1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

218 
183 
2 
7 
10 
8 
1 
5 


Firat  Zone. 

Between  Lat.  ih* 

,  to  66"  on  East  niile, 

and  Lat  •»'.•"  to  68" 

Went  side. 


Rliyiiclinspora ]     2 


IC 


CXIV.   GRAMINKiE. 

Lcersia 

Hydropyrum... 

Alopecurus 

Phlcum 

Phalarls 

Hli'rochloe  .... 
Anthnxanthum 

Milium 

Pnntcum 

Holcus 

Opiifmeiiut. . . . 


153 
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7 
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184 
153 

6 
10 
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134 

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2 

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33 
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43 
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7 
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160 
131 

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.^ecrinil  /line. 

Kroni  Arotir 

Circle  iinrtliward 


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10 


102 

91 
2 


51 


i^ 


s  !  Z 

C  « 


8,8 


1      1 

3i    3 


2      1 
1  I    1 

1  I   2 


24 


Third  or 

I'olur  /.one. 

Lyinc  North 

ofTJ-'  Lat. 


.VJ 

45 

2 

2 


33 


36 


m 


2    3 


1    2 
li  2 


5    6 


81 
65 

5 
4 
6 


56 


3 
2 
1 
2 
1 
1 

1 
1 


460 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


FAMILIKS. 


I;     I 


Gramink*— (eonfiBuerf.) 


Si'taria . 

Cenchrtis 

Oryzopsis 

Stipn 

Muhlenbcrgia.. 

Phippsia 

Colpodium  . . . . 

Vilfa 

Agrosiis 

Calaniagrostia  . 
Aiutnophlla  . . . 
Graphephorum. 
Phragniites  .  •  •  • 

SparUna 

Eutriana 

Dcsclmmpsia  .. 
Dupontia  ...... 

Boutelouia 

Alra 

Trisetum 

Avena 

Danthonia  . . , . . 

Poa 

Kragrostls 

Glyceria 

Plcuropogon  . . . 

Rebouica 

rntabrosft 

Knclerla 

Festuca 

Rruinus 

Ceriitochloa  ... 

Brizopyruin 

Trirtcum 

Elyiniis 

Asprella 

Hnrdeiim 

Andro|mgun  ... 


ACRORENES 

CXV.  Equi9KTA«;ic«. 
Equlsetuin 


CXVI.  Fu.icKs... 
Poly  podium. . 
VV(M)dsla  . . . . , 
Cistopteris.. ., 

Aspidiiini 

Oiidclea 

Strulhiopterls 
Athyriuin  .... 
Asplenium... 
Blechnmn  — 


a 

i 

3 

o 


1 
1 

3 

4 

6 
o 

3 
1 
6 
10 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 

T 
2 
3 
2 
2 
1 
2(5 
1 
9 
1 
2 
1 
1 
9 
3 
1 
1 
3 
8 
1 
2 
4 

71 
9 
9 

47 
3 
3 
3 

11 
I 

1 

7 
1 


KirBt  Zone. 

Ilrtwefii  l.ttt.  4.'i" 

to  .V)*^  oil  Kurtt  (iitie, 

and  I.at.  M)"  to  bn" 

West  aide. 


67    2G 

9  I    3 
9  j   3 

43    16 

3  I   3 

il 

10  !    5 

1  : 

1 

1 

5 
1 


23     10      6 


3      3 


3 
7 
1 
1 
1 
1 

1 

1 
o 

2 
I 
1 
1 
l.'i 
1 
5 

2 
1 
1 
2 
2 


1 
G 
1 
1 
1 

57 

8 
8 

r> 

3 
3 

s 
fl 
1 
1 
1 

5 


.•Seronil  Zone. 

fr'roiii  Ari'tic 

Circle  n*)rtliward 

to  l-Z"  N. 


-? 


2 
3 

1 
1 

30 
6 
6 

20 
3 
2 
2 
4 


I 


6  '21 
2  4 
2      4 


Third  or 
I'olar  Zone. 
Lying  Nortli 

vili"  L«l. 


1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

13 
2 


20 
8 
8 

3 
2 
2 
6 


£ 

< 

S 

'S 

< 
£ 


l|  1 


1 
1 

I 
1 
1 

13 

2 


NUMBERS  OF  SPECIES  IN  DIFFERENT  ZONES. 


461 


FAMILIES. 


FiucKS— (cimtinued.) 

I'U-rU 

('rypiKirrdininH 

A(ii  intiiiii 

Cheiliiiitlies 

Dic.ksotiiii  .    

(tsiiiiiiidii 

Sclii/iisi 

Hdtryctiiuiii     

CXVn.  LvropoDiNK*  ... 

Lyc(i|Mi(liutn 

Selagincllu 

CXVIII.  HvDRoprrRiDKS 

I  soetes 

Hiilvinia    

Azollii 

Du^OTYLKnONBS  .  . 
MONOCOTYKDONKS 

AcRnOENES   


) 

5 
12 

11 
1 

3 

1 
1 
1 


First  ZmiK. 

Ilflwsfn  I,«t.  AFf 

t.)  ■>■>"  111!  Kiist  sidt", 

iirul  I.at.  ^'I-  to  ftS" 

Wer4t  mile. 


£ 


» 

s 

o 

i. 

u 

14 

a. 

Ui 

s 

- 

o 

.**pr(>n(!  Zniip. 

Friirii  Aritii' 

Cinir  iiiirtliwiinl 

to  7J^  \. 


ITS.") 
554 


2279 
71 


12 

11 

1 

3 
1 
1 
1 


1 
3 
1 
1 

11 

10 

1 

3 
I 
1 
1 


14W  498  ;i<U    11.10 
493ilG2  122  i  399 


1992  GfiO 
07  I  2f. 


513  1.^)29 
18      ST 


!  k: 


Tliir.l  ,,r 
I'oiiir  Zonf. 
t.Mii;;  Nnilli 
ol  7:1"  l.al. 


5fifl 
198 


271  340  377 
53  120!l4() 


30      0 


4«i()  .523 
21     24 


159  57  40 
21  20 1  9 


no 


77  49 


403 

IHH 


38|591 
2(i 


Obs.  In  the  pmcedinf;  tnhle,  and  in  that  whirh  follows,  species  that  rani^e  to  several  zotirs 
are  eiiumerateii  iii  each.  The  pniportionnte  iiuiiibt>rs  of  the  second  table  are  found  l)y  dividing 
the  whole  PhancfoffamtB  of  a  district  by  the  numbers  of  each  family  in  that  district,  and  tlicy 
may.  therefore,  be  considered  a.s  denominator!!  of  fractions  having  1  for  a  nuincrator. 

The  'iroporlioii.s  vary  remarkably  in  different  districts.  The  predominance  of  Compound 
Flowers,  L(:)<uniinoiis  and  Ilosaceniis  plants  in  the  Prairies,  combined  with  the  paucity  of  Sa'- 
ifrnges.  Gentians,  and  Ericaceoiis  plants,  affect  the  proportions  of  the  other  families  materially. 
The  (Jriisses,  as  mif^ht  be  expected,  are  more  numerous  in  the  Prairies  than  elsewhere,  with 
the  reiiiurkable  exception  of  the  Polar  Zone,  in  which  the  Gramineir,  form  one-seventh  of  thu 
species,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  CruciferiB,  Catyophyllea,  and  .Snrt/ra^^-ti!,  constitute  more 
than  half  the  Phanerogama.  The  small  numbers  of  Asters,  Willows,  and  Carices  on  tho 
Pacific  coast,  modify  the  numbers  of  that  district. 


Mi 


'  i 


■■h  i\ 


2fi 

8 
8 

20 
3 
2 
2 
G 


1^ 


HJ! 


Ill 

{'  ^hH'  .' 

-Hi 

iijii^ 

462 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


Proportionate  Numbers  of  some  of  the  principal  Families  to  the 
WHOLE  Phanerogamous  Vegetation  of  the  several  Districts  of 
THE  three  Zones. 


families. 


Monocotyledones 

C(>in(>o&itK 

Cyi)eraceffi 

Gruiniiiece 

llosnces 

Cruciferte 

Leguniinnso; 

Scrophiilnrinea;  . . 
Gary  ophy  lies  — 
Rnnunculaces  .  • 

ErireiB 

OrchicJeo; 

Saxirrngeffi 

Umhellit'erte 

Gentinneie 

Conirere ■ 

Liibinte 

SnliCHces 

Boragineae 


First  Zone. 


3 

o 
u 


41 
100 
l!2-9 
13-8 
17-8 
21-3 
24-5 
24-4 
85-4 
27-5 
34-7 
38-8 
50-8 
.50-8 
660 
733 
82-5 
82-5 
94-3 


c 
E 

V 

8 

P4 


4-2 
6-4 
159 
11-2 
15-6 
24-4 
1.51 
233 
395 
270 

171-0 
57(1 

128-2 

ai^ 

956-5 
85  5 
51-3 
85-5 
85-5 


.9 

c 

I 


3H 
70 
95 
159 
19-5 
319 
3(1-0 
322 
463 
32-5 
R6-5 
356 
80-5 
54-5 
HO-5 
1064 
41-3 
125 
76-4 


Secnnd  Z<iiie. 


a 

3 


P  I- 

is 


■a 


61 
9(1 
270 
131 
120 
171 
23-1 
270 
18-0 
231 
360 

1080 
125 
540 
40-5 

3240 

40-5 
64-8 


38 
7-7 
H5 
14-4 
18-4 
13-9 
41-8 
35-4 
24-2 
14-8 
354 
iJ7-6 
21-9 

230-0 
51  1 

1250 
230 
32-9 
115 


3-6 
25- 1 

()'8 
14  5 
19-4 

9-8 
37-3 
37  1 
20-9 
227 
522 
65-3 
2{t0 
1044 
6.52 
870 
26-2 
217 
870 


.3 

h 

SB 


43 
129 
1H2 

70 
18-0 

()1 
455 
45-5 

8'3 
18-2 
455 

7-5 


303 


A  list  of  the  plants  collected  by  Mr.  Seflman  on  the  coasts  of  Doenn^'s  S"  •  hnvinir  been 
received  subsequent  to  the  first  part  of  the  preceding'  tables  having  pnssi^d  through  the  press, 
some  emendntions  are  requisite.  The  numbers  of  Vycotyledonts,  in  p.  461,  urr  to  be  sub- 
stituted for  those  in  p.  445,  and  the  followini^  changes  mnde  in  tho  column  headed  Kotxebue 
Sound',  vij!.  Ranunculacea,  14  ;  Crucifera,  If'i  Caryophylica,  18  ;  Ltguminotm,  14  ;  Rosact<e, 
27  :  Pnrtulacea,  5  ;  Saxifragea,  36  ;  Composila,  36  ;  Ericem,  9  :  Boraginta,  5 ;  Scrophu- 
larinea,  12  ;  Verbenaceit,  1  ;  Diaptntiacrte,  I.  These  occasion  some  slight  alterations  in  the 
first  column  of  tnc  second  zone,  and  in  the  total  number  of  plants. 


"'  ^"-  '■■•■■--'-l 


TABLE  OF  DiaTRIBUTION  OF  CARICE3. 


463 


h 
(1,1 

43 

129 
IH'i 

70 
IH'O 

IV 1 
455 
455 

8'3 
182 
455 

7-5 


303 


The  following  Table  of  the  Distribution  of  the  Carices  was  drawn 
up  by  Dr.  Boott,  whose  intimate  acquaintance  with  that  genus  of 
Cyperacete  renders  it  of  the  highest  value  to  the  student  of  the 
(Geography  of  Plants. 

London,  May  6,  1650. 
My  dear  Sir  John, 

I  have  examined  the  Carices  you  brought  from  your  last  excursion  to 
America.     They  are— 

''.  suirpoidea  Michx,     Arctic  Sea  coast. 

ursina  Dewey.     Arctic  Sea  coast. 

glareosa  Wahlg.     Arctic  Sea  coast. 

stana  Drejer.     Arctic  Sea  coast. 

Haxatilis  L.     Arctic  Sea  coast. 

oiimpacta  Broicn.     Arctic  Sea  coast. 

fuliginosa  St.  6f  Hoppe.     Arctic  Sea  coast. 

livida  Willd.     Arctic  Sea  coast. 

NovuB  AnglijE  Schwz.     Arctic  Sea  coast  and  Mcthy  Portago. 

canescens  L.  {iSf  b.)     Arctic  Sea  Coast  and  Methy  Portago. 

"         var.  polyatachya.     Lakes  Superior,  Rainy  and  of  the  Woods. 

adjusta  Boott.     Methy  Portage. 

siccata  Dewey.      Methy  Portag*?,  Sa.skatclie\van. 

lanuginosa  Michx.     Methy  Portage,  Saskatchewan. 

leuticularis  Michx.     Methy  Portage. 

Houghtonii  Torrey.     Methy  Portage. 

Raeana  Boott.     Methy  Portage. 

utriculata  Boott.     Methy  Portage,  Lakes  Superior,  Huron. 

aquatilis  Wahlg.     Methy  Portage,  Lakes  Superior,  Huron,  Fort  Simp- 
son and  Chepewyan. 

oligosperrna  Michx.     Lake  Superior. 

aristat^  Br.     Lakes  Superior  and  Huron. 

«oop%riM,  Srhk.  {Sf  /».)     Lakes  Superior  and  Huron,  Wuiipeg,  Athabasca. 

vulpariH  Fries      Lakes  Superior  and  Huron,  Winipeg. 

retrorsa  Schwz      Winipeg  River,  Lake  of  Woods. 

pedunculata  Muhlg.     Winipeg  River,  Rainy  Lake. 

intumescens  Rudge.     Lake  of  Woods,  Rainy  Lake. 

(Ederi  Ehrh.     Rainy  River  and  Lake. 

Pennsylvanica     Lam.     Saskatschewan,     Winipeg,     and     Cumberland 
Lakes. 

incurva  Light.     Valleys  of  the  Sask.  and  Mack. 

Of  the  above,  C.  Raeana  is  new,  and  C.  stans  new  to  British  America. 

I  find  from  my  notes  that  the  number  of  Carices  in  North  Am/'rioa  is 
250  ;  of  which  178  are  found  in  all  Arctic  America,  including  97  comruon 
to  Arctic  America  and  the  States,  leaving  81  Arctic  species. 

Of  these  81,  there  are  36  common  to  Europe,  leaving  45  peculiar  to 
Arctic  America. 

Of  the  97  found  in  Arctic  America  and  the  States,  28  are  common  to 
Europe,  leaving  69  exclusively  American. 

There  are  in  the  States,  besides,  72,  of  which  4  only  aro  European, 
leaving  68  <^x  'lusivcly  American. 


■i  ! 


\' 


•f-rj 


4Ci 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OP  PLANTS. 


The  exclusively  American  speciea  are  therefore  182,  and  68  common  to 
America  and  Europe. 


•  (■ 


American  8|iecies  in  Arctic  Amertcii 

Eur()|)ean  do.  

American  species  in  Arctic  America  ond  the  States. 
Knr<)p(;nn  do.  do. 

American  species  in  the  States 

European  do.  


45 

60 
68 


182 


28 
4 


68 


j8, 

I    72 


250 


You  will  find  that  the  large  proportion  of  Carices  in  the  Northern  part 
of  America,  common  to  it  and  to  Europe,  is  in  accordance  with  the  obser- 
vations of  Agassiz,  made  in  his  late  interesting  excursion  to  Lake  Superior. 
He  remarks  that  the  farther  north  we  proceed  the  greater  is  the  uniformity 
of  the  plants  common  to  the  two  continents  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that 
Loconte,  in  his  list  of  the  Coleoptera  of  Lake  Superior,  was  struck  with 
the  absence  of  all  the  groups  peculiar  to  the  American  continent,  the  large 
increase  of  the  species  of  genera  feebly  represented  in  the  more  temperate 
regions,  and  the  existence  of  many  genera  heretofore  regarded  as  confined 
to  the  southern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

Yours  sincerely. 

F.  130011. 


The  97  species  found 

C.  aneeps  Muhlg. 
arid  a  Tor. 
aristata  Brown. 
aurea  Niitt. 
angustata  Boott. 
arctata  Boott. 
adusta  Boott. 
aperta  Boott. 
aquatilis  Wahl. 
atrata  L. 
blanda  Dewey. 
bromoides  Schk. 
Backii  Boott. 
bullata  Schk. 
Buxbaumii  Wahl. 
cephalophora  Muhl. 
conoidea  Schk. 
cristata  S  .-/iij'Z. 
crinita  Lam 
commutata,  (ray. 
capillaris  L. 
canescens  L. 
chordorrhiza  Ehrh. 
capitata  L. 
debilis  Michx. 
Deweyaiia  Schwz. 


in  Arctic  America  and  in  the  States  arc — 


C.  digitalis  Willd. 
eburnea  Boott. 
Ehrhartiana  Hoppe. 
fpstucacea  Schk. 
flexilis  Rudge. 
filiformis  L. 
flava  L. 
fulva  Good. 
grisea  Wahlg. 
gracillima  Schwz. 
granularis  Muhlg. 
gynocrates  Worm. 
hystericina  Muhlg. 
intumeacens  Rudge. 
irrigiia  Willd. 
lupulina  Muhlg. 
lagopodioidea  Schk. 
Liddoni  Boott. 
longiiostris  Tor. 
lanuginosa  Michx. 
lacustris  Willd. 
lenticularis  Michx. 
limosa  L. 
livid  a  Willd. 
Miihlenbergii  Schk. 
miliacca  Muhlg. 


C.  monile  Tuckn. 
muricata  L. 
Novje  Angliip  Schwz. 
oligosperma  Michx. 
aSderi  Ehrh. 
polytrichoides  Muhl. 
pubescens  Muhlg. 
Pennsylvanica  Lam. 
pedunculata  Muhlg. 
plantaginea  Lam. 
pseudocyperus  L. 
pallescens  L. 
paucifiora  Light. 
rosea  Schk. 
Richardsoni  Brourr 
retrorsa  Schwz. 
rostrata  Michx. 
retroflexa  Muhlf 
rigid  a  Good. 
subulata  Michx 
squarrosa  L. 
striata  Michx. 
stipata  Muhlg 
Bcoparia  Schk. 
straminea  SchK 
scabrata  Schwz, 


TABLE  OF  DISTRIBUTION  OP  C  A  RICES. 


40,0 


250 


thif 


c. 


tcretiuscula  Good. 
tenuiflora  Wahl. 
tenella  Schk. 
umbellata  Schk. 
utriculata  Boott. 
varia  Muhlg. 
verticillata  Boott. 


merica  and  the  States, 

In  Scotland. 
C.  capilaris  L. 
aquatilis  Wahl. 
atrata  L. 
panciflora  Light. 
rigida  Crood. 


C. 


C.  Schwfinitzii  Dewey. 
siuuata  Dewey. 
Boirpoidea  Michx. 
Ktfjllulata  Good, 
triceps  Michx. 
tentaculata  Muhlg. 
trisperma  Dewey. 

Of  the  97  in  Arctic  A 
In  England. 

C.  Buxhauinii  Wg. 
cancsci'iirt  L. 
filiformis  L. 
flava  L. 
fiilva  Good. 
irrigua  Willd. 
limosa  L. 
muricata  L. 
(Ederi  Ehrh. 
pscudocyperua  L. 
pallescena  L. 
Htellulata  Good. 
teretiuscula  Good 
vtjsicaria  L. 
vulgaris  Fries. 

Of  thfse  28  species  of  Europe,  12  arc  Alpine,  or  found  in  high  northern 
latitudes. 

C.  Ehrhartiana  is  found  in  German)',  and  is  probably  a  form  of  C.  tcr- 
etiuseula  Good. 

C.  fulva  was  originally  established  upon  a  Newfoundland  specimen,  and 
has  only  been  found  once  near  Boston,  U.S.A. 


vulpinoidea  Michx. 
vesicaria  L. 
vulgaris  Fries. 
vitilis  Fries. 
Willdenowii  Schk. 


28  are  European. 

In  North  of  Europe. 

.  chordorrhiza  Ehrh. 
capitata  L. 
gynoorates  Worm. 
tenuiflora  Wahlg. 
livida  Willd. 
tenella  Schk. 
vitilis  Fries. 
Ehrhartiana  Hojipc. 


1 


\hK 
ivoz. 


The  72  found  in  the 

C.  alopecoidea  T\ickn. 
aestivalis  Curtis. 
alveata  Boott. 
P  jottiaua  Bcnth. 
BaiTattii  Tor. 
Baltzellii  Chapman. 
Buckloyi  Dewey. 
cius-corvi  Shutt. 
Careyana  Du'cy. 
Cherokfoiisis  Schu>z. 
Crawei  Dewey. 
Coo  ley  i  Dewey. 
Caroliniana  Buckley. 
cumosa  Baott. 
di'composita  Dewey. 
Davisii  Schwz. 
dasycarpa  Muhlg. 


United  States  are— 

C.  exilis  Dewey. 
Elliottii  Tor. 
Floridana  Tor. 
Fraseri  Sims. 
fanea  Willd. 
formosa  Dewey. 
flaccos[)Hrma  Dewey. 
folliculata  L. 
glaucescens  Eh. 
Grayii  Carey. 
gigantea  Rudge. 
hyalina  Boott. 
Halseyanii  Dewey. 
Hitchcockiana  Dciv. 
imbricata  Boott. 
juncea  Willd. 
Knieskernii  Dewey. 

V* 


C.  lucorum  Willd. 
lupulifomiis  Sartw. 
laevigata  Sittith. 
mirabilis  Dewey. 
Mitchclliaua  Curtis. 
microdonta  Tor. 
Meadii  Dewey. 
inirata  Dcivey. 
oligocarpa  Schk. 
oxylepis  Tor. 
prriicox  Jacq. 
panicea  L. 
platyphylla  Carey. 
pulymorpha  Muhlg. 
planostacliy.s  Kunz 
rcfracta  Schk. 
rctroourva  Dcwcy. 


t-;*. 


468 


(;i:uURAPIIICAL   DlSTttlBUTlOX   OF   PLANTS. 


8 


I   V   I  ■' 


C.  sterilirt  Willd. 

Nparganioidea  Muhl. 
Sartwellii  Dewey. 
setacea  Dewey. 
Shortii  Tor. 
Steudelii  Kunth. 
styloflexa  Buckley. 


C.  Htenolepis  Tor. 
Sullivantii  Boott. 
aychnocephala  Car. 
strictior  Dewey. 
tenax  Chapman. 
tetanica  Schk. 
torta  Boott. 


'  C.  turgoHcens  Tor. 
Tuckonnani  Boott. 
vestita  Willd. 
venuHta  Dewey. 
virpscens  Muhl. 
vulpina  L. 
VVoodii  Dewey 


Of  these  72  species,  4  only  are  common  to  £urope  (England). 

C.  praccox   Jacq.    (introduced),    found   only   in    Salem,    Massachusetts. 

Itevigata  Smith  (introduced),  found  once  near  Boston,  Massachusetts. 

panicea  L. 

vulpina    L.      Doubtful,    probably    a    form    of    C.    stipata.      (Ohio, 
Illinois). 

I  can  offer  you  little  that  is  satisfactory  to  myself  as  to  the  geographi- 
cal range  of  the  97  species  that  are  common  to  Arctic  America  and  the 
States,  for  want  of  precise  data  as  to  the  Carices  of  the  Southern  and 
Western  States. 

A. — I  find,  from  such  data  as  I  have,  that  from  lat.  30°  to  35°,  that  is, 
from  N.  Orleans  through  the  Carolinas,  there  are  33  species  extend- 
ing into  Arctic  America,  one  of  which,  C.  Nova  Anglice  Schwz., 
ranging  from  N.  Orleans  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  maintains  an  equally 
vigorous  development  through  40°  of  latitude. 

B. — From  lat.  37°  to  41°,  Kentucky  to  Rhode  Island,  there  are  21  species 
extending  northward. 

C. — From  lat.  42°  to  45",  Massachusetts  to  Wisconsin,  there   are   43 
species  extending  northward. 
Of  the  72  species  found  in  the  States,  27  are  southern  species,  ranging 

from  Florida  to  Kentucky. 

Of  the  81  in  Arctic  America,  there  is,  in 


Newfoundland, 
Labrador, 

Greenland, 


('anada, 

Rocky  Mountahis, 


Rocky  Mountams  and  Altai, 
Northwest  coast, 


I.e.  rcmota,  L. 

3.  C.  recta  B.,  nigra  ^W.,  uatulata 
Wg. 

9.  C.  duriuscula  Mr.  hser.iatolupis 
Dr.,  reducta  Dr.,  ruiina  Dr., 
holostoma  Dr.,  hyperborea  Dr., 
microglochin  Wg.,  pedata  Wg., 
microstachya  Ehrh. 

I.e.  miliaris  Mx. 

8.  C.  petasata  Dy.,  petricosa  Dy., 
filifolia  Nutt.,  Geyeri  B.,  Lyoni 
B.,  Jamesii  T.,  dioica  X.,  Py- 
renaica  Wg. 

1.  C.  Franklinii  B,  (C.  macrogyna 
Turczon) . 

18.  C.  anthoxantha  Pr.,  anthericoides 
Pr.,  Hoodii  B.,  amplifolia  B., 
Gmolini  H.,  circinnata  Mr., 
leiocarpa  Mr.,  marcida  B.,  mi- 


TABLE  OF  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CARICE8. 


467 


tolupis 

Dr., 

|a  Dr., 


|Lyoni 
.,  Py. 

logyna 

|ia  i}., 

Mr., 

.,  mi- 


Newfoundland  to  Rocky  Mt8., 

Greenland  to  Lake  Superior, 

u 

and  Newfoundland  to 

•  Ai'ctic  Sea, 

it 

to  Cumberland  Houso, 

(( 

to  Arctic  Sea, 

(( 

Slave  Lake  and  Ft.  En- 

terprise, 

<l 

and  Mackenzie  River, 

'.( 

Bear  Lake   and    Rocky 

Mountains, 

(( 

Bear   Lake,    Church   R. 

and  Sask., 

u 

and  Repulse  Bay, 

u 

Arctic  Sea,  Rocky  Mts., 

and  Northwest  coast, 

t( 

to  Rocky  Mountains, 

"         to  Northwest  coast  (not 
Rocky  Mts.), 
Arctic  Sea, 

Hi'  Ison's  Bay  to  Methy  Portage, 
"  to  Cumberland  H. 

Cumberland  House,  Mackenzie  Riv- 
er, and  Rocky  Mts., 
Carlton  House, 

"  to  Northwest  coast, 

Methy  Portage, 
Wooded  Country, 

Rocky    Mountains     •,■      Northwest 
coast, 


cropoda  Mr.,  macro^'ophala  H'., 
Mertensii  Prd.,  iiigi'lla  //., 
Sitohensis  Prea.,  Tolmiei  B., 
elongata  L.,  leporina  L.,  stricta 
G.,  physocarpa  Pretl. 

I.e.  ovata  Rudge. 

I.e.  bicolor  Jill. 

I.e.  glareosa  Wg. 

1.  C.  subspathacea  Worm. 

3.  C.  stans  Dr.,  vahlii  S.,  ur.sina  Dy. 

1.  C.  rotundata  Wg. 

I.e.  rari  flora  Sm. 

2.  C.  supina  Wg.  vaginata  TaMch. 

1.  C.  ampuijacoa  G. 

1.  C.  fuliginosa  St.  Sf  Hop. 
I.e.  compacta  Br. 

7.  e.  fo.stiva  Dy.,  incurva  Light., 
lagopina  Wg.,  nardina  Fr., 
obtusata  Lil.,  rupestris  ^11., 
saxatilis  L. 

3.  C.  saUna    Wg.,   eryptocarpa   Mr., 

stylosa  Mr. 

1.  C.  marina  Dy.  » 
I.e.  Houghtonii  Tor. 

2.  C.  heleonastes  £/i.,  maritima  MuW. 

1.  C.  concinna  Br. 

2.  C.  Torreyi  Thick.,  Ilookeriana  Dy. 
I.e.  Parryana  Dy. 

I.e.  Raeana  B. 

2.  C.  afRnis  Br.,  podocarpa  Br. 

5.  C.  Douglassii  D.,  Rossii  B.,  nii^ri- 

cans     Mr.,    macrocha'ta     Mr., 

fitenophylla  Wg. 


Of  the  above  81  species,  36  are  European  ! 

England ! 
C.  remota  L. 
dioica  L. 
elongata  L. 


leporina  L- 
stricta  G. 
ampullacea  G. 


Scotland ! 
e.  ustulata  Wg. 
vahlii  Srhk. 
rariflora  .Shi. 
vaginata  Tansch. 
incurva  Light. 
lagopina  Wg. 
rupestris  All. 
saxatilis  L. 


North  of  Europe ! 
bicolor  All. 
subspathacea  Worm. 
fuliginosa  S.  fy.  Hop. 
nigra  All. 
microglochin  W^. 
microstachya  Ehrh. 
rufina  Dr. 
Pyreiiai'ja  W^.  (Pyr- 


4 


iii 


I 


468 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PLANTS. 


England !  Scotland  !  North  or  Europe  I 

C.  obtiisata  Lil. 

aupina  Wahl. 

salina  Wahl. 

maritima  Mullcr. 

atenophylla  Wahlg. 

hulconaatuH  Ehrh. 

glareoHa  Wahl. 

feHtiva  Dy. 

nardina  tYut. 

pedata  Wahlg. 

rotundata  Wahlg. 

hyperborea  Dr.  (Lap- 
land). 

holostuina  iJr.  (Lap- 
land). 

cryptocarpa  Mr.  (Ice- 
land). 

Of  these  36  European  specios  found  in  Arctic  America,  30  are  Alpine 
or  belonging  to  high  northern  latitudes. 

C.  Pyronaica  Wahlg.  is  confined  in  Europe  to    the  Pyrenees ! 

C.  remota  Z.,  common  in  England,  has  been  found  only  in  Newfound- 
land. Royle  has  found  it  also  on  the  Himalayas  and  at  Kunawur  in  the 
East  Indies ! 

C.  festiva  Dewey ^  found  in  Norway,  Finmark  and  Lapland,  extends  in 
America  from  Greenland  to  Unalashka,  and  along  the  Rocky  Mountains  to 
the  Straits  of  Magellan  ! 


The  45  American  species  in  Arctic  America  are 


duriuscula  Meyer. 
cireinnata  Meyer. 
leiocatpa  Meyer. 
micropoda  Meyer. 
stylosa  Meyer. 
nigricans  Meyer. 
niacrochseta  Meyer. 
anthoxautha  Preal. 
anthericoidcs  Presl. 
physocarpa  Presl. 
Mertensii  Prcscoit. 
Sitchensis  Prescott. 
miliaris  Michaux. 
illifolia  Nuttall. 
Jamesii  Terrey. 


C.  Hough tonii  Terrey, 
reducta  Drejer. 
haematolepis  Drejer. 
stans  Drejer. 
petasata  Dewey 
petricosa  Dewey. 
Hookeriana  Dewey. 
marina  Dewey. 
ursina  Dewey. 
Parryana  Dewey. 
Torreyi  Tuckcrman. 
ovata  Rudge. 
Gmelini  Hooker. 
macrocephala  Willd. 
afhuis  Brown. 


C.  podocarpa  Brown. 
oompacta  Brotcn. 
concinna  Brown. 
Geyeri  Boott. 
Lyoni  Boott. 
Hoodii  Boott. 
Rossii  Boott. 
Tolmiei  Boott. 
marciila  Boott. 
nigolla  Boott. 
Douglassii  Boott. 
Franklinii  Boott. 
Raeana  Boott. 
amplifolia  Boott. 
recta  Boott. 


II  fc ' 


III' 


A. — New  Orleans,  Cumberland  House,  Rocky  Mountains,   C.  umbrllata, 

dcbilic. 
"  Greenland,   Rocky  Mountains,    Arctic   Sea,    C.   Norf 

Anglice. 
Texas  to  Canada,  C  rctrojlexa,  grisea,  blanda,  triccpx 


TABLE  OF  DWTRIUUTION  OF  CARICES. 


469 


tt. 
II. 

it. 


\rllata, 


(( 

It 

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tt 

tt 

tt 

Texas  to  Hudson's  Bay,  C.  Muhlenbcrgii. 

"        Carlton  IIuUHft,  Northwest  const,  C,  anrrpn. 
Georgia  to  Canada,  C.  lupulina,  commutata,  tquarrosa,  trntarulnia, 

itriata,  hystcricina,  tniliacea. 
South    Carolina    to    Canada,    C.    crphalophora^    varia,    granularis, 

vulpinoidea. 
'*  and  Rocky  MoiintainH,  C.  bromniika. 

Cumberland  House,  C.  crinita,  inumrtrcnn. 

"  "  Rocky  Mountains,  Northwfst 

coast,  C.  tteUulnta. 
"  "  Northwest   coast,    C.  stipttta, 

scoparia,  lagopodioidrs. 
"  "  Hudson  9  Bay,  Norway  House,  C.  polytrichoitUs. 

South  Carolina  to  Lake  Winipeg,  C.  lacuatris. 

'•  "  Northwest  coast,  C.  rosea. 

North  Carolina  Mountains  of,  Observatory  Inlet,  *^iunberland  Hdumo, 

Northwest  coast,  C.  Buxbaumii. 
"  "  to  Canada,  C.  conoidra. 

Cumberland  House,  Rocky  Mountains. 
C.  PenntylvaTiica. 


tt 


It 


tt 


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t( 


tt 
tt 


B.— Kentucky  to  Canada,  C.  pubcscens,  digitalis. 

"  Mackenzie  River,  Rocky  Mountains,  C.  cburnca, 

Illinois,  Cumberland  House,  Rocky  Mountains,  Northwest  coast,  C. 

Richardsonii. 
New  Jersey  to  Canada,  C.  Schweinitzii. 

Northwest  coast,  C.  aperta. 
to  Hudson's  Bay,  Arctic  Sea,  Rocky  Monntains,  North- 
west coast,  C.  livida. 
Ohio  to  Cumberland  House,  C.  arida. 

"        Carlton  House  and  Rocky  Mountains,  C.  Backii. 
Pennsylvania  to  Canada,  C.  subulata,  scabrata,  bultata. 

Cumberland  House,  C  gracillima,  cristata^  planta- 

ginca. 
"  "         Rocky  Mountains,  C.  pcduncu- 

lata,  utriculata. 
Greenland,  Northwest  coast,  C.  vesicaria. 
Northwest  coast,  C.  angustata. 
Rhode  Island  to  Bear  Lake,  C.  monile. 

"  Greenland,    Cumbcrlpnd   House,   Rocky  Mountains, 

Northwest  coast,  C.  adusta. 

C. — Massachusetts  and  Newfoundland,  C.fulva. 

"  Northwest  coast,  C.  muricata,  vcrticillata. 

Michigan  to  Canada,  C,  festucacea. 

"  Cumberland  House,  C.  Ehrhartiana. 

"  Carlton   House,    Rocky   Mountains,    C.  tcrctiuscula,  tru 

sperma. 
"  Canada,  Northwest  coast,  C  straminea. 

"    and  Northwest  coast,  C  Liddoni. 
Now  York  to  Canada,  C  ardata. 


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470  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OP  PLANTS. 

New  York  to  Canada,  Rocky  Mountains,  C.  Willdenowii. 

"  Cumberland  House,  C.  pallescens,  pteudocyperus,  tenui- 

flora,  vitilis,  ftava,  arittata,  fili- 
f or  mis,  irrigua. 
Rocky  MountainH,  C.  ticcata,  lon- 

girostrit. 
Northwest  coast,  C.  retrorta. 
Greenland,  Hudson's  Bay,  C. 
(Ederi. 
Mackftnzie  River,  Rocky  Mountains,  C.  aquatilis. 
"  Northwest  coast,  C.  lanuginosa. 

Sear   Lake,    Rocky   Mountains,   Northwest   coast,    C. 

limosa. 
Hudson's  Bay,  Carlton  House,  Rocky  Mountains,  North- 
west coast,  C.  aurea. 
Newfoundland,  C.flexilis. 

"  Greenland,  Arctic  Sea,  Rocky  Mountains, 

Northwest  coast,  C  vulgaris,  cane- 
scens. 
*'  Rocky  Mountains,  Northwest  coast,  C. 

pauciftora. 
"  Greenland,  C.  gynocrates. 

New  York  Mountains  of,  to  Mackenzie  River,  C.  lenticularis. 

"  "  Greenland,  Arctic  Sea,  Rocky  Mountains, 

C.  scirpoidea. 
*'  Labrador,  Arctic  Sea,  C.  rigida. 

"White  Mts.  of  New  Hampshire,  Bear  Lake,  C.  oligosperma. 
"  "  "  Northwest  coast,  C.  ro»frato. 

New  Hampshire,  White  Mts.  of,  Canada,  Greenland,  Rocky  Mountains, 

C.  atrata. 
"  "  "  Greenland,    Hudson's     Bay,     Rocky 

Mountains,   C.   capitata. 
"  Bear  Lake,  Rocky  Mount- 

ains, C.  capillaris. 
Wisconsin  to  Canada,  C.  tenella. 

Cumberland  House,  Hudson's  Bay,  C.  chordorrhiza. 
Rocky  Mountains.  C.  Deweyana. 


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The  geographical  range,  as  far  as  I  know  it,  of  the  72  species  found  in 
the  United  States  is  as  follows : 

Florida,  C.  tenax,  Baltzellii,  oxylepis. 

"  to  New  Orleans,  C.  gigantea,  Floridana. 

"  Georgia,  C.  dasycarpa,  turgescens. 

"  Carolinas,  C.  glaucescens,  venusta,  Elliottii. 

"  New  England,  C.  folliculata,  polytnorpha. 

Texas,  C.  alveata,  hyalina,  imbricata,  microdonta,  planostachyt. 

"  to  Alabama,  C.  Cherokeensis. 

"  Kentucky,  C.  stenolepis. 

"  New  Jersey,  C.  flaccosperma. 

"  Rhode  Island,  C.fanca. 


INSECTS  OP  ARCT  0  NORTH   AMERICA 


471 


lon- 


New  Orleans,  C.  Boottiana. 

*'  to  Wisconsin,  C  Meadii. 

Carolina,  South,  C.  Buckleyi,  Cnroliniana,  Mitchelliana,  Fraseri,  juncea, 
styloplexa,  lucorum. 
"  to  Virginia,  C  cestivalis. 

"  Massachusetts',  C.  comosa. 

Carolina,  North,  to  Ohio,  C.  Sullivantii. 
Virginia  to  Kentucky,  C.  Shortii. 
Kentucky  to  New  York,  C.  oligocarpa,  Hitchcockiana 

"  Connecticut,  C.  Davisii,  vircscens. 

Ohio,  C.  tetanica,  crus-corvi. 

"      to  Pennsylvania,  C.  strictior. 
"  New  Jersey,  C.  Titckermant. 

"  New  York,  C.  Careyana. 

"  ,         Illinois,  C.  vulpina. 
Pennsylvania,  C.  refracta. 

"  to  Cherokee,  C.  sterilis. 

"  Connecticut,  C.  torta. 

New  Jersey,  C  Barrattii,  Kneiskernii. 

"  to  Rhode  Island,  C  Halteyana^  platyphylla. 

"  Connecticut,  C.  vestita. 

New  York,  C.  alopecoidea,  formosa,  lupuliformis,  mirala,  sychnocephalUy 
Woodii. 
"  Michigan,  C  crawci,  Sartwellii,  deconiposita,  Stcudelii. 

"         Rhode  Island,  C.  retrocurva. 
Massachusetts,  C.  exilis. 
Connecticut,  C.  Grayii. 
Massachusetts,  C.  setacea,  pracox,  panirea,  lavigata.    • 

"  to  Michigan,  C.  mirabilis. 

Michigan,  C  Cooleyi. 
Wisconsin  to  New  England,  C.  sparganioides. 


<( 


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For  the  following  notice  and  list  of  insects  collected  on  tbe  Ex- 
pedition, I  am  indebted  to  Adam  White,  Esq.,  F.L.S.,  ice,  of  the 
British  Museum.  With  respect  to  the  extent  of  the  collection,  it 
is  to  be  observed  that  no  time  was  devoted  to  the  capture  of  insects. 
Such  as  presented  themselves  at  convenient  times  were  taken,  but 
none  were  sought  for;  and  the  numbers  of  the  list  are  not,  there- 
fore, to  be  considered  as  a  criterion  of  the  richness  of  the  country 
in  that  division  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

Note  on  Hymenoptera  in  Arctic  North  America. 

"Otho  Fabricius  first,  perhaps,  recorded  any  of  the  Hymenoptera  of 
Arctic  North  America.  Doubtless  Baffin,  Frobisher,  and  other  manly 
navigators  recognized  humble  bees  and  other  bees  during  their  summer 
voyages,  and  may  have,  in  print  or  in  manuscript,  with  sailor- like  earnest- 


i,1 

¥ 
I 


472 


INSECTS  OF  ARCllC  NORTH  AMERICA. 


I  :? 


'•i  ' 
It 


«»., 


ness,  made  mention  of  every  such  occurrence  in  their  journals.  It  is  de- 
lightful to  read  the  notices  of  flowers  and  verdure  in  their  accounts  of  blio 
hurried  spring,  summer,  and  autunm  two  months  of  a  Greenland  year,  of 
five-sixths  winter.  Where  flowers  and  verdure  abound,  even  for  six  weeks 
or  a  shorter  time,  there  insects  must  be  found ; — there  insects  of  the  order 
Hymenoptera,  the  order  to  which  this  notice  is  limited,  must  occur.  Flow- 
ers and  Hymenoptera  must  be  together. 

"  0.  Fa.bricius  records  two  species  of  Hymenoptera  as  being  brought  by 
him  from  Greenland.  His  book,  so  admirable  a  model  of  a  local  fauna  as 
to  be  even  now  one  of  the  standards  of  excellence,  was  published  in  1780. 
The  next  considerable  accession  to  our  acquaintance  with  the  Hymenoptera 
of  British  America  was  made  by  Redman,  who  collected  in  Nova  Scotia 
many  fine  species  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Some  of  these,  such  as 
PeledntM,  Sirices,  Ichneumonidce,  &c.,  were  very  prominent  species,  and 
are  now  being  worked  out  in  the  vast  collections  of  the  National  Museum. 

"  Sir  John  Richardson  and  his  brave  comrades  collected  many  species, 
which  were  lost  during  their  disastrous  journey.  They  still,  however, 
brought  many  insects  to  England,  and  in  the  '  Fatma  Boreali-Americana' 
these  insects  are  described  by  the  venerable  Kirby.  The  species  of  Hymen- 
optera are  very  few;  there  are  only  thirty-two  altogether ;  the  circumstances 
attending  the  journey  not  admitting  of  their  collection  and  preservation. 

"An  eminent  man,  reasoning  on  such  data  as  he  had,  has  recorded  his 
belief  that  it  will  be  found  that  Hymenoptera  do  not  abound  in  British 
North  America;  now  it  may  be  remarked  in  making  generalizations  on 
the  distribution  of  animals,  especially  those  of  the  lower  orders,  'that, 
before  generalizing  on  a  collection  from  any  place  not  often  visited  or  not 
often  explored,  attention  be  paid  to  the  taste  or  tastes,  or,  in  other  words, 
to  the  bias  or  direction  of  the  eye,  hand,  and  mind  of  the  person  or  persons 
who  collect,  supposing  such  reasoning  is  recorded  as  on  authentic  data.' 

"Mr.  George  Barnston,  to  whose  researches  Sir  John  Richardson  directed 
public  attention  in  the  '  Edinburgh  New  Philosophical  Journal'  for  April, 
1841,  has  published  a  very  admirable  summary  of  the  Progress  of  the 
Seasons  as  affecting  Animals  and  Vegetables  at  Martin's  Falls,  Albany 
River,  James's  Bay,  about  lat.  51°  30'  N.,  and  in  long.  86°  20'  W.  In 
this  fresh  and  refreshing  journal,  there  are  more  than  indications  that 
Hymenoptera,  Diptera,  and  Neuroptera  abound.  In  a  year  or  two  after- 
ward Mr.  Barnston  came  to  London  and  presented  his  collection  to  the 
British  Museum. 

"  As  one  instance  of  his  excellence  as  a  collector,  I  may  mention  that 
Mr.  Walker,  who  named  and  described  the  species  of  Diptera  in  the  Cabinet 
of  the  British  Museum,  has  alluded  to  or  has  described  nearly  250  species 
of  his  dipterous  insects  from  the  single  station  mentioned  above ;  there 
being  only  14  species  of  these  insects  recorded  in  the  ^  Fauna  Boreali- 
Jimericana^  of  the  Rev.  Wm.  Kirby.  Mr.  Barnston's  researches  among 
the  Neuroptera  also  were  considerable  and  very  valuable.  One  insect 
brought  by  him,  the  Pteronarcys  regalis  (although  previously  found  in 
Canada),  afforded  Mr.  Newport  a  fit  subject  for  his  genius  as  an  accurate 
anatomist  and  recorder  of  facts  and  reasonings  on  the  insect  economy. 
This  gentleman  discovered  persistent  branchiee  in  the  imago  or  perfect 
state  of  the  Pteronarcys,  and  has  recorded  his  discovery  and  quoted  some 
observations  of  Mr.  Barnston's  in  a  paper  read  at  the  Linntean  Society. 


1 


COLEOrTERA. 


473 


tilO 


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Lirected 
April, 
of  the 
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In 
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to  the 

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As  Mr.  Gray's  Catalogues  of  the  collections  in  the  British  Museum  (mines 
of  information  to  the  reasoner  and  writer  on  geographical  distribution),  are 
published,  it  will  be  seen  how  valuable  are  Mr.  Barnston's  and  Sir  John 
Richardson's  collections  to  our  acquaintance  with  the  articulated  animals 
of  British  North  America,  especially  in  its  more  northerly  parts. 

"  I  have  mentioned  that  Kirby  describes  or  alludes  to  only  thirty-two 
species  of  Hymenoptera  in  his  '  Insects  of  North  America ;'  while  Mr. 
Barnston  in  one  spot  found  192  distinct  species,  exclusive  of  Chalcidid<e. 
I  subjoin  a  comparative  list  of  the  families  of  Hymenoptera,  the  comparison 
being  made  with  the  British  species  existing  in  the  Museum  collection  at 
the  time  of  this  record.  Mr.  B.  and  myself  worked  out  the  Tenthredinidce; 
my  friend  and  coadjutor  Mr.  Frederick  Smith,  an  able  hymenopterist,  de- 
termined the  other  species;  so  the  list  may  be  deemed  as  correct  as  the 
circumstances  will  admit. 

"  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  our  British  collection  of  Hymenoptera 
has  been  accumulating  for  at  least  thirty  years,  was  a  favorite  part  of  Dr. 
Leach's  collection,  and  has  been  made  over  a  wide  and  variegated  country ; 
while  Mr.  Barnston' s  was  formed  in  three  months,  on  one  spot  and  under 
almost  unheard-of  disadvantages,  counterbalanced,  however,  by  an  en- 
thusiasm not  easily  deterred  by  difficulties. 


British  Collection 
in  British  Museum. 

Cimbicidae 10     

TenthredinidsB 157     

Siricidae,  &c 7     

Ichneumonidae 200     

Chalcididae   ? 


Collected  at 
Martin's  Falls. 

4 

76 

2 

47 

? 


Chrysididae 22  1 

Formicidae 11     

MutillidaB 5     

Sapygidae 2     

Pompilidae,  &c 38     

Crabronidae 57     

Vespidae 17     

Apidae 170     


7 
0 
0 
2 

16 
4 

33 


"  A  striking  proof  that  the  time  has  not  yet  come  to  reason  correctly 
on  the  distribution  of  Hymenopterous  insects — at  least  in  British  North 
America." 


LIST  OF  INSECTS 

Taken  by  Sir  John  Richardson  and  John  Rae,  Esq.,  in 
Arctic  North  America,  drawn  up  by  Adam  White,  Esq., 

F.L.S.,  ETC. 

COLEOPTERA. 

Cicindela  longilabris.  Say.  (C.  albilabris,  Kirby).      Shores  of  Arctic  Sea, 

lat.  70°  N. ;  and  at  Fort  Simpson,  lat.  62°  N. 
Cicindela  hirticollis,  Say.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers,  lat. 

59°— 62°  N. 


f 


t   i|l 
^  i 


m 


a-' 


474 


INSECTS  OP  ARCTIC  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Dromius  nigrinus,  Eschsch.     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  66° — 67°  N. 
Cari.bu8  —  ?  n.  8.  (C.  gladiator,  Barnston  MS.).     Sordera  of  Mackenzie 

and  Slave  Rivers,  lat.  50°— 65°  N. 
Carabus  Chamissonis,  Eschsch.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers : 

and  Cape  Krusenstern,  lat.  58" — 68°  N. 
Carabua  —  ?  n.  s.  (C.  Hudsoniciis?)      Borders  of  Mackenzie  arid  Slave 

Rivera,  lat.  58°— 65"  N. 
Calosoma  calidum,  ^uct.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers,  lat. 

58°— 65°  N. 
Loricera  pilicornis,  ^uct.     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  66° — 67°  N. 
Elaphrus  intermedius,  Kirby.     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  66° — 67°  N. 
Notiophilus  sibiricus,  Motchoulsky.     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  66° — 67°  N. 
Dicslus —  ?  n.  s.  (D.  sculptilis?)     Borders  of  the  Mackenzie  and  Slave 

Rivers,  lat.  58°— 65°  N. 
Agonum  melanarium,  Dej.     Great  Bear  Lake,  and  district  to  the  south  of 

Lake  Winipeg,  lat.  49°— 68°  N. 
Argutor  brevicornis,  Kirby.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Omaseus  orinomum,  Leach.     District  south  of  Lake  Winipeg,  lat.  50°-— 

54°  N. 
Platysma  vitrea,  Eschsch.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
PsBcilus  lucublandus,  Say.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Harpalus  —  ?  n.  s.  (near  H.  obtusus).     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave 

Rivers. 
Stenolophus  —  ?  n.  s.     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  66° — 67°  N. 
Amara  —  ?  sp.  (near  A.  trivialis).     South  of  Lake  Winipeg,  lat.  49°  N. 
Amara  —  ?  sp.     Great  Bear  Lake. 
Bembidium  conicoUe,  Motchoulsky  (B.  impressum,  Kirby).      Great  Bear 

Lake,  and  north  of  Lake  Winipeg,  lat.  49° — 67°  N. 
Acupalpus  —  ?  n.  8.     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  66° — 67°  N. 
Peryphus  —  ?  sp.     Great  Bear  Lake. 
Platytrachelus  —  ?  n.  s.     Great  Bear  Lake. 
Notaphus  nigripes,  Kirby.     Great  Bear  Lake. 
Notaphus  variegatus,  Kirby.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg,  lat.  49°  N. 
Dytiscus  Har.risii,  Kirby.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
Agabus  —  ?  n.  8.  (near  A.  arcticus).     Cape  Krusenstern,  lat.  68°  N. 
Colymbetes  — -  ?  sp.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivera. 
Hydrophilus  picipes,  ^uct.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg,  lat.  49°  N. 
Heterocerus  —  ?  n.  s.  (near  H.  fossor) .     Great  Bear  Lake. 
Staphylinus  villosus,  Grav.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg,  lat.  49°  N. 
Quedius,  n.  s.  (near  Q.  molochinus) .     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  66° — 67°  N. 
Omalium,  n.  s.  (near  0.  rivulare).     Shore  of  Arctic  Sea,  near  mouth  of 

Mackenzie  River,  lat.  70°  N. 
Anthophagus,  sp.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Silpha  Lapponica,  ^uct.     Fort  Simpson ;  borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave 

Rivers. 
Silpha  opaca,  jluct.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Silpha,  n.  s.  (near  S.  Baikalica),  Motchoulsky.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and 

Slave  Rivers. 
Ptinus  fur,  jluct.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg.     Throughout  Rupert'a  Land. 
Byrrhus  —  ?  n.  s.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivera,  lat.  58°— 66** 

N. 


COLEOPTERA. 


475 


N. 


a  Land. 
°— 66° 


Byrrhtts  —  ?  n.  s.     South  of  Lake  VVinipeg. 

Rhisotrogus  fcrvens,  Gyll.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg,  lat.  49°  N. 

Platycerus  piceus,  Web.     Fort  Sitnpaon,  on  the  Mackenzie  River,  lat.  62°  N. 

Cyphon  fuscipes,  Kirhy.     Great  Bear  Lake. 

Elater  seripennis,  Kirby.     Shore  of  Arctic  Sea,  near  Mackenzie  River,  lat. 

70°  N. 
Elater  eeneus  ?     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Elater,  n.  s.  (near  E.  melancholicus) .     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave 

Rivers. 
Elater,   n.  s.   (near  E.   sanguineus).     Borders  of  Mackenzie    and  Slave 

Rivers. 
Ludius,  n.  s.  (near  L.  sibiricus).     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  65° — 67°  N. 
Ampedus,  n.  s.     Great  Bear  Lake. 

Buprestis  tenebrica,  Kirby.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Chrysobothris,  n.  s.     Fort  Simpson,  on  the  Mackenzie  River,  lat.  62°  N. 
Trachypteris  Drummondi,  Kirby,  var.     Fort  Simpson,  on  Mackenzie  River, 

lat.  62°  N. 
Trachypteris  decolorata  (Bupr.  appcndiculata,  Kirby).     Fort  Simpson,  on 

Mackenzie  River,  lat.  62°  N. 
EUychnia  corrusca,  ^uct.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
Ragonycha  cembricola,  Eschsch.     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  65° — 67°  N. 
Thanasimus  abdominalis,  Kirby.     Great  Bear  Lake. 
Hydnocera,  n.  s.     Great  Bear  Lake. 
Blapstinus  seneus,  Deg.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
Upis  ceramboides,  ^uct.     Fort  Simpson,  and  Borders  of  Mackenzie  and 

Slave  Rivers. 
Anthicus  — ?  n.  s.     Great  Bear  Lake. 
Formicoma  —  ?  n.  s.     Great  Bear  Lake. 
Stenotrachelus  Roulieri,  Motch.  var.     Shores  of  Arctic  Sea,  near  Macken 

zie  River,  lat.  70°  N. 
Serropalpus  —  ?  sp.     Fort  Simpson,  on  Mackenzie  River. 
Hylobius — ?  sp.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Alophus  —  ?  sp.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg.  * 

Alophus  — ?  sp.     Cape  Krusenstern,  lat.  68°  N. 
Erirhinus,  sp.  (near  E.  tremulee).     South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
Tomicus  —  ?  sp.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 

Asemum  striatum,  ^uct.     Fort  Simpson  on  the  Mackenzie  River. 
Callidium  bifoveolatum.     Cape  Krusenstern  and  Arctic   Coast,  between 

67^°  and  68°. 
Callidium  Proteus,  Kirby  ;  and  C.  simile,  Kirby,  var.     Arctic  Coast,  be- 
tween 67^°  and  68°  ;  Fort  Simpson  on  the  Mackenzie  River,  lat.  62°  N. 
Clytus  undulatus,  Say.     Shore  of  Arctic  Sea ;  Mouth  of  Mackenzie  River. 
Clytus  —  ?  sp.     Shore  of  Arctic  Sea;    Mouth  of  Mackenzie  River,   lat. 

70°  N. 
Acanthocinus  pusillus,  Kirby.     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  66° — 67°  N.  - 
Monochamus  resutor,  Kirby.     Fort  Simpson,  on  the  Mackenzie  River. 
Monochamus  confusor,  Kirby.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Acmaeops    Proteus    {Kirby),    Leconte ;    Leptura    strigilata,    var.?     Fort 

Simpson,  on  the  Mackenzie  River. 
Acmaeops  strigilata  (Fabr.),  Lee.     Shore  of  Arctic  Sea  (Mouth  of  Mac- 

kenzie). 


ill 

if 


r^ 


W) 


^m 


476 


INSECTS  OF  ARCTIC  NORTH   AMERICA. 


Pachyta  liturata,  Kirhy.     Fort  Simpson,  on  the  iJackcnzic. 

Pachyta,  n.  s.     Fort  Simpson,  on  the  Mackenzie. 

Rhagiam  lineatiim,  ^uct.     Fort  Simpson,  on  the  Mackenzie. 

Syneta  carinata,  Esvhsch.     About  Great  Bear  Lake. 

Galleruca  marginella,  Kirhy.  Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers ; 
and  about  Great  Bear  Lake. 

Chrysoinela  multipunctata,  Say.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 

Phiedon  Adonidis,  Pall.  Shore  of  Arctic  Sea  (Mouth  of  Mackenzie) ;  Fort 
Simpson. 

Adoxus  vitis,  Fabr.  District  about  Great  Bear  Lake,  and  Borders  of 
Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 

Coccinella  13-punctata,  ^uct.     Great  Bear  Lake,  lat.  65° — 67°  N. 

Coccinella  .5-notata,  Kirby.  Shore  of  the  Arctic  Sea ;  Mouth  of  Macken- 
zie, lat.  70°  N. 

Coccinella  ocellata,  Auct.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 

Orthoptera. 

Locusta  tuberculata,  Pal  de  Beauv.?     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave 

Rivers ;  Fort  Simpson. 
Locusta,  four  species.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Acrydium  granulatum,  Kirby.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers; 

Fort  Simpson. 

Neuroptera. 

^schna  borealis,  Zetterst.  ?     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 

Libellula — ?  sp.     Fort  Simpson  on  Mackenzie. 

Libellula  scotica,  Donov.  ?     Between  Lake  Winipeg  and  Lake  Superior. 

Agrion  cyathigerum,  Charp.  var.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 

Ephemera  viridescens  —  ?  n.  s.,  Barnston.  Between  Lake  Winipeg  and 
Lake  Superior,  lat.  47° — 52°. 

Ephemera -«»-?  n.  s.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg,  lat.  49°  N. 

Pteronarcys  regalis,  Newman.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 

Pteronarcys  Proteus,  Newman?  Shores  of  Arctic  Sea  (Mouth  of  Macken- 
zie River),  lat.  70°. 

Perla  —  ?  (sp.  near  P.  abnormalis,  Newman) .  Borders  of  Mackenzie  and 
Slave  Rivers. 

Perla  —  ?  (sp.  near  P.  sonans,  Barnston).  Borders  of  Mackenzie  and 
Slave  Rivers. 

Semblis — ?  n.  s.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 

Phryganea  striata,  n.  s.,  Barnston.  Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave 
Rivers. 

Phryganea  variegata,  n.  s.,  Barnston^  and  two  or  three  other  species. 
Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 


Hymenoptera. 

Trichiosoma  lucorum,  Auct.     Fort  Simpson,  on  Mackenzie  River. 

Tenthredo  (Nematus).     Great  Bear  Lake. 

Tenthredo  (Nematus)  — ?  n.  s.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 


HYMENOPTERA.-HEMIPTEKA.— LEPIDOrTERA. 


477 


TonthreJo  intogra  ?     About  Great  Bear  Lake. 

Tt'iithredo  (Dolorus).     South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 

Sirox  flavicornis,  Fabr.     Capo  Krusenstcrn;  Fort  Simpson  on  Mackenzie, 

and  country  south  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
Kj)hialte8  —  ?  sp.     Fort  Sunpson,  on  Mackenzie  River. 
Aspizonus  —  ?  sp.     Arctic  Sea  (Mouth  of  Mackenzie  River). 

'  sp.     Fort  Simpson,  on  the  Mackenzie  River. 

'  sp.     Cape  Krusonstern,  and  Fort  Simpson  on  the  Macken- 


Ichncumon 
Ichneumon  —  ? 

zie  River. 
Cryptus  —  ?  sp 
Chrysis  —  ?  sp. 
Mutilla  —  ?  sp. 


South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
Cape  Krusenstern. 
About  Great  Bear  Lake. 
Formica  herculeana.     About  Great  Bear  Lake ;  borders  of  Mackenzie  and 

Slave  Rivers  ;  Fort  Simpson. 
Formica  sanguinea.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg,  and  Fort  Simpson. 
Pompilus  —  ?  n.  s.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Odynerus  —  ?  n.  s.     Shore  of  Arctic  Sea  (Mouth  of  Mackenzie  River.) 
Vespa  maculata,  var.     Borders  of  Mackenzie. 
Yespa  vulgaris,  ^uct.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers  and  Fort 

Simpson. 
Vespa  marginata,  Kirby.     Cape  Krusenstern. 

Halictus  —  ?  (n.  s.  near  H.  quadricinctus) .     South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
Halictus,  three  black  species.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
Megachile  Willughbiella  ?     Fort  Simpson,  on  the  Mackenzie  River. 
Bombus  arcticus  ?     Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  and  68°  ;  borders  of  the 

Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Bombus  (sp.  near  B.  lapponicus).     Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  and  68°. 
Bombus  —  ?  sp.     Shore  of  Arctic  Sea  (Mouth  of  Mackenzie  River). 
Bombus  pratorum.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Bombus,  n.  s.  (near  B.  lucorum). 
Bombus,  n.  s.     Arctic  Coast. 


Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  and  68°. 


Hemiptera. 

Acanthosoma  boreale,  Hope.     Great  Bear  Like. 
Acanthosoma  nebulosum,  Kirby.     South  ci  Lake  Winipeg. 
Miris — ?  sp.     Great  Bear  Lake. 

Rhyparochromus,  two  species.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg  • 
Salda — ?  sp.  (near  S.  riparia).     Cape  Krusenstern,  lat.  68°  N. 

HoMOPTERA. 

Aphrophora,  sp.     Great  Bear  Lake,  and  to  the  south  of  Lake  Winipeg. 


:    ■<■ 


II 


li: 


r'    ■ 


'A' 
l;j 


Lepidoptera. 
Fort  Simpson,  on  Mackenzie  River. 


Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  ij-nd  68°. 


Papilio  Turnus,  L. 
Pontia  casta,  Kirby. 

Pontia,  sp.     Fort  Simpson,  on  the  Mackenzie 
Anthocharis  —  ?  n.  s.  (near  A.  Simplonia). 
and  68^ 


Arctic  Coast  between  67^° 


478 


liNSEUTS    OP  ARCTIC   NORTH   AMERICA. 


Coliaa  Palasno,  L.     Foit  Simpson,  ou  the  Mackenzie  River. 
Oolias  Boothii,  Curtis.     Arctic  Coast  between  675°  and  68°. 
ColiaH  Chione,  var.  ?  C.     Arctic  Coast ;  Capo  Krusenstern. 


Melituoa    Taroiiinius,    Curtis,     Arctic 


Fort  Simpson,  on   the 


Argynnis    Freija    (Thunb.),   var. 

Coast  between  67^°  and  68°. 
Argynnis  —  ?  n.  s.     Arctic  Coast. 
Vanessa  Milberti,   Godart.   (V.  furcillata,   Say). 

Mackenzie  River. 
Vanessa  Progue,   Godart.  (V.  C.  argenteum,  Kirby).     Fort  Simpson,  on 

tlie  Mackenzie  River;  Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  and  68°. 
Nymphalis  Artemis,  ^uct.      Fort    Simpson   on    Mackenzie   River,   and 

Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Chionobas  Bore,  Boisd.  ?     Arctic  Coast  between  67^"  and  68°. 
Hipparchia,  n.  s.  ?  (near  H.  discoidalis),  Kirby.     Arctic   Coast  between 

67^°  and  68°. 
Hipparchia  Rossii,  Curtis. 

Polyommatus  Franklinii,  Curtis.     Arctic  Coast. 
Arctia  Americana,  Harris,  var.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Hadena  Richardsonii,  Curtis.     Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  and  68°. 
Anarta  —  ?  sp.     Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  and  68°. 
Geometridae,  two  species.     Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  and  68°. 
Tineidee,  three  species.     Arctic  Coast  between  67°  and  68°. 


Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  and  68°. 


DiPTERA. 

Culex  —  ?  sp.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 

Chironomus,  sp.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 

Tipula,  sp.     Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  and  68°. 

Tabanus,  three  species.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 

Tabanus,  two  species.     Arctic  Sea,  Mouth  of  Mackenzie  River. 

Eristalis  flavipes,  Walker.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers,  and 

district  to  the  South  of  Lake  Winipeg,  lat.  49° — 65°  N. 
Syrphus,  sp.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Musca,  five  species.     Borders  of  Mackenzie  and  Slave  Rivers. 
Musca  —  ?  sp.     South  of  Lake  Winipeg. 
(Estrus  Tarandi  ?     Arctic  Coast  between  67^°  and  68°. 


ESKIMO  VOCABULARY. 


470 


No.  V. 


VOCABULARIES. 


A.   Eskimo  Vocabulary. 

Thk  Kuskutchewak  column  of  the  following  vocabulary  in  ex- 
tracted from  B9er*s  work.*  To  draw  up  an  effective  comparative 
tablo  would  require  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  both  dialects, 
since  the  names  of  articles  of  dress,  and  implements  of  art,  change 
with  the  materials  of  which  they  are  formed  ;  natural  objects  are 
differently  designated,  according  to  the  circumstances  under  which 
they  are  viewed ;  and  the  terms  for  actions  are  altered,  as  the 
agents,  time,  place,  and  other  circumstances,  vary.  Unless,  there- 
fore, these  facts  be  known  and  attended  to  by  one  who  forms  a  vo- 
cabulary, there  may  appear  to  be  no  resemblance  between  the  dia- 
lects of  two  tribes  who  mutually  understand  onch  other,  and  con- 
verse together  with  ease.  The  introduction  of  the  syllabic  charac- 
ters used  by  the  late  Rev.  Mr.  Evans  in  teaching  the  Cree  Indians 
would,  I  believe,  remove  the  difficulties  which  orthography  throws 
in  the  way  of  a  European,  who  endeavors  to  reduce  the  native  lan- 
guages of  North  America  to  writing. 

The  column  containing  Eskimo  spoken  on  the  Labrador  coast, 
is  extracted  from  a  pretty  large  vocabulary  and  grammar,  which 
the  Rev.  Peter  Latrobe  had  the  kindness  to  procure  for  my  use 
on  the  expedition.  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  some  errors  may 
have  crept  into  this  vocabulary,  from  the  similarity  of  the  German 
written  h  to  s  not  being  always  adverted  to  by  the  transcriber,  and 
also  from  the  uncertainty  of  the  proper  English  equivalent  of  the 
German  v.  These  are  not,  however,  I  trust  numerous  among  the 
examples  I  have  used.  Where  the  Labrador  dictionary  was 
defective,  the  excellent  English  and  Eskimo  vocabulary,  drawn  up 


Hi 


1  » .!       i    I 


*  Baer,  Statische  und  ethnographische  Nachrichten  iiber  die  Russtsclwn 
Besitzungen  an  der  Nordwestkuste  von  Amerika.  St.  Petersburg,  1839.  p. 
259.  The  Kuskutchewak  words  being  written  in  this  work  in  Russian 
characters,  with  which  1  am  unacquainted,  J.  F.  von  Bach,  Esq.,  of  the 
British  Museum,  had  the  kindness  to  furnish  me  with  a  translation.  This 
gentleman  drew  up  carefully  columns  representing  the  conventional  En- 
glish equivalents  of  the  Russian  characters  for  each  word,  and  added  also 
the  French  pronunciation,  which  want  of  space  compels  me  reluctantly  to 
omit.  I  have  made  some  small  alterations  in  words  written  by  him  ac- 
cording to  the  English  pronunciation,  to  suit  the  plan  of  orthography 
which  I  have  followed  in  the  other  vocabnlaviefl. 


M 


480 


VOCADULAKIES  OF  NOUiII  AMERICA. 


by  Cnptnin  Washington,  and  published  by  tl.o  Admiralty  for  the 
use  of  the  Searching  Expeditions,  has  been  referred  to.  The  dia- 
lects spoken  by  the  intermediate  Eskimo  tribes  inhabiting  the  north 
shores  of  the  continent  are  seldom  quoted,  my  object  having  been 
to  identify  the  languuge  spoken  by  members  of  the  nation  occupy- 
ing geographical  positions  the  most  remote  from  each  other. 

In  writing  out  the  table  it  was  obvious  to  me  that  the  Labrador 
dialect  is  in  general  the  softer  of  the  two.  Instead  of  the  hard  tch 
BO  frequent  in  the  Kuskutchewak  tongue,  the  east  coast  tribes  gen- 
erally use  s,  and  in  Coronation  Gulf  h  is  substituted.  The  strong- 
ly aspirated  sound  which  is  heard  in  the  Scottish  word  *'Ioch"  is  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  Kuskutchewak  column  of  the  vocabulary, 
where  it  is  denoted  by  kh.  An  Englishman  in  attempting  this 
sound  lets  the  k  be  heard,  which  he  ought  not  to  do.  The  difficul- 
ty of  constructing  a  correct  Eskimo  vocabulary  is  increased  by  the 
necessity  of  previously  mastering  the  exceedingly  numerous  inflec- 
tions of  the  nouns,  adjectives,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  which  supply 
the  place  occupied  by  auxiliary  verbs,  possessive  pronouns,  preposi- 
tions, and  adverbs  in  the  European  languages.  These  inflections  are 
briefly  noticed  in  the  introduction  to  Capt.  Washington's  vocabula- 
ry, and  I  shall  merely  add  here,  that  in  the  Labrador  grammar, 
obtained  for  us  by  Mr.  Latrobe,  there  ore  examples  of  thirty  dif- 
ferent terminations  of  the  dual  and  plural  numbers  of  nouns,  which 
have  evidently  had  their  origin  in  euphuism. 

Each  noun  has  six  cases  in  each  number,  distinguished  by  their 
terminations,  the  vocative  being,  however,  absent  in  some.  The 
cases  are  formed  by  affixes  having  the  power  of  prepositions,  as 
mut,  mik,  mit,  me,  and  kut  in  the  singular,  and  nut,  nik,  nit,  ne,  and 
gut  in  the  plural.  The  nominative  is  also  varied  by  affixes  which 
perform  the  functions  of  possessive  pronouns,  as  ga,  go,  ne,  ait, 
anga,  ara,  &c. ;  as  kivgah,  a  servant,  kivganga,  my  servant,  kiv- 
gane,  his  servant ;  nuna,  land,  nunaga,  my  land  ;  nelegah,  a  master 
nelegara,  my  master ;  tunnusuga,  my  nation,  &c.  Pagit,  panga, 
or  parma  are  affixes  employed  when  the  noun  is  connected  with  a 
verb,  signifying  action  or  suflering.  The  noun,  when  changed  by 
a  qualifying  affix,  is  decUned  in  its  new  form,  in  the  usual  way. 
Besides  the  ordinary  active  nominative,  each  noun  has  also  an  in- 
transitive one,  which  ends  in  b,  and  is  diflerently  declined.  Ex- 
amples are  subjoined.  The  power  of  the  affixes  varies  according 
as  the  noun  is  used  with  a  transitive  or  intransitive  verb.  Nouns 
may  also  be  varied  by  affixes  expressive  of  augmentation,  diminution, 
aflection,  ridicule,  humility,  or  multitude.  Some  of  these  termina- 
tions are  arsuk,  arsuit,  diminutives ;  and  soak,  sudset,  sudsek,  aug- 
mentatives ;  vak  placed  before  any  of  them  increases  their  power ; 
and  the  adverbial  aluk  denoting  '*  very"  may  be  put  after  them, 


-^ M- 


ESKIMO  VOCAHLI.AHY. 


4^1 


and  is  npplicHble  tu  either  good  or  bud.      Favak,  signifying  an  ex- 
traordinary number,  is  pliiced  befuro  soarelult.* 

Adjectives  htive  also  ttieir  declensions;  and  likewise  comparisons 
made  by  the  addition  of  the  syllable  nek,  or  by  verbs.  The  adject- 
ive generally  follows  the  noun,  and  must  agree  with  it  in  case  and 
number.  If  the  substantive  have  an  aflix,  so  must  the  adjective. 
Nouns  may  be  changed  into  verbs  by  the  affix  eiok  or  ovok,  and  the 
adjective  then  must  lake  the  same  termination. 

Pronouns  are  declined  like  the  nouns  by  affixes,  which  rrqnirn 
much  nicety  hi  their  due  employment.  Affixes  supply  the  place 
of  possessive  pronouns. 

The  third  person  singular  of  the  indicative  is  considered  to  lie 
the  root  of  the  verb,  and  may  be  used  as  a  noun  with  a  change  in 
the  termination,  «•  a  hunter"  being  equivalent  to  >«  he  liuntf*." 
The  inflections  of  the  verb  are  extremely  numerous,  and  are,  ex- 
pressive of  affirmation,  negation,  interrogation,  and  of  the  various 
circumstances  in  which  the  agent  or  object  can  be  placed  with  re- 
spect to  time,  place,  mood,  or  possession.  The  infinitive,  formed 
by  the  termination  nek,  is  used  when  things  are  spui^en  of  indefi- 
nitely, or  when  two  verbs  come  together,  and  is  conjugated  in  the 
same  way  as  the  other  moods  and  tenses,  there  being  a  past  and 
future  infinitive.  Generally  the  verb  in  the  Labrador  Eskimo  agrees 
in  its  inflections  with  the  Greenland  dialect;  but  there  are  some 
special  differences,  and  particularly  with  regard  to  the  future,  which 
has  a  threefold  construction  in  the  Greenland  tongue,  but  is  more 
simple  in  the  Labrador  speech.  With  the  ample  means  which  the 
regular  verb  possesses  of  expressing  every  mood  and  tense,  the  Es- 
kimo has  little  occasion  for  auxiliaries,  and  in  fact  the  structure  of 
the  language  is  very  regular  and  exact. 

There  are,  however,  one  or  two  auxiliaries  which  have  an  affin- 
ity to  adverbs — such  as  pi-wok,  which  i^  used  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
sometimes  in  immediate  relation  to  a  noun,  sometimes  only  as  an 
adjunct  to  a  verb ;  it  occasionally  seems  to  be  equivalent  to  the  En- 
glish '*  get"  or  ««dQ."  When  placed  after  participles,  which  is 
its  most  common  position,  it  signifies  the  action  of  a  thing.  Ipsok, 
another  auxiliary,  seems  to  be  equivalent  to  the  Latin  est ;  it  often 
increases  the  meaning  of  the  verb  with  which  it  is  connected. 
*'  To  ho,"  or  "to  have,"  is  denoted  by  the  syllables  gi  or  vi  in  com- 
position, as  nunagiva,  **  it  is  his  land." 

The  adverbs  are  numerous,  and  have  relation  to  time,  place, 
equality,  size,  number,  order«  union,  separation,  iiQ. ;  and  also  to 
questioning,  denying,  affirming,  negativing,  including,  excluding,  de- 
siring, admonishing,  and  distinguishing. 

*  ^kkatu  is  employed  hy  the  Eskimo  of  ChurchiU  in  the  same  way  as 
soartluit. 

X 


!)  !^' 


Hi 


,1 


lA 


I 


't'ltl 


i 


48V 


vor.\nrj,A«iKs  of  north  amf.rica. 


An  pxiitiipio  of  the  innoctinns  of  n  Rin|y;le  verb  would  occupy 
mnny  pngoH,  nnd  can  not  bu  giv«Mi  here  ;  but  the  preceding  Rhurt 
notices  will  sunicc  to  show  thnt  vocabuliirioB  of  the  Bnme  Inngunge, 
formed  by  dill'tMent  people,  mny  have  little  Bimilnrity,  nnd  that 
much  care  is  requiHite  before  wo  can  venture  to  affirm  the  diHtinct 
origin  of  two  triboH  upon  Ruch  evidence.  In  a  language  which  iH 
transmitted  orally  alone,  and  which  is  not  preserved  in  its  integrity 
by  an  appeal  lu  the  eye,  alterations  fur  the  sake  of  euphony  are 
frequent,  and  thoi^e,  which  are  not  uncommon  with  the  Kskimo, 
vary  with  the  delicacy  of  the  ear  of  the  speaker.  Thus  when  t!iu 
termination  iratigha  does  not  blend  pleasingly  with  the  preceding 
syllable,  langha  is  substituted,  and  the  general  pronunciation  is 
more  nasal  with  somo  small  oonununitios,  more  gutturul  with 
others. 

ExAMFLrS    OF   NoiNS    ni^CLINED    TRANSITIVELY  AND  INTRANSI- 
TIVELY. 


TiM'KK,  a  tent. 


Nom,    tr.  Tnpok  \ 
intr.  tiiikib  J 

Gen. 

Dat, 


Jcc. 

Voc. 
Ml. 


tiirkil)  .  .  .  . 

tupju'k  .  .  . 
tuppormut 

tuppak  .  .  . 
tuppernik  . 

nirot. 

tuppormit  . 

tlippiMlUIlt 


Nom.    tr.  NolHgara 
intr.  ju'lokania 


Gen. 
Dnt. 

jScc. 

Voc. 
Ml. 


Dual. 


tnppnk 


tuppak  .  .  .  . 

tuppak  .  .  .  . 
tuppangnut 

tuppak  .  .  .  . 
tuppuiignit . 


tuppaiiguit. 
tuppangnut 


nelckama  .  . 

nologara .  . . 
nolokanniut 

nolcgava  .  .  . 
nolckamuik. 

uolcgara  .  .  . 

nolcknmnit . 
iiolokamnut 


Nklkoara,  my  matter. 

nologakka 

ne!okang-ma 

nctokangma    

nelogakka 

nelegamnut 

nolt^gakka 

nelogamuik  ....... 

nr^logakka 

nnlegamnit 

neloganiuut 


Plural. 
tui-kot. 

turkot. 

turkct. 
tuppernut. 

turkinut. 
turkit. 


T.uppormit. 
turkiniiui. 


uclokakka. 
nelekama. 

nelekama. 

uelekakka. 
nelekamnut. 

nelekakka. 
nelekamnik. 

nolekakka. 

nelckamnit. 
nelekamput. 


Nelogano,  his  master ;  nolegauga,  another  person's  matter  ;  and  similAr 
variations  of  thn  nouu,  \\9\e,  in  like  niauner,  thoir  various  iniltfctiont, 


mwiniiffiaw 


mmi!& 


Comparative  Table  or  the  I)iai,k(;ts  spoken  ijy  the  Beerfno's 
Sea  and  Laiiuador  Eskimoh. 


ESKIMO  VO<;ABUr.ARY. 


483 


>: 


kit. 

k. 

t. 
lit. 


\ 


Oh:  S.  (Uinoirn  "HinRuIar;"  D.  ".Iiial  ;"  P.  "  plural."  W.  point«  out 
wonlH  taken  from  Captain  WaHliiuKton'a  vocabiiiary.  A  \n  Bouti<t<ul  an  in 
"  father ;"  a  an  in  "  law  ;"  c  an  in  "  ilicre  ;"  »  an  tt  in  "  hpo  ;"  J  ah  in  "  ink," 
"pin  ;"  u  an  00  in  "  good  ;"  kh  as  rh  in  tho  SrottiHh  word  "  lorh,"  or  IriHh 
"  liingh  ;"  h  aftrr  g  HignifloH  that  tlin  lattnr  lian  ihn  Hoft  pronininiation  aH 
in  "give;"   the  hyphen  following  g,  given  nearly  tho  nanne  nuund. 


Biinilnr 


bnt, 


EtiKllHh. 
The  only  Creator  .... 
(fod  (the  Creator) .... 
II(>aven ;  the  iirinament 
Earth,  land,  a  country 

Air 

Air,     wind,     aho     tho 

world  and  reaHon 
Wind 

The  Hun 

Sun   

Moon 

Month    

StarH 

Comet 

A  Htar  surrounded  by  a 
halo 

Water 

River  

A  largo  river 

Sea 

Tho  wide  ocean 

Lake    

A  pond,  fresh 

Brook 

A  tear 

Straits      

Cliir 

Deeply  cleft 

A  long  inlet 1 


Kunkutnhcwnk.  Lnbrailor  EHkimo. 

.    Ping-ortitsi-o-wok. 

nuna-liHhta Nuna,  ruwntry. 

ki-il-yak killek. 

nuni niina. 

u-i-uchu-ynghi-ak .  .  .      u-i-a-wak,  wr»l  wind. 
Hilla  (nillata,  in  the  open 

air). 
anorre  ;  sullu-ar-nck,  alto 

breath. 
Bokkinek  (P.-erngit)  ;  nai- 

i-a 
akkta;   pukli-anok  .  .      akki-Huk-pok,      the      «tm 

breaku  forth. 

tang-ck takkek. 

tang-ak  ;   igaUi-uk. 

mittit ubluri.ak  ;    ubloriak    (D. 

ubloritsek) . 
ag-i-akhn-akhtak. 
agsuk  (P.  aguthet). 

mu-ek innmek,  fre$h  water. 

kvak ku ;  kok ;  kogguk  j  koggut 

kokso-ak. 

irnmakh-pik  .......  itnrnak. 

irnmarbiktio>ak. 

nanvik akker-oktok,  a  lake  where 

deer  are  tpeared. 

tcssek  (P.  tessit) . 

kitchikli-ak kdgak. 

kogve  (P.  kogvit). 

u-ikakh ikkarasak,  W. 

ikkargok  (P.  ikkarut). 

korok  (P.  korkut). 

kang-erdluk. 


»' 

m 


484 


VOCABULARIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


English. 
Gulf  or  creek . 


Kuskutchewak. 
nang-vagnak   . . 


0 


K 


•fe: 


Current tchag-vak 

Current  in  the  sea 

Current  in  fresh  water      

Bottom  of  wateru  ....      notu-ik 

He  treads  his  boot  down      

at  the  heel 

Shore chna;  agavnu-ik. 

Mouth  or  source  of  riv^     pa-i 

ers,  a  well 


A  bank  in  the  sea,  a 
sunken  rock 


ithalh-nuk 


Stone tkalhk-uk 

Beep. tuli. 

A  sea  bird 

It  is    deep    (valley  or      

river) 

Bay ignu-ik  .  . 

In  the  morning 

The  day  closes 

The  morning,  or  the  day      

The  front  or  forehead 

It  is  daylight 

To-day 

Night  


Marsh mag-ik 

Bry  summer ki-nu-ig-nu-ik. 

Summer 

Mountain ing-ik 

Lowland    tchu-iv-nu-ik 

Shell ammokt  .... 


White  shell  fish 

Mussel 

Snail  shell 

The  ear 

A  grain  of  sand 

Sand kag-u-i-ak. 

Clay  (loam,  chalk) . . .      magai-ak 

Fire knu-ak 

One  who  fires  a  gun 

Wind a-nuka 

Thunder kalik. 

It  thunders - 

Lightning .- 

B<ain Ichali-ali-ak ;  kitok. . 


Labrador  Eskimo. 

(kang-u-agnak?  u-agnak 

the  west). 
sag-vak ;  sarvak. 
ingerarnek. 
akuarnak. 
tung-a-wik,  W. 
tung-mark-pok. 

sKg-sak. 

(pe,  a  court-yard  ;  pa,  the 

round  opening  in  a  kai' 

yak). 
siorak-so-ak-nuk,      murk 

sand ;   ipek-so-ak-nuk, 

much  mud. 
ka-ertok,  o  rock. 

tullik. 
ittiwok. 

uvlok,  or  Ciblok,  a  day. 

uvlakut ;  ublo-tilugu. 

uvlokliwok. 

kau ;  kauk  ;  kaut. 

ke-uk ;  kauk  (P.  karnit). 

kau-ma-wok. 

uvlut ;  ubluk  j  ovetsi-ak. 

u-nu-ak  (P.  unu-et),  unu- 

ame. 
(mannek,  mou,  W.) 

au-i-ak. 

kakkak  (P.  kakket). 
(su-yuk,  wff,  dirty.) 
amomio-yok,  an  oyster  (P. 

amomio-yut) . 
ayuarnet. 
uvi-lok. 
si-ut-terok,  W. 
si-ut. 
si-orak  (B.  ^kek,  P.  -ket). 

machak. 

ikoma,  igni$. 

kukni-wok. 

annore,  W. ;  an-o-i,  W. 

kalukpok;  kalludiarpok. 
kaumarlok  (vide  bright), 
silla-luk  (silla,  air). 


ESKIMO  VOCABULARY. 


4S5 


Her  (P. 


W. 

Iirpok. 
ght). 


EngliHh. 
HailHtoni) 

Kuskutchewak. 
.  .      kiLkhulat 

Any  thing  sharp.  .  . 
It  is  round 

Suow 

.  .      kanikh-chak 

Ice 

.  .      tchiko 

Storm 

anu-gavak  

Strong  wind 
Wind  or  air 


(anug-wei,Kotz.S.W.) 


The  wind  ia  still 

Calm 

Clear    


ku-nu-ik 

tankikh-tchuk . 


A  bright  sky. 

Dark 

Fog 


telkh. 


It  is  foggy 

The  weather  clears. 

Vapor  or  fog 

A  cold 

Clouded 


tali-guk 


A  cloud 

Bright,  or  light , 

Coals 

Ashes 

Blue 

Bluish 

Berry  juice  .  .  . . 

Red    

Blood 

White 

Night 


ugakhtok  

khumavit 

agak 

vitok ;  minukh-kat 


kivagok. 


ugolh>kak 
unuk .... 


Smoke punk 


It  smokes 
Smell  .  . . 


Man  {homo) 

A  shadow 

A  looking-glass 

Man 

Man  (relation)  stock. 


nagnak 
tatchu. 


nukalhni-ak 


His  father. 
A  helm.  . 


Labrador  Eskimo. 
(kakkulak,  it  is  rownrf,  W.) 
kakilaut ;   P.  lautit. 
angma-Ia-rik-pok. 
kannck,  falling  snow  (P. 

kang-it. 
hiko. 

ani-gavak,  an  extraordi- 
nary quantity  of  inovo 

(anio,  a  snow-storm). 
akkunak ;  akkunak-so-ak. 
annorre ;     annorer-ho-ak, 

great  wind. 
aniiorre-karung-napok. 
kunigok  (D.  kunikuk). 
alla-kak-pok. 
alla-ki-wok. 
tek,  darkness. 
tek-tuk  ;  tar-tuk  (P.  tar- 

tu-it) . 
niptai-pok,  W. 
nipter-pok. 

iseriak  (isse,  severe  cold). 
ikkg. 
tali-pok,  it  is  hidden  (P. 

-pot), 
nu-vu-i-a. 

kauma-wok,  it  is  bright. 
P.  aumakut  (S.  aumako). 
arsek,  W. 

(minnu,  a  sea  v^eed,  W.) 
tungo-i-uktak. 
tungo. 

aupa-luk-tok,  it  is  red. 
auk;  aggut. 
kaggark-pok,  it  is  white. 
u-nu-ak  (D.  u-nu-ek;  P. 

unu-et) . 
pu-i-ok,      damp     smoke, 

steam. 
pu-i-ok-pok. 
naimawa,  or  nai-wok,  kt 

smells  something. 

tatchak. 
tatchartut. 
(nukak,  a  brother.) 
ang-ut  (D.  ang*u-tekj  P. 

ang-ulit). 
ang-uta. 
ang-ut. 


111      1; 
I 


k 

■I  li ' 


4S6 


VOCABULARIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


' 


r 


English. 

An  adult 

People  (E.skimus)  .... 

A  name 

My  nation 

Life 

A  portrait  of  a  man.  . 
White  man,  European 

Eyebrows 

Inland  Indian,  stranger 
A  man's  footmark  .  .  . 
Stranger  Eskimos .... 


Kuakutcbewak. 


tagut;  yugut 


alli-a-guk 


An  improtected  man 

Husband vi-na. 


One  is  with  another 

She  has  a  husband 

Wife nuli-ga 


She  or  he  has  a  broth- 
er's son  or  daughter. 
An  unmarried  woman 

A  bachelor 

Widower 

Old  man 

Male  of  man  or  beast. 

He  is  old 

Hindmost 

Woman aganak 


utchi-nuk;  anuli-uvak. 


Old  woman aganukli-uvak 

The  oldest  of  a  family      

Brother's  or  son's  wife      

Grandfather apnugli-uk. 

Grandmother annugli>u  .... 

They  have  a  mother 

Mother ani 

Mother's  milk 

She  is  beautiful 

A  relative    tunka. 

Father atti 

The  father 

An  adopted  father 

Son igni-ak 

Paughter panaga;  panik 

Brother annak 

His  elder  brother 

Elder  brother  or  sister      

Younger  brother 


Labrador  Eskimo, 
ang-uti-marik. 
inu-it  (S.  i-nuk). 
taggisek. 
tunnisuga. 
inusek. 
inu-i-ak. 

kablunak  (P.  kablunet). 
kablo(D.  kabluk;  P.  -t). 
allani-a-wok  (S.  allak). 
allok  (D.  alluk). 
si-ad-ler-mi-u ;  he-ad-ler« 

mi-u. 
sek-sariak. 
wi,  a  married  man   (P. 

wi-nit) . 
una. 

wi-ghi-wok. 
nuli-a     (nuli-ang-a,    my 

vfife). 
nu-a-karpok. 

wi-ga-sok. 

nule-tok. 

nuler-tok. 

uasuk. 

itta-wok  (itok,  W.) 

ittik. 

ning-i-yok  (akoa,  D.  ako« 

ak,  a  mother). 
ning-i-vok. 
ang-ai-i-uklek. 
uk-ang-a. 

anenak-si-ak. 
mikli-ak-attig-eKT>ut. 
anenak ;   akko-a. 
ammak. 
enanau-wok. 

attatak  (P.  attatet). 
attatu. 
attatak-sak. 
ergnek  (P.  ergnerit). 
panik  (P.  paniknit) . 
(anenak,  motherj  beauty.) 
anningna. 
ango-i-uma. 

nukak;    nukka,  my  bro- 
ther. 


ESKIMO  VOCABULARY. 


487 


English. 


Kuskutchewak. 


Sititer 


aka« 


agna-vu-ik 


Two  uterine  brothers 
A  twin 


A  boy tangoy-ali-uvak  .... 

A  young  woman 

A  girl nozi-atchak 

Grandchild tut-khih 

A  child   belonging   to      

the  parents 

A  mother's  only  child 

A  woman's  last  child 

It  is  my  child 

An  orphan 

A  fatherless  child 

An  orphan  deprived  of     

both  parents 

His  sister's  child 

A  child 

A  little,  or  new  born,      

child 

Uncle anahkli-uvan. 

Aunt annomak. 

His  mother's  sister.  . .      {root?  aganak,  a  wo- 
man.) 

His  father's  sister 

Sister-in-law 

A  prudent  woman 

A  robust  man 

A  countryman 


A  friend,  one  of  two  in 

company 
A  walking  compaiiion 

A  traveling  companion 

A  comrade  (housemate) 


I 


khvana 


Thou Ihpu-it  .  . . 

Thee,  ace 

He   ikum 

We 

Ye,  you ilhli-te-pik 


They 

He,  dcnionstr , 


Labrador  Eskimo, 
neya ;  neyango,  hit  $i$ter; 

neyara,  my  sister. 
angu-tauk-attigekpuk. 
Ikking-ut  ;        karrisarek, 

twins. 
nuka-pi-ak  (P.  nuka-pit- 

set). 
ni-wi-ark-si-ak. 
ui-wi-azi-ak. 

kiitorng-ak. 

attung-ektak. 

mikki-erngo-a. 

kittom-yarivara. 

ananak-ang-ilak. 

atatai-tok. 

illi-arksuk  (P.  ilIi-ark8U« 

it), 
u-i-orva. 

kittorng-ak ;  sorusek. 
nutarak. 


ai-ang-a. 

at-sang-a. 

sak-i-a,  W. 

arnanda. 

atsu-illik. 

nuna-kat  (P.  nuna-katti- 

get). 
illek-sak. 

tupperkat   (P.  tupperka- 

tiget) . 
ing-i-a-ket  (D.  ingi-akat- 

tek ;  P.  uigi-akattiget). 
iglo-mokat   (P.    iglo-mo- 

kat-tiget) . 
«-wang-a. 
ig-vit. 
illiiig-nik. 
taun-na. 

u-vag-utP.  (u-va-guk,D.) 
ilipse,  P.  (illiptik,  D. ;  il- 

o-wit.  Church.  Esk.) 
okkoa. 
taiinua :  taipsoma 


4 


i*: 

I'  I' I 


If 


488 


VOCABULARIES  OP   NORTH   AMERICA. 


h 


English. 

This 

He,  or  she,  intransitive 
He,  or  she,  transitive .  . 

They 

Of  mine 

Tome 

To  thee   

To  us 

To  you 

To  him 

To  them 

Of  himself 

To  themselves 

Whose  ?   what  ?   what 

kind  ?  of  whom  ? 
Who  ?  what  thing  ? .  . 
What  do  you  say  ? .  .  • 

Of  or  by  whom 

With  what  thing  ?  .  .  . 
What  company  ?  .  .  .  . 

Which 

His 

Of  his 

Mine 


Kuskutcbewak. 


una. 
unut 


kvinum  . 
Ihpinum 


umu-in ;  ikumin . 


kai-a;  tchambi-a 


ke 

umnia . 


Thine 

This,  masc. 
This  thing 


kho-in-tchati-ka ; 

khvona. 
ilh-pu-it;  Ihpu-it-ik  . 
unakh-wina 


That 
Self.  , 


How  ?  what  ? tcha-itun 

The  same 

Thus 

Who  are  these  people  ?      

who  is  the  head  of 

the  family  ? 

Head kamikuk  ;  uksi-u  ;  ni- 

ba-gun 

Crown  of  the  head 

Forehead tchughi-uk 

Eyes vi-tatu-ik 

Eyebrow ka-i-ag-mi-ut 

Eyelashes 

Ears na-i-utu-ik  ;     tchu-u- 

tu-ik 

Mouth   kanik 

Face 


Labrador  Eskimo, 
tamanno. 
una ;  tamna. 
oma ;  tapsoma. 
okkoa ;  tapkba. 
uvango;  uwango. 
uvamnut. 
iling-nut. 
uvapting-nut. 
illipting-nut. 
omunga;  tapsomunga. 
okkomunga;  tapsomunga. 
ing-me. 
ingming-nut. 
kina  ?  ki-a,  who  (P.  ki- 

kut). 
suna  ?  su-ub  (P.  su-unt)  ? 
suva. 

ki-mit ;  kikkunit. 
sumik  ? 
kikkut  ? 
kiput. 

{vide  of  his) 
oma;  tapsoma. 
u-wanga. 

igvit,  of  thine. 
una(inung-una,tAt<  man). 
oma     (oma-pung-a,     hit 

thing). 
imna. 
nang-ninek     (P.     nang- 

mcrngit). 
kannak. 
ingna. 
tava. 
kik-ut  ? 


ni-akko  (P.  ni-akkut). 

kausek. 

ke-uk ;  ka-uk  (P.  karrut). 

i-ye    (ai-i-ga,   W.)  ;    lane 

(P.  issit). 
kablo,  S.  (P.  kablut.) 
kemerit-set. 
si-ut  (P.  si-utik). 

kannerk ;  kaurngit. 
kenak. 


it). 


,rrut). 
isse 

I) 


English. 

Nose 

A  horn 

Cheek 

Muzzle 

Teeth  

Beard 

Neck 

Hair   (human)   on  the 

head 
Hair,  fur 

A  needle 

A  skin,  general  name. 

Hands 

Two,  numer 

My  hands 

Foot 

Finger 

Thumb 

Forefinger 

A  sign  to  indicate  any 
thing  (finger  post) 

Middle  finger 

The  middle 

He  is  in  the  middle  . . 

Third  finger 

Smallest 

It  decreases 

The  first 

Little  finger 

Hands  and  feet  together 

Belly 

Tongue  

He  licks  with  his  tongue 

My  tongue 

A  member  of  the  body 
A  leg 

The  trunk  or  body  . . . 

A  headless  body 

The  back  bone 


E»KIMO  VOCABULARY.  499 

KuBkutchewak.  Labrador  Eskimo. 

nikh kitig-ak  (P.  king-et). 

naksuk  (P.  naksu-it). 

ulu>ak. 

katang-ak. 

khu-u-tu-ik ki-u-tit  (S.  kig-ut). 

unik umik  (P.  umgit),  also  a 

curtain. 
u-i-anut u-i-ak   (P.  u-i-ait),  fore 

quarter  of  an  animal ; 

konge-sek. 
nu-i-at nu-i-ak  (P.  nutset). 

mu-ilh-kut merserpok,  alto  a  feather 

(merkut.  W.) 

merkut. 

amek  (D.  amok ;  P.  arm- 

git)- 

yagatchu-tu-ik aggait,  hands  and  fingers. 

aggait. 

aggakka  ;   aggaktit,  your 

hands. 

ig-uk ittlgak  (P.  ittikct). 

si-evogat. 

kublo  (P.  kublut). 

tikkek   (P.  tikkerit),  also 

a  thimble. 
tikkorut. 

kettert-lek,  W. 

kerka. 

ketterpok. 

mikilirak,  W. 

mikke      (mikkinek,      the 

least). 

mikki-orpok. 

mikkledklek. 

erkekok,  W. ;  mikkillerak 

(P.  mikkillaket). 

igluktuk. 

aksi>ak nek,  also  the  body. 

ali-anuk okak  (P.  oket). 

alluktorpok. 

okara. 

nabgo-ak. 

nabguk-pa    (ni-o,   leg  or 

thigh). 
mimmernet ;     time     (P. 

timet). 

kattik. 

ku-i-a-pigak. 

X* 


11 


3  I 

I   ' 

fi 

;  ♦'3 


■ii 


'■ , 


490 


VUCABULARIE8  OF   NORTH   AMEIIICA. 


Engliab. 

The  rump 

Blood 

To  speak 

He  is  spoken  of 

To  cry 

The  waves  roar 

He  weeps  much 

He  distorts  his  face  in 

crying 

To  laugh 

He  laughs  in  mockery . 
He  is  in  a  laughing  or 

weeping  mood. 

To  kill 

Dead  (he  is) 

A  corpse 

Alive 

Life 

A  living  man 

Bad 

He  is  very  bad 

He  becomes  bad 

Not  good 

Good 

Very  good,  or  great  .  . 
He  is  a  good  man .... 

Brave 

Very  brave  or  strong.  . 

Coward 

He  is  terror-struck  . . . 

He  is  timid 

He  loses  courage 

Thick 

Lean,  not  stout 

He  is  stout 

Thin,  or  lean  (he  is) . . 

High 

Low 

Warm 

Heat 

It  boils 

To  smell 

To  spit 

He  spits  out 

To  cough 

Pain 

Health 

He  is  healthy 

Angry 


Kuskutchewak.  Labrador  EakliiM. 

nuUok. 

ka*i-unkak auk ;   aggut. 

kalkhtu-ik o-karlunc. 

kalle-mavok. 

vikhpa-ga-ga. 


nu-inhU«akhta. 


kadlarpok. 

kai-u-mi-wok-nudlarpok. 

kakkcrlu-arpok. 


i-yorkpork. 
illapsukpok. 


tchikaliz-gi-u. 

tukumak tokkowok. 

time   (body)    -tokkung-a* 

yok. 

u-nung-vak innu-wok. 

innusek. 

innuk. 

tchakli-uk (ueg-lu-wok,  he  lies.) 

a-yorpok ;  yudlarpok. 

assile-wok. 

nama-lung-ilak. 

knu-ignag-kuk ai-ung-itok. 

ang-i-yok. 

pillorik-pok ;  ridlarpok. 

tuvgak aksut,  aho  strong. 

aksorso-ak. 

alantak erksinadlarpok,  afraid. 

sakko-arpok. 

innimi>wok. 

kotso-alavok. 

ukughelghi-a. 

kui-migu-ilhnagak.  , 

kuini-wok. 

sallukpok ;  ludlarpok. 

yukhtuli portovok. 

yukh-kalhna-gak. 

kikh-tchatuk ki-ek-pok ;  onatomik. 

kalhtok kivek ;  onarsivok. 

.  . .  .\ kallapok. 

nagne-chuk nawok,  he  stnelU. 

kchigu (sigguk,  the  beak.) 

oviakpok. 

kuzgh-ga ko-erlorpok,  he  coughs. 

aknakhtu-a. 
yuguntu-a. 

atsu-ili-wok,  W. 

wik«nu-i-chuk ning-akpok ;  gadlarpok. 


■i 


English. 
<iuarrel .  . .  . 

Terrible 

Buy 


LbklMO  VUCABULARV. 

Kuskutchewak. 

agu-i*a-uk 

alu-innakh-kuk  .... 
kupu/.g-u 


Taken 
Take., 


tkhwaka. 
tkhu 


Give ta-iz-gUu 


Sell 

Lively,  joyous 


kiputna-waka 


Merry 


Tedious 

He  is  weak 

Song 

A  song,  hymn,  or  psalm 

Dance 

Truth 

Lie 

Thief 

Forest   

Place  having  no  trees. 

Grass 

Straw  or  grass  on  the 
sea  shore 

Berries 

Moss 


Sphagnum  paluslre . , . 

Fir  tree 

Firewood 


nuna-nikh-kuk 
nuiia-ni-tu. 


i-vagun . 


kazi-i-achi-kut 

pachikh-pi-ak 

ikli-uk 

tu-igli-nak 

nu-i-ku-ig-vakhtut  . . 


tchangu-it. 


nangat 

kumagu-i-tu-lt 


nu'ikvag-vakh-tugvak 


Birch ilhgnuk 


Alder  . 
Poplar. 
WUlow 
Buck  . . 


tchugvagvat. 
avgnut. 
tchagatu-it . 
u-ipnat .... 


Vessel,  a  bark 

A  small  boat  of  wood . 
Baidare  (skin  boat)  .  , 
Baidarka 


shunnak 


anh-i-ak 

pukhtan ;  kai-ak .  . 


irpok. 


191 

Labrador  Eskimo 
ukgiwok,  h«  rctaliate$. 
adhei!   (interjection). 
akpaiig-erpok,  hebuy»,\y.\ 

putfdi-wuk,  he  buys  it. 

pi-uk,  W. ;  pivok,  or  pi- 
wok  {auxiliary). 

iu-ug-si-lugo,  let  us  bar- 
ter, W. ;  pillata-wok,  he 
gives  m  reward;  pittipa, 
he  gives  it  to  hitn  to  hold. 

ni-u-werpok,  he  trades. 

pio-ri-wok ;  ku-wi-a-sik- 
pok,  W. 

uunan-ghi-a*suk-pok, 
brisk. 

uuneiiepok ;    sanghc-pok. 
iming-arpok. 
iming-erut-set. 
okkigenek,  W. 
(padsitik-sak,  an  excuse.) 
seglu-wok,  he  lies. 
tiglik-pok,  he  steals. 
nappartok,<rcf«,8om€t/it«g 

erect. 
nappartu-itok. 

i-wik;  ibgit. 

paung-at. 

ting-ang-yak,     a    bluish 

moss  ;  marnek,  W. ;  ne- 

kagasek,  W. 
orkso  (P.  orksut). 

ikko-maksak,   W.    (ikko- 

ma,  Jire.) 
okpit;  kai-volik  (P.  Lai- 

vogit). 


okau-jak. 

u-i-arak,    a   stone;    kai- 

ertok,  W. 
unu«akso-ak. 
mni-arak. 
umi-avik. 
kai>ak  (for  one  person) 

(P.  kai-net). 


:i 


I     ' 


6  H 


r 


409 


VOCABULARIES  OF  NOUTIl  AMKKICA. 


English.  Kuskutchewak. 

Flat-bottomeJ  boat  .  .      anhi-akh-Ii-uk. 
Dug anna-kukta .... 


Pug-sled 

Calln  tlic  dijgs  tt>gi'thcr 
Tanned  sea-cow  hide  . 

Arch 

A  vallt!y 

A  bird  arrow 

Arrow 


i-kain-chak 


aniakh-kak. 
ugli-vu-ik  .  . 


Fish-hook  

Strap 

Hand  druiTi,tarnbourine 
Shaman,  sorcerer  .... 

House 

Hut  (abode  of  married 
people) . 

Tent    

Snow-liouse 

Indian  tavern 

To  take  a  vapor  bath. 
He  bathes,  he  dips  it  . 

Armor 

Guest 

Give  for  a  treat 

He  gives  a  feast 

Eat 

Dining-hall 

To  make  a  present  of. 

To  sew 

A  needle 

To  beat 

He  cuts  it  in  pieces  .  . 

Eed  fish 

Salmo  orientalis 

Salmo  sanguineus  .... 
Salmo  muksun  ...... 


ikkh-uk  ;       pickh- 
tchagak 

nuk-tchaklik. 
tcha-ul. 

tungalhkh ;    analhkh- 
tuk 

u-ina. 


akumgavak. 
mu-ichtak. 


anr  u-i-akh-chutu-it. 

ali-i«.nik 

tchaktchu. 


nuiga 


yaguzhgh-ghi  ;      pi- 

kazhzgh-ghi 
minka 


pilli-akhku 


nu-i-ku-it. 
taghi-akvak. 
kak-ki-a. 
ka-ukh-tut  . 


Salmo  alpinus ankhli-u-gat  . . 

Salmo  proteus . atakak. 

Chaiko  ? nu-ik-ni-at. 

Syrka imakh-ping-at. 

Smelt kpuka-chat. 

Eel  pout managnat. 

Pike  tchukvak. 

Fishing-net kughya. 

A  bag,  a  poke 


Labrador  Eakimo. 

kemmek ;    king-mek    (P. 

king-mit). 
kani-utik,  W. 
kang-marpok. 

korok,  W.,  hollow. 

korkinek. 

nugit. 

karksok  (P.  karksut). 

karsuk-sok. 


anghe-kok. 
iglo  (P.iglut). 


tuppek  (P.  turkit). 
iglorigak. 


missukpok. 

allak;  allani-a-wok. 

nerri-marpok. 
nerri-wok,  W.,  he  eats, 
nerriving-me. 
pilli-ta-wok. 

mersorpok,  he  sews. 
merkut  (P.  merkutit). 
anauwok,  W. 
pillakpok. 


ekalluk   (P.    ekalluktut), 

salmon  trout. 
ekalli-et,  trout. 


pok. 


■i 


I- 


ut), 


Engllah. 

Spawn 

Cup 

Spoon  

Pot 

Earthern  pot,  native.  . 

Bladder 

Oai  (boat's) 

Entrails 

Gut 

Kamlaika  (cloth)  .... 

Woolen  cloth 

Parka 

Fur-boots 

Breeches 

Cap   

Castor  oil 

Beaver 

Otter 

Sable 

Gray  fox 

Red  fox 

White  fox 

Young  fox 

Female  bear 

Bear ' 

Polar  bear    

Wolf   

Hare 

Wolverene 

Marmot 

Muskrat 

Casan  marmot  {Citil' 
lus). 

Ermine 

Lesser  otter  

Tail  of  an  animal. . . . 

Mouse 

Fly 

A  spider 

Gnat,  musquito 

Walrus  tusk 

Walrus 

Marmnoth  tooth 


ESKIMO  VOCABULARY  493 

Kuakutchewak.  Labrador  Eikima 

mass-i-uk. 

val-i-uk korkok,  wide-mouthed  cup ; 

erngu8ok,</rtn^tnjr-cttp. 

alu-pa-ut. 

gant. 

illuterkut,  W.  (illuli-wok, 

he  hollowt  it  out). 

imangvik. 

auvagun (pa-ut;  P.  pa-utit)  epat. 

erchavit  P.  (S.  erchavik.) 

iggzh-u-igli-uk inelo  (P.  inelu-it). 

iggmagna-tu-ik. 

ateg-ek-sai-ah,  W. 

atkuk. 

kamu-ik-si-ak kamikso-ak. 

khulik karlik  (P.  karlit). 

nachak ketsivak,  akkordlek,  aUo 

a  jacket. 

alli-ukit-khak. 

kini-i-uli kig-i-ak  (P.  kig-ilaet). 

chvignil'nuk. 

kakhchichvak karvi-ait-si-ak. 

u-ikh-pu-ikhtuk  ....  arvngasek. 

kavhiatchak ka-i-ok. 

ulhi-gu-ik teri-enniak ;  P.  teriennit- 

sek. 

pi-i-a-gak pei-a-raka,  a  young  quad- 
ruped or  bird. 

akbik. 

unu-valh-iakh akhlak. 

nennok  (P.  nennut). 

ku-isli-unu-ik amarrok    (P.    amarkut) ; 

ammarwok. 

ka-i-ukh-li ukalek  (P.  -lit) ;  ikkingna. 

kab-tchak kablia-ri-u. 

kalh-ganakh-tuli ....  sik-sik ;  ullick. 

sig-vak kiv-galuk,  W. 

kaninik ik-ik ;  sik-sik. 

nagulhkk-ak terri-i-a,  W. 

amagmi-utak pammi-oktok. 

pammi-ok. 

avilh-nat awing-ak,  W. 

chuvat nivu-i-wok,  a  large  fly. 

assi-wak  (P.  assi-vait) . 

ig-tughi-ak  ;      miku-  kiktoriak  (P.  kiktoritset). 
ghi-ak 

tul-i-ak t6gak,  W.  (tok,  a  point.) 

azgh-vu-ik ai-wek  (P.  ai-werit). 

chagu-nu-ek.  ■■ 


H 


I; 


h 


-tu^ 


t 


401 


VOCABULARIES  OP  NORTU  AMERICA. 


Engliah. 

Black-fat  of  deer  .... 

Tallow 

Fat 

Reindeer 

A  large  whale 

Delphinu*  Icucat 

A  seal,  general  name  . 
Seal,  largest  kind  .... 

Small  seal 

Middle  seal 

Young  ditto 

Seal  lying  on  ice  .... 

Spotted  seal 

A  seal  with  a  pointed 

nose 

Unborn  seal 

The  seal  comes  up  to 

breathe 

1  will 

I  will  not 

Go ! 

Come ! 

He  comes 

I  come 

Bring 

It  is 

Verily 


Kuakuteliewtk.  Librtdor  Ekkimo. 

tunnuk  (tunno,  the  back) . 

anu«ignak kui-ni-wok,  fat  he  i$. 

u-ig-nu-ik. 

tun-tu tuktu  (P.tuktut). 

korchak  (P.  korcho^net). 

chtvak {Ha.V'gak,awater-ttrpeHt.) 

ptiese  (P.  pue-ait). 

izli-ugvak uksuk  ;  oguk. 

notai-arksuk ;  notsek. 

kai-rolik. 

pai-yarak. 

otok. 

kasHigi-ak. 

abba  (P.  abbit). 


iblau. 
pu-i-rook. 


Yes 


Certainly  not ! 

He  says  no 

Not   

Yet 

It  is  so  (as  you  say) .  . 

Where  ? 

Where  is  it? 

Whither  ? 

Which  way  ?  whereby  ? 

Here 

Here  about,  around  .  . 

There 

Thither 

Hither 

There 

Throw 


piyukh-tu-a pivok. 

piyuk-nak«tu-a piwak. 

ai-i ;  ai-aghi ailer-it,  W. 

ikh-tchika kai-it ! 

kai'Wok. 

ta-i-tchika. 

ta-iski-u kaitsi-wok,  to  bring. 

pitankh-tok. 

ahammarik       {emphatic 

affir.) 

katz ;    kassak ;    kaitsok ; 

aheila;  ang-erpok. 

tchata-i-tok se-i-ovut,  aukai>lo. 

ang-ing-ilak. 

naukak,  aukok. 

tchali BuUe. 

ahale. 

na-nl  ? nane  ? 

nauk  ? 

nairt  ? namut  ? 

naukut  ? 

khlonikho ovane  mane ;  tamane. 


ovona. 

mane ;  tamano. 


So 

Now 

In  the  prenent  time 


yam ;  ung-napi  .  . . 
yavu-it. 

akavu-it ma-ungo  ;  owunga. 

khavana ikkane. 

igazhghi-u millorpok,  he  throws;  egi- 

pok,  he  throws  away. 

khwatum taimak ;  sorlo,  as. 

khwatu>a mana. 

manakut. 


AiiJis- 


UKIMO  VOCABULVRY 


4M 


Enghah.  Kuakutohewik. 

Later,  afterward atakh 

Aforetime 

Before tchu-nu-iintpu  . 

Straight  bofurti 

Before  another , 

Buhind k  inulhklimtiv. 

Backward 

Above,  up  JV'ard kulhina 

Below,  beneath ociii<rni 


Num. 

tt 

ti 

i( 
u 


1 atu-u-chik 

2 a-i-nak  ;  malhkhok .  . 


3 pa-i-na-i-vak 


4 tchamik 

5 tali-mik 


u 

<( 
u 
i< 


6 akhvinok 

7 a-i-ua-akh-vanam  .  . 

8 pi-na-i-vUakh-vanam 

9 chtami-akh-vanam  .  . 

10 tamimi'akh-vanam.  . 

11 ... 

16 

20 tzvinnak 


21 


Whale akh-vu-ik 

Bird,  in  general tu-in-mi-ak 

Eagle nu-itU'i-gavi-ak  .... 

Raven kolh-ka-guk 

Magpie kalh-ka-gai-ak. 

Hawk naptak 

Owl iggi-akhtu-gali 


Goose nu-ikli-uk  .  . 

Swan kughi-uk  .  . . 

Crane ghi-na-tuli. 

Duck tu-in-mu-ik . 


Sinew uUii-un  ;  ivali-ut.  . . 

Glass  bead tU'ikh-lit 


Blue tchunaizi ;  tchii-a-gat 


Labrador  Eakimo. 
kiiig<urgaii«>. 
itdak. 

Hivtirnga-gat. 
mikitaii)!. 
anc-taiina,a/<o*ou/At«ar(f. 

knig-o-mut. 

kollanut ;   pa-ungo. 

kanna ;   sammand. 

atoiNBi'k. 

marruk ;     maggok,    W. 

(nggii,  hands). 
ping-a-Hut  ;     ping-ahuk, 

W. ;  ping-a-nuk,  W. 
slttamut. 
(talluk,  the  hand)  tedliraa; 

tullimet. 
arvangttt;  ping-a-su-yok- 

tut,  twice  three. 
ping-a>Bullo    sitta-mello, 

W.,  three  and  four. 
pina-i-u-ik,  W. ;    ping<»-r 

nuk,  W. 
tellimella  sitta-mello, W., 

five  and  four. 
tellima-yoktut,  W. 
arkang-et. 
arvertanget. 
igluktut,  hands  and  feet 

together. 
ungna. 
ar-wek. 
ting-mi>ak  (D.  ting-mit- 

sek). 
nektoralik. 
kallu-gak. 

kiga-wik,  W. 

upik,  W. ;  upigu-ak,  great 

owl,  W. 
nerlek  (P.  nerlit). 
kog-uk,  W. 

ting-mi-ak  (P.  ting-mid> 
get),  a  bird,  in  general. 

uli-yut,  W. 

(tue,  the  shoulder)  ;  sang, 
pang-ak,  beads. 

tung-a-yuktak     (tungo, 
berry  juice) . 


II 


N 


496 


VOCABULARIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

Labrador  Eskimo. 


Krelle tchunaglat ;  anat .  . . 

Ax kalhk-anak 


Adze.  , 
Pickax 
Knife 


Engliah.  Kuskutchewak. 

White katu-ighi-agvak  ....     kaud-luk-pok,   W.    (kau, 

day.) 

It  i8  white kaggarpok,  W. 

Red kivikh-tchitkkhlat .  . .      auk-palliki-tak  (auk,  ag- 

gut,  blood). 
Black tunuihgat kerngut ;  kernerpok ;  ker- 

nian-garvok. 
(sunak,    W.,   polar-bear) 

(annak,  refuse  of  ani- 
mals) . 
tukkingai-ok  (P.  -ut ;  kuk- 

sau-tok). 

nella-yok. 

tik-lak. 

ulhvak ulima-ut   (P.  ulima-utit, 

a  hatchet). 

Aleutian  ax knun. 

Scissors ku-ipU-a-unu-ik  ....      kipaaut,  W. 

He  cuts  something  off      kippiwok. 

Needle minkuk ;  tchikuk  .  .  .      merkut  (sig-uk,  a  beak) . 

Button nikht-ku-tu-it sennero-ak  (P.  sennerut- 

set). 

Mirror tangh-i-u-guk takh-artut. 

He  sees  him,  or  it takko-wok. 

Iron nu-ilhkh-agak kikki-ek,    general   name, 

also  a  wooden  or  ivory 

pin. 

Copper kanukh kanu-yak,  W. 

Lead khu-i-akak aggiktok,  W. 

Shirt tulhpakhak uvinerok      (uvinite      the 

flesh) . 
Linen  waistcoat alkuk '.       altighigha,  under  jacket, 

W. 

Worsted  ditto tunulhkh-u-i-alkuk. 

Kettle gantchavak uk-ku-sik,  stone  kettle. 

Dentalium  shell nuinhi-vaghi-ut. 

Ear-rings akiatu-it ukla. 

Long ■^.atkhli. 

Short r..v.'>\lh-nuk nai-pok. 

Broad yu-gu-tuli silikpok,  it  is  broad  and 

thin. 

Narrow igu-kink-nuk nerikipokjV/. ;  amitok,W. 

Fresh milukapak 

Sweet mi-iknik<-kuk mamakpok,  it  tastes  nice. 

Sugar mamamak-sauk. 


KUTCHIN  VOCABULARY. 


497 


(kau, 

k,  ag- 

:;  ker- 

r.bear) 
f  ani- 

: ;  kuk- 
a-utit, 


'xak). 
inerut- 


name, 
ivory 

the 
acket, 

U. 


and 
)k,W. 
nice. 


Vocabulary  of  the  Kutchin  of  the  Yukon,  or  KutchiKut 

CHI,   DRAWN    UP    BY    Mr.   M'MuRBAY  j    TO  WHICH    THE  ChEPE 

WYAN  Synonyms  were  added  by  Mr.  M'Pherson. 


English. 

^Inimals. 

bear 

grizzly  bear   . 

beaver   

red  fox 

black  fox  ... 


Kutchin. 


cross  fox 

white  fox  (Arctic) . . 

Canada  lynx 

marten 

mink 

otter 

musquash 

wolf 

hare  (American) .  . . 

wolverene 

seal 


80 

si-i 

se 

na-kath 

nakath-barhata>nil- 
iz-ze 

nakath-so 

etchi-a-thwi  .  . 

ni-itchi 

tsu-ko  

tchith-ei 

tsu-e  

tzSnn 

zo 

ke 

lekh-ethu-e 

nat-tchuk 


moose-deer 
rein-deer  .  . 
goose  .... 

swan 

crane   .... 

duck 

grouse .... 


tin-djuke.  . 
bet-zey  .  .  . 

kre 

ta-arr-zyne 
che-a  .... 
tet-sun  .  .  . 
akh-tail  .  . 


fish,  a  salmon. 


white  fish   [Corego- 
nus) 

pike 

blue-fish  (grayling) 
methy  {Lota) 

Trading  Goods. 

An  awl 

An  ax 

Beads  

A  belt 

A  blanket 

A  tobacco-box 

Buttons 

A  cap 

A  bonnet  


tleukh-ko 

tleukh-ko-tak- hei  . 


Chepewyan. 

sasz. 

tlize. 

tza;  tsha. 

na-ghirhe-gosse. 

na-ghirhe-sin. 

na-ghirhe-netlizze. 

na-ghirhe-gai. 

ghise. 

Iha. 

til-chuse ;  tekh-tuse. 

na-pi-ekh. 

tzSn ;  tshSn. 

yess ;  nuni-e. 

ka. 

nakh-ei. 

(netsek ;    netsi-arksuk, 

Esk) 
dunikh. 
bedzi. 
tcha. 
kha-goss. 
dhell. 

yurrth-tcho. 
dikh  {pintailed  gr.) ;  kaa 

ba  {white  gr.) 
tlu-e-tcho ;   tlu-c-zane, 

trout. 
thlu. 


'    )i 


alle-ti-in uldai. 

rsi-tcha thlu-e-detla. 

che-tlukh tin-tellei. 


tha thuth,  a  spear. 

ta-e thell ;  thelth. 

nak-kai-e. 
tho. 

tselta tsurai. 

tseltrow-ti-ak. 

yei-kai-thit-le bun-eil-lay  ;   pa-il-lay. 

tsa-kol-u tsa-kulay. 

tsa-til-ck-ha. 


ii 


'^ 


40S 


VOCAl}ULARIf»  or   NORTH   AMKRICA. 


EnRllHh. 
A  onpoi  or  coat  . 
A  iliilllo  ooat.  .  .  . 

A  ohls«l 

A  comb 

A  tlaf^gor 

A  llle 

Tapo  gartering     . 
A  luolting-glasii .  . 

A  gun 

A  giiii-fliut 

A  gun-worm .  . .  .  . 

Ctunpowilor 

A  |)ow«lor-horn  .  . 

A  kottio , 

A  kuifo 

A  ring 

A  shirt 

A  small  shot .... 

A  ball 

A  flre-sto«*l 

tMoUi 

Thread 

Tobacco  

Trow8or8 

Vermilion 


Kutchln.  Clirpflwyan. 

ik okh. 

chai-ik. 

No-itt-nn. 

iehoir-xug. 

niUci-Hho la-ihuih. 

kuk-i hogulth ;  huk-knlth. 

Ickath-at-hai-u 

mutchai-c-i-a. 

tc-ogga ti<l-gurtho. 

b(<ch-tMi tlu-t<>ll. 

koggo-to ko-6«l6h. 

tcgga-kon tulgurru-kuuii-nc. 

a-ki-itcho. 

thi-a iilio. 

r'  Hi 


bOHH. 


ililt-th«kk. 

azu-c-i-ok iHi>-tHi-c1i ;   thiriitoi. 

t(>gga-&t8il toli-thai-e. 

togga-atcho t«ll-gith-tuho. 

il-i-a. 

athit-li. 

athit-li-itchi. 


H« 


oi-i-ti-it 8oI-tu>i. 


MisrcUanfout. 


A  tree.  .  . 
A  willow 


V  rasa  

'^.',10  ground   .  . . 

Water 

A  rivor 

A  lake  

Rain 

Warm 

Cold 

Hungry 

Fatigued 

Sick     

A  mountain  .  . . 

A  valley 

Tho  sun 

Thfl  stars 

A  rock  

A  house  or  fort . 
A  lodge  or  tent . 

A  bow 

An  arrow 

A  canoe  


illoi-ik (karlik,  Eikimo). 

tingi-ta-tsoikh. 


tctch-hau tsu. 

kai-i kai-thsinnv. 

tlo tlo. 

nunn nih. 

tchu tn  ;   to. 

han dossh. 

van thou-tu-T. 

akh-tHin dsha. 

konni-etha etu. 

konni-oka otdza. 

Bci-ze-kwctaik Hoth-ithn. 

kei-a-sothelth-krci  .  .  ni-nitHan. 

Sth-ilUsoyk ai-a\ 

tha  shcth. 

kra-tanne shogusso. 

r'  sey-o sakh. 

thun ihun. 

tchi thi  Haunuo-cho. 

izze. 

ni-ti-a noballe ;   nepalle. 

alt-heikh elthi. 

ki-e kah. 

tri tsi. 


»4(^w«iraHprf*-,jiii'" 


KUrCUIN  VOCABULARY. 


409 


EiiKllsh.  Kutchln. 

Oood nnir-zi 

Bad liHts-ho-tu 

Dny tzin 

Night tatlia 

Slufp ruikh-tchi 

RoHt tiiKK'^^l>->llH'-u-  • 

To  sit tchith-u-6icha  . 

To  walk ka-wJiot-6l  .... 

To  run Nha-iocha 

To  Hliout at-£l>kc 

To  kill bc«h«i-cn-i-ccha 

A  man tnnghi 

A  woman tren-djo 

A  boy tne-a 

A  girl mitcheUci 


Chnp«W]ran. 


A  dog tluino 

A  Mlod latchan-vultl 

Numerah. 


1 tih-lagga 

2 nak-h«;i 

3 thi-eka 

4 t&n-na 

5 iIla-kon>Slei 

6 neckhki-St-hoi 

7 ataitHa-ncwk'he .... 


8 nak-hui-ctan-na , 

9 , .  .      nuntuha-niko  . . , 


10 tikh-lagga-chow-et- 

hi-en 
11. tikh-lagga-mik-ki- 

tagga 

12 nak-hei-mikki-tagga . 

13 thi-eka-mikki-tagga  . 

14 tanna-mikki-tagga  . . 

15 ilakon-elei-mikkUtag- 

ga. 
20 nak  how-chow«cthi*cn 


n»"»o-ulla. 

t/.inna. 

hntlngho. 

Imlkh. 

thill*;h. 

ih6(ia. 

nathull. 

tholntkall. 

thclguth. 

ilirga-thnl. 

Miuinc;  dunoh  ;   'tirind. 

tHhckw«;. 

duimfi-yaz«. 

tH<!kw«-a/.c. 

ihlirig ;   thlinn. 

bet-tchinnai. 


ntlilHr*^,  D.  (f;n-clai,  L.), 

(Hthlagi,  C.) 
nakkh'-,   I),    (nakka,  L), 

(nakkf!,  C.) 
khtaro,  D.  (ita-rgha,  L.), 

(takkc,  C.) 
tinghn,     D.     (iting,     L.), 

(tingcft,  C.) 
zazunlarc,  D.   (.sa-Moo-la, 

L.),  (.sasnlagi,  C.) 
elcatharfi,  D.  (ut-k«-tlai, 

L.),  (alkitakhe,  C.) 
nthlazuntinghc,  D.  (kko- 

Hing-ting,  L.),  (sthlasi- 

tingic,  C). 
alcatinghe,  D.  (elzenting, 

L.),  (alketingie,  C.) 
iithla-otta,  D.  (kkahooli, 

L.),  (katchinc>onnuna, 

C.) 
'nthla-una,   D.    (ito-niin- 
na,  L.),  (onnuna,  C.) 
(Hthlagi-juthet,  C.) 


(nauke-juthet,  C.) 
(takhe-juthet,  C) 
(tingee-juthet,  C.) 


(non-nanna,  L.),  (nacklie- 
onnuna,  C.) 


f  1  i 


■<*' 


500  VOCABULARIES  OP  NORTH  AMERICA. 

English.  Kutchin.  Chepewyan. 

21 nak-how-chow-ithi-en-      (nacke-onnuna,  nathetsin 

unsla-tikh-lagga.  sthlage,  C.) 

30 thi-eka-chow-ethi-en .        (tacke-onnuna,  C.) 

40 tanna-ha-chow-ethi-en      (tingie-onnuna,  C.) 

50 atla-konSlei-chow-ethi-     (aauulagi-onnuna,  C.) 

en. 

60 nikh-ki-at-hei-chow-       (alkitakhe-onnuna,  C.) 

ethi-en. 

70 atait-sa. 

80 nich-ki-etanna'chow- 

ethi-en. 

90 muntcha-niko-chow- 

ethl-en. 

100 tikh-lagga,  chow-ethi-     (onnuna-onnuna,  C),  ten 

en-chow-ethi-en.  tens. 

200 nak-kaggo-chow-ethi-     (nacki-onnuna-onnuna, 

en-chow-ethi-en.  C.) 

300 thi-eka-chow-ethi-en-     (takhi-onnuna-onnuna, 

chow-ethi-en.  C.) 

Note. — The  orthography  of  the  names  of  numerals  inclosed  by  parentheses  is  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  other  parts  of  the  vocabulary.  D.  denotes  Dog-rib  words 
obtained  by  myself.  L.  is  Dog-rib  recorded  by  Captain  Lefroy.  C.  denotes 
Chepewyan  words  extracted  from  a  list  furnished  by  Mr.  M'Pherson,  who  has 
adopted  the  French  orthography  in  part. 


The  fragmeDt  of  a  vocabulnry  of  the  Chepewyan  dialect,  which 
follows,  was  formed  entirely  from  the  diction  of  Mrs.  M'Pherson, 
to  whom  the  language  has  been  familiar  from  her  infancy.  It  was 
written  in  the  following  manner:  Having  at  hand  a  pretty  full 
vocabulary  of  the  Cree,  drawn  up  at  Carlton  House  in  1820,  in 
which  tfie  words  were  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  I  propounded 
the  Cree  expressions  to  her  in  succession,  assisting  her  with  a 
French  translation  when  she  had  any  doubt  of  their  meaning. 
The  Chepewyan  equivalent  was  pronounced  by  her  again  and 
again,  until  my  ear  caught  the  sound,  and  I  was  able  to  repeat  it 
after  her.  I  then  wrote  it  down,  and  read  it  to  her  from  the 
manuscript.  Such  words  as  I  was  unable  to  pronounce  to  her 
satisfaction,  and  they  were  not  few,  were  left  out.  The  nasal 
sounds  resembling  the  French  final  n  were  the  most  difficult,  and 
they  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  language.  The  Chepewyan 
tongue  also  abounds  in  the  burring  sound  of  the  letter  r  combined 
with  an  aspirate,  which  I  know  not  how  to  express  in  English;  and 
such  words  have  consequently  been  left  out  of  the  vocabulary.  The 
ordinary  aspirate,  similar  to  the  och  of  the  Scottish  or  Irish,  is  de- 
noted in  the  vocabulary  by  kh.     The  vocabulary,  short  as  it  is,  took 


CHEPEWYAN  VOCABULARY. 


501 


Bome  weeks  to  produce.  It  wns  interrupted  by  a  change  in  our 
arrangements  in  traveling,  canoes  having  been  substituted  for  boats, 
which  made  it  less  convenient  for  me  to  receive  lessons  in  Chepe- 
wyan.  This  difficulty  would  not,  however,  have  prevented  the 
prosecution  of  the  task,  especially  as  Mrs.  M^Pherson  with  much 
kindi  ess  expressed  her  willingness  to  proceed  until  we  had  gone 
through  the  whole  Cree  vocabulary,  of  which  about  nine-tenths 
remained ;  but  knowing  that  the  language  was  becoming  a  written 
one,  under  the  active  superintendence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries at  Isle  k  la  Crosse,  I  gave  up  my  intention  of  endeavoring 
to  ascertain  its  stnicture,  and  contented  myself  with  the  following 
specimen. 


Vocabulary  of  the  Chepewyan  Tongue,  with  Cree  and 
English  Translations. 


Jt  aa  in  "father;  d  as  in  "awe"  "law;"  e  aa  in  "theme;"  e  as  ii. 
"dell"  "bed;"  i  as  in  "ravine,"  or  as  ee  in  "see;"  t  as  in  "ill"  "ink;" 
0  as  in  "or"  "for;"  &  as  in  "us"  "husk;"  ai  as  in  "aim 


1)     C( 


maim 


.»' 


—  —      -_  ,  ,  _—  —      , 

au  as  ow  in  "how;"  oy  as  in  "hoy;"  yu  as  "you;"  eu  as  ew  in  "dew" 
or  eau  in  "beauty;"  kw  as  in  "awkward;"  ng  as  the  French  nasal  n; 
kh  as  ch  in  "loch,"  Scottice. 


Cre«,  of  Carlton  House. 
A. 

Abu-ye 

Agatha-shu,  or  aggai- 

a-shu 
Aggiskow,  or  akkiskow 

Aggusk 

Atchak,  or  akhchak  . . 

Ai-ammi-he-u 

Akop 

Ai-u-wannis 

Akwa-napoy-igan-as- 
kek 

Akwatin 

Amisk 

Amis-kwa-wiste 

fimu ;  amo 

Annek-kutchass 

Annek-kutchassis  .... 
Apikh-tow-kishi-kow . . 

Apikh-tow-tippiskow 


Chepewyan.  of  Athabasca 


English. 


tu-a-will   liquor,  soup,  or  drink. 

the-ut-'tinne an  Englishman. 

el-ka-ti pin-tailed  grouse. 

sis-there a  blunt  arrow. 

i-yu-ne the  soul. 

yu-alane-palle a  flag. 

tsirre,  or  tchirre a  blanket  or  covering. 

Tsirre-kai-cho a  large  blanket. 

yu all  kinds  of  goods. 

tille-arakai-inka  ....  a  covered  kettle. 

hatkin frost. 

tza a  beaver. 

ekhke  ;  tza  bekong  . .  a  beaver-house. 

klize  ;  ti-rann^ a  bee. 

tli-i ;  tchilla a  squirrel. 

tillel-kuze small  or  ground-squirrel. 

'tchi-en-tize;tchinne-  mid-day,  or  half  a  day. 

tan-ni-se. 

thir-nize midnight. 


r 


I 


i 
) 

I 


:  V 

i! 


I. 


{' 


L 


502 


VOCABULARIES  OF   NORTH   AMERICA. 


Cree,  or  Carlton  House 

Apisi-mongsua 

Apiste-shipis 


Apistat-tchekus . 
Appakwa-sun  . . 
Appek-kusis. . . . 
Appisk 


Appistis-kis 

Appoye 

Appoy-nask 

Appussuk,  (PI.  appusa- 

ye-akhtik,  or  appussu- 

yuk). 

Miakahtuk 

Akhtai-ye  (P.  -wuk) . . 
Ammiakwa-tai-ye  .... 

Aakik 

Aaki ;  aaaiaki 

Int'aaki 

Kit'aaki 

Int'aakinan 

Aaki-tin-we-as  ;     aski- 

we-aa. 
Aakow-i 


Aaa&m  (P.   ass&m-uk) 
Ahkik 


Chepewyan,  of  Atbabanca. 

^l-kurro  ;     tchikhth-i- 
a-se-akhth. 

ni-pall6 

kleune 

tannone-tcho,  big  bird 

kai-yaze  ;  kai-gusc . . 

toth  :    to-a 

kos 

thai-ye;  nepalli-tetch- 
un  (tent  legs). 


white-headed 


nepalli  . . . . 

the 

tza-the  . . . . 

txlle 

kwotles .  . . . 
ni-tanninne 
na-hinne . . . 


Be-anninne  . . 
bet ;  per-eline 


Aaaini 

Aaaini-uapogan 


Assini-watche-a 

A88ini-poyt,or,£-a8kab 

Asaiake 

Aasiake-pakwe-sigan . . 
Aasiggan     (P.    aasiga- 
nuk) . 

Aaaisa-wi 

Aatn-theggum-ik 


ten-de-ila  (ice,  hard, 
not)  ;  ten-nailer. 

Kin-the  leak 

akhe ;  akh ;  akhi  . . . 

tiUe 

Sampaa-tille 

'thekh. 

seltu-ye-thekh ;  tche- 
tut-thekh 

sheth ;  the-ahe 


otles  , 
thlea 
tel.  . 


etie . . 
tsi-ye 


Aatu-tin tsd 


Astum-aataik , 

Atchakht,  or  atch&k. 

Atchappi 

Atchappe-kan 


'Tsa.kall6 
taa-ne-tum 


thin 

elte 

klewlghe-elting 


English, 
jumping  deer, 
a  teal,  or  small  duck. 

prong-homed  antelope, 
a  leathern  tent-cover. 
a  mouae. 
black     or 

eagle, 
a  Hutchins's  goose, 
paddle  or  oar. 
a  spit, 
tout  polea.  « 


a  man's  legs. 

a  fur  skin. 

beaver  akin. 

a  kettle. 

land. 

my  native  land. 

your  native  land. 

our  native  land. 

hia  land. 

raw  or  fresh  meat ;  flesh. 

holes  in  the  ice. 

ice  breaking  up. 

a  snow-shoe. 

a  kettle,  or  copper  kettle. 

a  tin  kettle. 

stone  pipe,  or  calumet. 

Rocky  Mountains, 
a  Stone  Indian, 
mud  or  earth, 
wheaten  flour, 
a  sock,  foot  stocking. 

an  ice  chiael  (lit.  a  horn) . 
a  ahed  in  which  canoes 

are  built, 
ladies'    cap 

(beaver) . 
man'~  hat. 
BU.:«hirie. 
a  star, 
a  bow. 
a  fiddle. 


or    bonnet 


j 


CIIEPEWYAN  VOCABULAttY. 


flOU 


luck. 

elope, 
over. 

i-headed 

)se. 


it;  flesh. 


er  kettle. 


rlumet. 


ung. 

a  horn) . 
1  canoes 

bonnet 


Cree,  of  Carlton  House.  Chepewyan,  of  Athabasca. 

Atchtmmosis thling-yazc 

Atekh,  or  attek et-thin 

Athappi t&-bith 

Athabiskow th^-minne-u-ye 

Atha-wak-kiska-mat-       hokar-ritha 

tinow 

Athfi-wastin tethi-^1 

Athik tsai  dlld 

Tsai-el-cho 

Athuskan ta-kalle-chi-a 

Atchak-aah til-chuse 

Attei-gan  yu 

Attikh-hameg thlew 

Attim thling 

Atuspi kaithlin-Hinne 

aku-puse-win thai>i 

fipette-kS,-higgan denti-lita-thil-tille . . . 


Akhakhk    (a    guttural 
grunt) 

Ak&-mik 

Ak&-mik 

Akwa-kukhtin 

Annutch ;  atte 

Atte 

Annutch-kak-ke-sikak 
Annutch  k&-tippiskak 
Annu-watch-gai-as . . . 

Apikh-tow 

Apatishew 

Appatun 

Apputchiga 

Askow 

Astum-uspi 

Athi-mun 

Ath^-wak 

Athe-wak  kishd-wak . . 
Athe-wak-pdtsow  .... 
Eshunila 


hckh 


nanne  . .  . . 
yanna .... 
tit-sa  . .  . . 
tu-hu  . . . . 
kaltune . . . 
ti-dzinne . . 
terri-kitha 


tanize 

bet-arutha 
b^t-taritha 


athkd   

ekku-az^  

9utu-ye 

ona-hadzun 

edzun-kuth^ 

hona-hedza-nitha 
hule-ho 


Ai-£ nista-ula 

Int'ai>an;    or  int'ai-a-  se-itza-heila ; 

W&-U  zoni 

K.it'ai-an netz^ 

AUakuski-td-u petoth^-karth . . 

Ai-ftml yan-iiti 

Ai-amew  ;        ai-atchi-  yalti , 

mS-u. 

Ai-an\ihin    zedzun-yar>ilti . 


English. 

a  puppy. 

reindeer. 

a  net. 

a  rocky  country. 

a  very  steep  bank. 

a  calm. 

a  frog  (grenouille). 

large  frog  (crapaud). 

a  raspberry. 

a  mink  {mustela  lutreola). 

trading  stock. 

w^hite  fish  (coregonus). 

a  dog. 

alder. 

a  platter. 

a  ehest-lock  key  (properly, 

but  used  for  keys  in 

general) . 
yes. 

across. 

on  the  other  side. 

it  is  mouldy. 

now ;  at  the  present  time. 

already. 

this  very  day. 

this  night. 

rather  long  ago. 

in  the  middle. 

it  is  useful. 

useful. 

once  on  a  time. 

sometimes. 

since  such  a  time. 

it  is  difficult. 

more. 

nearer ;  very  near. 

further;  very  far. 

he  is  troublesome ;  badly 

disposed. 

keep  it ;  have  thou  it. 

hunc-     I  possess  it ;  it  is  mine. 


it  is  yours. 

it  has  a  broad  bill. 

speak  thou. 

he  talks. 

speak  to  me. 


i      I 


f 


f 


ri 


tit 


501 


VOCABULARIES  C7  NORTH   AMERICA. 


Croe,  of  Carlton  Ilouae. 
Ai-ami-hi-  tu-tak    .... 

Ai-ami-hi-tu-'wuk  .... 

Ai-aini-he-u 

Int'ai-amin 

Int'ai-ami-ha-u 

Int'ai-ami-hik 

Kit'ai-ami-hik 

£kau-witha-atche< 

mow 
Ai-atchSmow-ak\va. . . 

Ai-apd-tik&-u 

Aikh-tu-ka-mik 

Waaka-iggan 

Wiggi 

Ai-ish-ku-shu ;    ai>iah> 

ku-te-u 
Ai-iah-kutan-n^-wu  . . 
Int'ai  iah-kuzin  ...... 

Int'ai-iakutchd-man  . . 
Kitai-iakutche-man- 

Ai-u 

Akkushew 

Int'akuahin 

Akkustemmu 

Int'akkuaktemmun  . . . 

Anniakut&pati 

Anniskut&pe ! 

Ing'annisku-t&pan .... 
Ge-anniaku-tft-pe-u . . . 
Apikh-ku-pai-u 

Ge-appaha 

Apith-kuna ;  appaha . . 
Ne-ge-apith-kunain . . . 

Ne-ge-apa-hain 

Int'apikh-t&-p&-ha-u 
Int'apikh-t&-p&-huk  . . 
Apisa  ! 

Apisum 

Sa-sey-int'apiaain  .... 

Appi ! 

Ute-appi ! 

Appew 

Appe-w6-uk 

Int'appin 


Chepewyan,  of  Athabasca.  English. 

althlai-yalthi  {together  let  ua  talk  together. 

let  ui  apeak). 

elthney-alti they  talk  to  one  another. 

yedzonne-alti he  apoke  to  him. 

d'&ati I  talk. 

bedze-aati I  talk  to  him. 

zedzun-alti he  apoke  to  me. 

nedzune-alta he  talka  to  you. 

zedzun-ye-innd-alti-  do  not  tell  it. 

hila-kula 

nu-hei-lund tell  ua  the  news ;   relate 

thou  now. 

peyd-onla-honnd  ....  it  ia  full  of  partitions. 

nu-anku another  house. 

yd a  house. 

a  tent  or  dwelling. 

kalyd-ni-nan-ldza  ...  he  is  tired  (with  walking). 

kalyd-ni-tan-idza ....  they  are  tired  (ditto) . 

kalye-ne  ninna-cha . .  I  am  tired  (ditto) . 

toth-ne-zin-alnilza. . .  I  am  tired  with  paddling. 

teth«ne-ni-nan-ilza-  are  you  tired  with  pad- 

uza  ?  dling  ? 

nu-a-edzon>illa he  is  there. 

ey-a-hilla he  is  sick  or  ill. 

ey-a-hdzle I  am  sick. 

edzil he  is  wet. 

dzedzil I  am  wet. 

ch&s-inninne*ai a  knot. 

ch&s-nos-al ! tie  a  knot ! 

I  will  tie  a  knot. 

chaa-ninne-al he  has  tied  a  knot. 

tey-kunnd-takh it  has  become  looae ;    it 

is  loose, 

tey-kunne-arlth ;  ney-  he  has  untied  it. 

ke-urth. 

pey-ke-urth loose  it  (a  knot) ;  open  it. 

kalthonna-pey-ke-urth  I  have  loosened  it. 

ey-kd-urrth I  have  untied  it. 

peino-harre-kluk  ....  I  gave  him  a  blue  eye. 

zunno-arrd-kluck  ....  he  gave  me  a  blue  eye. 

per-il-thilth  ! warm  it  (as  a  garment  at 

the  fire). 

yi-dr-il-thilth he  warms  it. 

kuda-ber-iUthilth  ...  I  have  already  warmed  it. 

thein-'t&  ! sit  down ! 

ey-er-thein-ta  ! sit  here  !   (here  sit !) 

neltS he  sits. 

hed-nilthi they  sit. 

thi-t& I  sit.  .  .  i 


mmmm 


•i 


CHEPEWYAN  VOCABULARY. 


505 


3r. 
bnother. 


;   relate 
ions. 

alking). 

tto). 

addling, 
ith  pad- 


lose  ;    it 


[open  it. 


eye. 
le  eye. 
Inent  at 


Irmed  it. 

0 


Crec,  of  Carlton  House. 

Kit'appin-n&  ? 

Ki-wi-appin-ni[  ? 

Ashamin  1 

Kiga-aahami-tin 

Michema ;  hughes .... 

Aspun-ishew 

Chepewyan  of  Athabasca. 

thin-ta-uzang  ? 

unta-uzang 

bega-van-ilchu  !  . .  . . 

ne-a-urchu 

bet-ho 

English, 
are  you  sitting? 
do  you  wish  to  eat  ? 
give  me  food  to  eat ! 
I  will  give  you  food  to  eat. 
meat    and    drink  •     food  • 

&-&-ontzun 

victuals, 
he  ia    niggardly   (of  his 

victuals) . 
mingle  them ;  add  one  to 

another, 
it  ia  hidilrn. 

Assitln& 

^Itan-nil^ 

A-sustatin 

Kiga.kasustatin 

As-8we-te-u 

necha-itu8-'i 

te-ye-th^lla 

te-y^-y^lla 

te-ye-ila 

bega-etu-u-elnd 

zeth^-sekor-u-eln^ .  . . 

pa-us-o-^la^ 

na-seil-hitcbe 

ne-etel 

hung-ya;  huya 

hong-she-a 

I  will   hide  myself  from 

you. 
it  is  in  (a  bag), 
he  puts  it  in. 
I  put  it  in. 
be  on  your  guard  against 

him. 
be  on  your  guard  against 

me. 
I  will  be  on   my  guard 

against  him. 
he  gives  a  side  glance  to 

a  girl, 
it  is  broad. 

he  is  wise  or  knowing, 
he  is  wise  or  prudent, 
he  is  abstemious. 

As-swe-tfi.u 

Int'atjwetan 

Aswethim 

Aswithi.mm 

• 

Ing'aswithi-mow  .... 

Atchis-chapum-wd-u  . 

Athftg-uskow 

Athin-isew;  eythiniseu 
Int'sip>gathi-nisSn  .  . . 
Athinew 

Atusk^-u 

e-hul-ana 

e-walaana 

na-inni ! 

he  labors. 

Int'atuskaim 

Atta-wanna !  (imp.) .  . 
Ki-wi-atta-wanna  ?  .  . 

Atta-wa-gun 

Atta-thow-ki  1 

Atte-mishi-k&-te-u  . . . 
Atte-mi-she-u 

I  labor, 
barter !  trade  I 

na-ukh-uneuza  ?  . . . . 

yu 

sel-honninnd ! 

Honne 

necha-ladi-nelthun  .  . 

will  you  barter  ? 

goods  for  trade. 

tell  a  story  or  fable. 

a  story. 

he  grows  bigger. 

it  grows  bigger. 

it  is  ripe  or  mellow. 

she  dyes  or  tinges  it. 

I  dye  it. 

he  overtakes. 

Atikh-te-u 

neuth-lurth 

udedza  

Artisum 

Int'atisain 

uridza 

Atima-ow 

Int'atima-ow 

Ing' atima-ow 

Int'atimik 

ne-ni-esha 

ben-nisha-lille 

I  overtook  him. 

I  will  overtake  him. 

he  overtook  me. 

Int'atimahuk 

he  overtook  me  (by  water) . 

they  fly  from  us  (birds). 

he  is  choking. 

I  am  choking. 

I  wish  to  be  your  friend. 

keep  oflf!  let  me  alone! 

Atimi-thowuk 

Attohu 

nar-helteth  ........ 

tchirr-ilte 

Int'attohun 

tchirr-este 

Ki-wi-au-tote  mSmitin 
A-wusB  ]  a-wussete !  . 

et-te-to-tin-in-uste  . . 
nuse ! 

I       ! 


-1    ■. 


ioa 


VUCABULARICS  OF  NORTH   AMERICA. 


Cree,  of  Carlton  House.         Chepewyan  of  Athabasca. 


EnKllah. 


E 
e-atchi-inyu-wiikli 


Ek-kw& 

epetche-kiahi-wukk . 
Eskann-shi-ka-uii .  . 
Eskwai-atch-tchi- 

tchan 
Esputtinow 


et>dunni-'tinu^ Indians  of  a  strange  na- 
tion. 

yah a  louse. 

yelkon dawn  of  day. 

edte-thidzi a  horn  comb. 

tinne-la-dthaillc-dzilla     the  last  or  little  finger. 


Ethik-kwatin 
Ethiko-pew.  . 
Ethikwuk  . .  . 
Etiskew  .... 


kokkarritha. 
ne-edja  .  . . . 


tchaiiti  . 
elvci-glio 


S-a-h&-u;  or,  ya-ha-u! 
E-a*kusin ;  thah-kusin 


oy ! 

nedtha  .  . . . 
Ned-tarrilla 


E-apitch 


eka 

epetche-kiiihikak  .  . . 

Ekushi-kak 

Kishi'kow;  kisgow.  . 
ekospi ;  eg-giispi  .  . . 
e-okwo-piikku ...... 

Eskwai-atch 

Espimmi-sik 

Espimmik 

etakkusik 

Ethipinne-ok-tapo-an 
Etippiskak 


Na  teille. 
hila 


e-aske-u 


Int'e-askann 

Ekau-wltha ! 

Entau-wi 

E-ukh-tinne-gate-u  . . 

E-ukhte-nammuk  .  . .  . 

E-ukhte-num 

Ne-ukhte-nain 

etapoy-ikhta 

Ethepo-akwow ;    nepo- 

akwow  ;       athin-ni- 

scvr 
Ey-thin.akht^k 


dzitho 

dzine 

klasing-tinge-vaiye . 

ashmoh 

no-ontd  

i-yaze-bek^ 

beke 

the-dzini-ghe 

oti-a-elthe 

hedkleghe 

Dza-kin 

dza-kin-nannelya  .  . 


peta-harelta ;  peta-ha- 

elta 
peta-klell 


bethna-ilkia 
huya 


eln 


high  ground ;  a  bank  {une 

cote) . 
hoar  frost— hoar  frost, 
hoar  frost — rimy- 
ants, 
foot-mark  or  track  of  an 

animal, 
ha !  (interj.) 
light. 

not  heavy, 
still  •  quift. 
it  stirs  ri.-.t. 
not. 

as  the  day  was  coming, 
by  day. 
the  day. 
at  that  time, 
only  that, 
last. 

a  little  above, 
above, 
yesterday, 
truly, 
by  night; 
beaver  lodge, 
he  breaks    up  a    beaver 

lodge. 
I  break  up  a  beaver  lodge, 
do  not ! 

go  and  open  it. 
it  is  opened. 

open  ye  it. 

he  opened  it. 

I  opened  it. 

mix  it ;  stir  it. 

he  is  wise->knowing. 


small   spruce    fir    («^6<>i 
balsanten) . 


vif  \  i'»'-vj,i<yT-.j 


CIIEPEWVAX    VOt   \WLMIlY. 


Wl 


e  na- 


ger. 
i  {unt 

)St. 

of  an 


(ling. 


beaver 
lodge. 


lbit$ 


Chepewyan,  orAthn  ^asca. 

tchith<tcho 

ultaUye 


'dtinne 


Tree,  of  Curlton  Moum. 
£y-thin-attu-MhiHhip.  . 
£y-thinni-kannu-she-u 

Ey-thinni-mina 

Ey-thinni-pithey-u  .  . . 
Ey-thin-yu  (P.  eythin- 

yu-wukk). 
Int'ey-apa-huk 

Tans-ey-sinikas8ort  ?  . 
Tans-ey-aini-kasHU- 

yun? 
Tanna-si-te-kateg-  

oma? 

Init.  I.  sounded  a$  is. 

I-a-pit 

Kah-nup-&te-i-a-pit  . .     nakith. . .  . 

Tann-ike  ? etla-djah  ? 

Tann-ikh-te-an  ? 


etla-hulyd  ? .  . . 
ey-la-hiinlye  ? . 


atook  iuck(^>i     hotchai), 

a  pike  or  ja<;k. 

bilberries. 

Canada  grou: 

an  Indian  of  the  apeak- 

er's  nation, 
he  made  my  eye  ache  by 

a  blow, 
what  is  his  name  ? 
what  is  your  name  ? 

how  do  you  call  this  ? 


Iste-kwa-nan  ;      U8t8- 
kwan ;  mistekwan 

Int'istekwanan 

Niste-kwan 

Uta-petche-itote !   .... 

Nete4tote  ! 

Tanti-wy-i-tukh-te-an? 

TCH. 


edthi the  head. 


he  has  an  eye  on  one  side, 
what  is  the  matter  ? 
what  is  the  matter  with 
you!" 


zedthi-ey-a. 
zedthi  


e-o-ku-si ! 

^•o-ku-si-nek-iltkh ! . 
etla-se-nek-&ltkh  ? . . 


Tchakkatinow 
Tchi-ke-kum  . 
Tchi-tche 


Tchi-ka-Sgan 

Tchi-ka-Sgan-akthik . . 
Tchcuk-sa-Sgan 


Tche-rnin 

Tchi-pai  (P.  -pa-ukk) 


shethi-azd   

shith 

'tinnila-theyl  le 

{man's  toe) 
thell;  kong*kwi. . . 

thell-tchinnd   

klell-thelth ;  thleh- 

kon 

tsi ;  alle 

ethi-a 


Tchi-pai-uktim 


Tchi-pai-ukk  {dance  of    ne-elkai , 

the  dead) 

Pet&pan yel-kon , 

0>wanni-wagan 

Tchis-a-wan pernatal 

Tchiu-ke-pi-son dza-thulth 

Tchi8-ta-ba>8un ......  pan-neyla ;  luneyle . 

Tchi8ta-8^>p0wln pd-o-koyl 


my  head  aches. 

my  head. 

come  hither ! 

go  there  or  thither ! 

where  are  you  going  ? 


a  knoll ;  small  hill, 
a  wart, 
a  finger. 

a  hatchet. 

a  hatchet  helve. 

a  gim  flint. 

a  canoe. 

a  dead  body  ;  the  de- 
ceased. 

you  dead  dog!  an  oppro- 
brious  epithet. 

Aurora  borealia. 

dawn  of  day. 

dusk  of  the  evening. 

a  hash,  or  haggis. 

a  garter. 

a  button ;  wn  anchor. 

a  fork. 


"41 


Awt                           VOCABULARIES  OP   NORTH 

Croe,  ofCarlton  Ilouiie.       Chepewyan,  of  Athabasca. 
Tchiata«ka>WH-8ew  . .  •      thcr-onmi 

AMERICA. 

En|Ush. 
a  wasp, 
ft  teal  (^na$  ditcori). 

tobacco. 

it  is  short. 

a  blackbird  ( Scolephagus) . 

not  many. 

true,  truly;  verily. 

do  vou  doubt  it?    it  is                         i 

Tchista-ka-nan-wU 

ship 
Tchistem-ow 

el-karre  (pine-leaf 
duck) 

B6l-tu-V6 

Tchimtn-ashSn   

ned-tu-a  

Tchuk-tchuk-athu ; 
tchuk-tchuk-ai-u 

Tchika.wa-sis 

Tchi-kima 

tadzon-zelle 

yaze  (few) 

ta-tu-ahadde 

ta-tu  ?  

Tchi-kima-numma  ?  . . 

f 


n 


Tchi-ka-ka-win ne-o-ka  .... 

'Tchist !  tchiste  I 'tchu  ! 

Tchuppasis pei-y4-thi . . 

N'tcha-k&-pft-huk ....  dzenoy-Inke 

N'tch&-k&-pi-chi-nin . .  dzd-noy-eke 


Tchep-wow 

Tches-kwft ;  tches- 

kwa-pitta ! 
Tchitchei-mi-kiiskwe- 

8U 

Tchika-ai-g^-u 

Ne-tchlka-iggan 

Tchi-kd-si-B^-u 

Tchi-ke-si-se-ft-wukk 
Tchi-kwa-ha-m^-u  . . . 

Ing&-tchi-kwa-hain . . . 
Tchi-pe-tukk-wow .... 
Ni-ghe-tchi-pusti-ha-u 

Wa-was-ki-shu 

Oya-peyu-mus-tus .... 

Nosia-mustua 

'\V&-pis-tftnn  

Si-kak 

Si-ku-sew ;  sigus 

Winusk 

"Winuste-key 

Wapusk 

Apek-ku-sis 

Shi-shi-pise 

Key-ask ;  kai-ask  .... 


kai-intchuthe , 
karre ! 


pe-'kunne-neltu-ye  . . 

thelth-ta-nai-ilkh- 

thelth 
thelth-ta-nai-ilkh> 

then 
dzere-hai-eile 


belekh-hered-ye 


tel-klukk 

thilk-taa 

tse-thil 

ettirre-yS-ne . .  . 
ettirre-su-ta-ha 

tha 

nult-si-ai 

del-kathlei  .... 
tel-leh 


Okkau;  uka. 
Miki-iew  . . . 


sass-del-gai  . . . 

tlunne 

elgarre 

bess-gai-d 

Kallei 

Bekhu-hulia . . . 

ettchu>e 

ded-donnd-tcho 


true, 
close  to  the  shore, 
hist  I  listen  I  look  ! 
below ;  underneath, 
he  poked  it  (a  finger  or 

stick)  into  my  eye. 
it  has  run  into  my  eye  (a 

stick), 
it  tapers, 
wait !  wait  a  little  ! 

he  or  it  has  short  nails. 

he  hews  with  a  hatchet. 

I  hew  with  a  hatchet. 

he  plays  at  draughts, 
they  play  at  draughts, 
he  crumbles  the   leaves 
(rubs  them  to  powder) . 
I  will  crumble  the  leaves, 
it  is  light  blue. 
I  put  it  with  my  arrow, 
the  wapiti, 
bison  bull, 
bison  cow. 
a  marten, 
a  skunk, 
an  ermine. 

a  marmot  or  spermophile. 
a  Quebec  marmot, 
white  bear, 
a  mouse, 
a  teal, 
a  gull, 
a  plover. 
Salmo  mackenzii. 
Dorh  -f 

an  eagle.       "•••::  :<•••' -i— 


H^.;^ 


iXiUlUB    VOCABULARY. 


000 


ut). 


t  is 


r  or 

re  (a 


il8. 

het. 

t. 


\yr- 


lile. 


,Cree,  of  Carlton  IIouHe.       Chcpewyan,  of  AthabMca. 

Aha-acw dadsang 

Ottoni-bis the-chuthe 


Namay-pith 

O-wi-pi-tchl-sw 

Nipe ;  nipi 

The-kwu.s-kwun 

KuHku-wunuMk 

Kitihi-kau ;  kU-gau ; 

wa-pan 

Ki-ki-ship 

Apikh'tow-kishi-kau 

{middle-day) 
Pakkisimu  {twi-nc)   , . 
Tippis-kak ;  tippiskau 

Mitttiko-tcheman 

Wini-pegh 

Thaka-stiinmun-aigan 

Paak^-seggun-nis 

Kitch^-kuman 

Tappis-kA-gan 

Mokasin  ;  muskesln  .  . 
Tippisk&^wi  'peahim.  . 

Keaik  ;   kishik 

Pinasi-wuk 

Wa-waskhsta-punu ; 

ow&-8&niuak 

Kunu ;  kon& 

Miakwumi 

Piki-se-u  (it  i«  foggy) . 


till-tulei  . . 
thli4-dath6 
tu ;  to ... . 


kothd . 


kambi . . . . 
taind^aaai : 


tchilain 


tetsin-tai 

tu-tcho 

taini-ball  .... 
telgurthe*yaze 
b^aa-tcho  .... 
kothi-ghirre  .  . 

ke 

eltai  

yaha 

edihi 

tainago-thethi . 


Utin ;  th*w-tm' 
Atchimow  .  . .  . 


Ni-ku-mun  . 

Mitzu 

Wappamow 


yath  .  . 
ti-enn  . . 
etzil  .  .  . 
Hothin  . 
Nahalgi 
niltsi.  .  . 
yalthi  .  . 
Netghin 


tchdli 

etethi 

Ureltha-nelai . 
Su-sinne  .  .  .  . 


EngUHh. 
an  American  crow. 
Coregonus  arttdi  (TulU- 

bee) . 
CatattomuB. 
Hiodon. 
water, 
it  ia  cloudy, 
cloud  a. 
day;  day-light. 

morning. 
noon. 

evening. 

night. 

a  boat. 

the  aea. 

a  sail. 

a  piatul. 

a  a  word  (big  knife). 

a  handkerchief. 

a  shue. 

the  moon. 

the  aky. 

thunder. 

lightning. 

anow. 

ice. 

fog. 

froat. 

thaw. 

wind. 

to  apeak. 

to  aing. 

a  aong. 

to  eat. 

to  aee. 

to  hear  from  you. 

a  great  happineaa. 


The  following  words  of  Dog-rib  were  collected  by  myself  at 
Fort  Confidence.  The  want  of  a  good  interpreter  caused  me  to 
discontinue  the  formation  of  a  vocabulary  of  this  dialect. 

Dog- Rib  Vocabulary. 


Dog-Rib  of  Fort 
Confldence. 


English. 

A  kettle tille. 

Large  ditto  ....     tille-tcho 


English. 

Little  kettle 
Fire 


Do|-Rib,  of  Foit 
Confldence. 

tille-yaze. 
kun. 


510 


VOCABULARIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Fire-wood bus. 

Gunpowder  ....  tel-kithe-kun. 

Shot teUkithe-ka. 

Shot-pouch  ....  tel-ketha. 

Ball tel-kethi-'tcho. 

No  meat ! par-ulla ! 

Dried  ribs  of  rein-  dtcharna  ;        et- 

deer  chanka. 

Water to. 

A  tin  pan thai. 

A  coat,  or  capot .  i. 

A  blanket zidda   (tzud-di-e, 

(Mr.  O'Brian). 

Indian  hose  ....  thelth. 

Hair theo-ya. 

The  beard     ....  tarra. 

A  crooked  knife,  bess-ha. 

A  knife bess. 

A  knife  sheath  .  bess-thd. 

A  fork pakwa. 

Snow tzill ;  tchill. 

Smoke thlet. 

A  stone thai. 

A  brisket ana-rane  ;  ei  yid- 

da. 

The  shoulder  .  . .  akkanna. 

Leg     bone     or  ak-kai-tchinna. 

knuckle 

A  firebrand  ....  halai-kun. 

A  tent nepalle. 

Tent  poles thai-e. 

Transverse  poles  tane-ai. 

to  hang  meat 

upon 

Tent  door ku-latche. 

Leathern  door  for  thidai-nepalle. 

tent 

Dressed  leathern  tel. 

blanket 


EnirliBh  Dog-Rib,  of  Fort 

jsngnsn.  Confidence. 

A  spark  from  the  kantida. 

fire 

Reindeer    tongue  et-thu. 

Deer-skin  hose.  .  et-thidda. 

Breeches thlai-i. 

Deer  head et-thi. 

A  shoe ku. 

Cloth    worn    by  than. 

men  round  the 

middle 

A  bag naltchd;  klethd. 

A  hatchet thelth. 

A  spoon thlus,  or  slus. 

A  file koketha. 

Polo  for  hanging  telle-kaiza. 

a  kettle  npon 

Buttons pai-illa. 

Mittens gis. 

The  head ta. 

The  nose tinnetze. 

The  knee et-thStha. 

An  encampment  zutes. 

The  encampment  in-tu-e-zut^g. 

is  distant 

The  encampment  thi-si-te-zutes. 

is  near 

A  warm  woolen  kow-i-tchitha. 

collar ;   a  com- 
forter 

One 'nthlare. 

Two  . .    - nakhke. 

Three khtarre. 

Four 'tinge. 

Five zazunlarre. 

Six elkatharre. 

Seven nthlazintinge. 

Eight alkatinge. 

Nine 'nthla-otta. 

Ten 'nthla-una. 


The  vocabularies  which  follow  were  made  by  gentlemen  whose 
system  of  orthography  varies  more  or  less  from  that  adopted  in  the 
preceding  pages.  The  dialects  of  the  Dog-ribs  who  resort  to  Great 
Bear  Lake,  and  of  those  who  hunt  on  Marten  Lake  and  visit  Fort 
Siii.pson,  differ  little  when  spoken,  and  oflfer  no  difficulty  to  an  in- 
terpreter who  is  acquainted  with  either ;  but  many  of  the  words 
have  a  very  diHTerent  aspect  when  written  in  English  characters; 
and  these  tables  may  serve  to  illustrate  a  remark  made  in  a  pre- 


Fort 

ce. 


I 


lethe. 


les. 

ites. 

:ha. 


►ge. 


^hose 

In  the 

iGreat 

Fort 

tn  in- 

rords 

^ters; 

pre- 


DOG  RIB  VOCABULARY. 


511 


ceding  pnge  respecting  the  difficulty  which  nn  English  ear  experi- 
ences in  apprehending  the  sounds  of  the  Tinne  languages.  The 
Kutchin  words  collected  by  Mr.  M'Murray,  though  not  numerous, 
show  a  close  affinity  between  the  language  spoken  by  that  people 
and  the  Tinne,  and  will  perhaps  be  considered  as  a  proof  of  the 
common  origin  of  the  Tinne  and  the  Kolush  tribes  down  to  the 
54th  parallel  of  latitude. 


English. 

Head 

Neck 

Tongue  

Eyes 

Ears 

Nose 

Cheeks,  chin  .  . 
Shoulders  .... 

Thighs 

Brisket 

Rump 

Belly 

Hands 

Feet 

Fingers 

Nails 

Teeth 

Brain 

Liver  

Heart 

Blood 

Skull 

Entrails 

Udder ;  milk  .  . 

Butter 

Flour 

Sugar 

Tea 


Pepper . . 
Medicine 
Paper  .  . 


Dog-Rib. 
bet-thi. 
bdi-korh. 
eth-thadu. 
mendi. 
bed-ze-gai. 
mi-gou. 
mi-ta. 
ai-kon-nai. 
ed-zaddai. 
a-eihin. 
etchin-iiai. 
be-tcliuki. 
mila. 
ak-kai. 

mila-tchinnai. 
mila-konnai. 
baighu. 
bet-the-ghu. 
et-hut. 
ed-zai. 
et-tlUai. 
et-thi-thu-ine. 
ct-si-si. 
et-tuzai. 

edgiddai-thlissai. 
hatai-kotliss. 
suka. 
suka-tu     {sugar 

water) . 
tenni-tsi. 
na-diddu. 
eddithi. 


English. 

Go! 

Come!.  , .  . 

Take !  

Cut ! 

Bring! .  . .  . 

Hunt ! 

Large  .  .  .  , 


Small 

Long 

Short 

Far 

Near 

Cry! 

Laugh ! 

Speak!   or  talk! 
How  many  ?  .  . . 
What     do     you 
want  ? 

Heavy 

Light 

High 

Low 

Good 

Bad 

Fat 

Lean 

Eat! 

Drink ! 

Smoke ! 

Sleep ! 

Give ! 

Tell ! 


Dog-Rib. 
aga ! 
ya-kusi ! 
hi-tcho  ! 
bekan-nethu  I 
si-nekai. 
no-sai. 
nai-tcha. 
ti-ula. 
nundeth. 
nundeth-helai. 
nitlia. 
wha-yai. 
azel ! 

mena-thi-ukla  I 
betha ! 
tanna-itai  ? 
addow-adlia  ? 

tai-it. 

naikel-helai. 
yu-te-gai. 
u-ai. 
naisou. 
tlenai. 
tiaika. 
tiaika-helai. 
shanai-tai ! 
ath-uluston ! 
ustud ! 
notai ! 
mi-ne-kai ! 
adin-dai ! 


The  above  vocabulary  was  formed,  I  believe,  at  Fort  Simpson, 
by  one  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  officers  for  his  own  use ;  but,  having 
forgotten  to  note  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  drawn  up, 
I  can  give  no  further  information  regarding  it. 


512 


VOCABULARIES  OF  NORTH   AMERICA. 


m 


I: 


tnigra- 


A  Vocabulary  of  Fort  Simpson  Dog-Rib,  by  Mr.  O'Brian  op 
THE  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 

Dog-Kib.  English. 

Edza-zinne  ....  Tetrao  umbellus. 

Tih Tetrao  canadensis 

Bet-theu owl. 

Thlu-ai Coregontu  albus. 

Samba trout. 

Kaz^ salmon. 

Tsai-teu Back's  grayling. 

Tai-tellai Catastomus. 

Klogai squirrel. 

Emmu-i-u-ai.  .  .  Columba 

toria. 

Khun fire. 

Tu water. 

Tchon rain. 

Yah enow. 

Teu ice. 

Sa sun 

Tethi-aa moon. 

Thi-u stars. 

Kose clouds. 

E-tu-ai girl. 

Ah snow-shoes. 

Kai shoes. 

Whoghi snare. 

Thai sinew. 

Do now. 

Ye- won then. 

Tau-dezzei half. 

Mal-lionai rings. 

Hai-ai trowsers. 

Memba-ulai ....  waistcoat. 

Tsi vermilion. 

Sat-su-wai  ....  wire  snare. 

Sfis black  bear. 

Sa-tai-kuzd  ....  brown  bear. 

Tsa beaver. 

Tsa-thu-ai castoreum. 

Tai-tchesi mink. 

Tzin musk-rat. 

Teki wolf. 


Dog-Rib. 

English 

Noga 

wolverene. 

Kling 

dog. 

Tzus 

wood  fire. 

Tai-tchin 

trees. 

Tzu 

pine-tree. 

Ki 

birch. 

Sinnai 

I. 

Tlinnai 

thou. 

Ottinai 

he. 

Ige 

it. 

Edetata 

yes. 

Helai ;    odelis  .  . 

no. 

Id-zeunai 

to-day. 

Kambai 

to-morrow. 

Zeunai 

day. 

Tethi 

night. 

Yakh-kai 

winter. 

Klukai 

spring. 

Senai 

summer. 

Ai-tonkai 

autumn. 

Tai-chin-ala  .  . . 

boat. 

Ki-ala 

canoe. 

Tami 

net. 

Tau-ai-on 

full. 

Tu-tai 

empty. 

Tlon 

plenty. 

Hulai 

none. 

Tzuddi-^ 

a  blanket. 

Tai-si-ai 

a  shirt. 

Ed-geid-dai .... 

a  powder-horn 

Mad-deli 

buttons. 

Thai-on-tithei  .  . 

thread. 

Et-thai-ai 

scissors. 

Meni-di-e-dai .  . . 

looking-glass. 

Ai-tchusai 

beads. 

Ai-tai 

ice-chisel. 

Bai-huch 

crooked  knife. 

Bai-chin-ai-i  .  .  . 

clasp. 

Bed-do-ai-du .  . . 

pot. 

Tha 

pan. 

The  foIlowiDg  vocabulary  of  the  language  of  a  tribe  dwelling 
near  the  sources  of  the  River  of  the  Mountains,  and  known  to  the 
voyagers  by  the  name  of  "  Mauvais  Monde,"  and  of  the  Dog-rib 
dialect,  was  drawn  up  by  Mr.  O'Brian,  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany's service. 


.-.^"^J^fku 


"MAUVAK  MONDE"  VOCABULARY^ 


513 


ln  of 


m. 


niing 

Ithe 

i-rib 

)in- 


Maavais  Monde. 

Thdlgai 

Olki-e 

Ta-dette 

Tinghi 

Sazelli 

Et-seu-ti 

Thiad  za-di-e 

Et-zan-di-e 

Et-thlei-hu-lai 

Ken-na-tai 

El-lai-zai'i*' 

5ai-ka 

Ni-tai-ton 

Ai-tai-kai 

Et-ton-nai 

E-tha-thai-on 

Utha 

Thei 

Ai-tchut 

Bess 

Ta-chill-ai 

Kestu-ai  

Theth 

Kothegettai 

Set-tsa-tai 

Hai. 

A-tai-kai-tenney 

Ta-ti-e 

Thai-ka 

Et-hai-al 

£-kadzi 

Ai-kathai-tai  ....... 

Klai-si 

U-thai 

Ustaidgd 

Ustai 

Kasho 

Wollon 

Intsei  

Wod-su-tchu 

Wod-su-mon-bed-sai .  . 

K&g-kalai 

Ogha-tchai 

Ea-sai 

U-ta-dja 

Niton 

Setsa-on  

*  Tbia  word  i« 


Dog-Rib,  or  Slave.  Engliah 

thlie one. 

olki-e two. 

ti-e three. 

tinghe four. 

sazelli;     lakithe,    the  five. 

hand. 

et-seu-ti six. 

han-die seven. 

et-zan-di-e eight. 

ethli-e-houlai nine. 

o-nai-u-non ten. 

tel-kithi-kun gunpowder 

tel-kithi-tcho ball. 

thai-thi shot. 

sel-tu-e tobacco. 

tel-kith^ gun. 

hai-ko gun-flint. 

tiu-ni-e kettle. 

thei ax. 

ai-tchut awl. 

b^ss knife. 

et-ley-nai cloth  (strouds) . 

ai coat  (capot). 

theth leggings  ;  also  a  belt. 

Edgiddai powder-horn. 

ko-the-gat handkerchief. 

tsa bonnet-cap. 

kun fire-steel. 

seltu-tenne tobacco-box. 

ta-ti needle. 

ko-kasse file. 

baith-laika scissors. 

kud-dai gun-worm. 

sa-kathai-tai garters. 

sa-tai-kai gt&y  bear. 

no-githi fox. 

no-ta lynx. 

no-thai marten. 

nom-be-ai otter 

teu-di-e male  moose-deer. 

teu-di-etse female  moose-deer. 

bed-su male  reindeer. 

bed-su-tsi female  reindeer. 

kam'ba    ptarmigan. 

ogha goose. 

tai-tonna-tcho eagle. 

uti pike-Ash. 

monalla white  man. 

tchikwe woman. 

used  also  by  the  Beaver  and  Ttiekanni  Indiana. 


'614 


VOtABULARlEiS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Mauvais  Monde.  Dog-Rib,  or  Slave. 

Te-sonnai tchillawe 

Klu-chu-i-nai bai-tchinai 

Sunbaddei dsheth 


English, 
boy. 
sled, 
mittens. 


A  Vocabulary  of  Chepewyan  and  Dog-Rib  Words. 

The  Chepewyan  was  taken  down  from  the  mouth  of  the  inter- 
preter at  Great  Slave  Lake.  The  Dog-rib  from  that  of  the  femule 
interpreter  (Nanette)  at  Fort  Simpson.     The  whole  in  1844. 

J.  H.  Lefroy. 

Toronto,  March,  1850. 

Broad,  '  nasal,  '  guttural,  "  nasal  and  guttural. 


English. 

Yes! 

No! 

A  man 

A  woman 

A  little  girl 

A  boy 

A  little  boy , 

Father 

Mother 

Brother,  elder 

"        younger.  . .  . 

Sister,  elder 

"       younger  

To-morrow 

Yesterday 

Tobacco  

A  knife 

A  gun 

An  ax 

Gunpowder , 

Ball  .  . , 

Air 

Fire 

Water    

Earth 

A  fish 

A  dog 

A  fox 

A  buffalo,  masculine . 
"        feminine.  . 

Reindeer 

A  moose 

Snow-shoes 

A  sled 

A  kettle 


Chepewyan. 

e-h! 

he-li 

denne  

tza-qui-ie  .  . 
ett-er-e-ka .  .  ■ 
tchilla-qui-ie. 
tza-qui-the  . . 

tza-tah 

en-ne 

tzoon-noi  .  . , 


ssa-ra 


kom  pee 

ou-ah-ta-tzenke 
tza-twe 


pa-as 

thel-ki-the 

than-thye 

thel-ki-the-conne .  . 
thel-ke-the-chou  .  . , 

nutze 

kkon 

tto 

wa-kklas 

clou-a 

cling 

no-ki-ki-the 

et-cherre 


eet-than  .  . .  . 

den-nee  

ah-he 

betch-chin-ne 
tille 


Dog-Rib. 

he-li. 

tchel-a-qui. 

tzek-qui. 

tzek-qui-azzd. 

tenai-u. 

tenai-u-azzo. 

tza-tah. 

en-ne. 

tzoon-noi. 

tzachilli. 

sa-rah,  or  tza-rah. 

sa-tez-zah,  or  tza-tazze* 

koume. 

ye-hho-a. 

tza-twe. 

pa-as. 

qua-ka-he. 

qua-a-qui. 

thi-ke-e-connl. 

the-ke-e-chou. 

e-at-ti-ge. 

kkon. 

two. 

ko-eccla. 

clou-a. 

ble. 

e-et-tha-tha. 

et-cherri. 

"       ettzae. 
et-thun  (ettzae,  f.) 
denne-a. 
a-e, 

ba-chen-ne. 
than-ne. 


K 


»  inter- 
femule 
14. 

ROY. 


;azze* 


CIIEPEWYAN    AND  DOG  RIB  VOCABULARIES. 

English.  Chepewj-an.  Dog-Rib. 

Evening eetzson eya-kka-ezza. 

Morning kompe sa-tcho. 

Colors — black tel-zonne ta-zuii. 

white tel-ka-ye tel-ka. 

red tel  kkosse et-tel-kkop. 

green ta-ecloze ta-eck-cles. 

blue not  distinguished  from  ten-^-cle. 

black 

yellow tel-tUoi tel-thoi. 

The  sun ssa ssa. 

The  moon et-cha-aza tthe-tha-za. 

A  star thun than. 

(The  Great  Bear)  ....  (ya-ec-telli)   (ya-tha.) 


519 


M 


English. 

Snow 

Ice 

Numerals — 1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
20 


Good 
Bad. 


Beautiful . 


Ugly  . 
Large  , 

Small 
Heavy . 
Light  , 
Dark  . 
Bright 
Low  . 
High  . 
Hard. 
Soft .  . , 
New   . 


Dog-Rib. 

yya. 

t-than. 

en-clai. 

na-kka. 

tta-rgha. 

tting. 

sa-soo-la. 

ut-ke>ttai. 

kkosing-ting. 

etzenting. 

kka-hooli. 

ho-nanna. 

nou-uanna. 

naa-zo. 

naa-zo-heli ; 

dzoun-de. 
bur-a-oonde ; 

tzoo-na-e-ti. 
pa-chi-ri. 
natza-konde;  in- 

cha. 
tzoo-ta. 
net-ta ;  hiiika. 
hin-ka-he-li. 
tel-zen. 
atz-za. 
ne-otzin-ik. 
tan-ne-e-tha. 
tan-y-eet. 
taa-yeet-heli. 
e-e-yes-e. 


English. 

Old 

Dear  (beloved) 


Wise  .  . 
Foolish 
Strong . 
Weak  . 


Right  

Left   

My  friend  .  . . . 
My  companion , 

Head 

Eyes 

Nose 

Mouth 

Ears 

Hair 

Tongue  

Teeth 

Neck , 

Arm 

Hand 

Foot 

Legs 

Canoe  paddle  , 

Here 

There 

Where  ? 

When 


Dog-Rib. 

c-e-ranna. 

The  word  un- 
known to  the 
language.* 

koo-rac-yon. 

na-a-ghal. 

na-tz-ap. 

pa-a-ttha-to- 
rghelli. 

nochnesse. 

intzesse. 

t^a-teleg-ga. 

tza-onenya. 

tzat-tho. 

tzen-nhae. 

tze-etze. 

tze-tha. 

setz-r-rgha. 

setz-the-rgha. 

tze-tthou. 

tze-w-who  ? 

tze-e-e-cottle. 

t/    ■    -chmne. 

D  ^t  k»  *i  il  a 

tze-ka. 

tze-thunna. 

oia ;  tho. 

d-jahn. 

a-c-ya. 

djhan-tin  ? 

kkonde. 


*  I  endeavored  to  put  this  intelligibly  to  Nanette,  by  supposing  such  an  expression  as 
ma  chire  remme,  ma  ch^re  fille.  When  at  length  she  understood  it,  her  reply  was  (with 
great  emphasis) :  '*  I'  dit  jamais  (8.    V  dit  ma  fiemme,  ma  fille." 


.516 


VOCABULARIES  Or  NORTH  AMERICA. 


English.  Dog-Rib. 

Which mee. 

What  ? et-cloy  ? 

To  me czen-ez-etze. 

To  him ne-ghon-em-etze. 

To  you ne-nin-etze. 

To  us e-e-cla-toon-nim- 

etze. 

I     don't     under-  ne-ad-'hear-des- 

Btand  tha-helili. 

I    don't    speak  (same     sentence 

Cree  taken  down.) 

I   won't   give   it  na    'rha    tchou- 

you  heli. 

I  will  give  it  to  na   'rha    ochou- 

you  eze. 

What  shall  I  give  than-etcha-na- 

you  for  this  ?  rha-ocla-haze? 


English. 

Take  care 

Make  haste  .... 
Get  out  (va  t'en) 
Where  is  it?  .  .  . 
Carry  this  for  me 
Don't  touch  that 
What     do     you 

want  ? 
What     do     you 

want  for  this  ? 

Give  me  a  piece 

of  tobacco 
I  have  no  tobacco 

Hold  this 

Whose  is  this?. 


Dog-Rib. 
ca-re. 

aga-annite. 
or-rhink-la. 
ye-in-kon-ecla  ? 
sse-ragh-di-ach. 
perrone-te-sonna. 
na-nu-at-cloy  ? 

etcha-nette-ousa- 

nousa-ou-sin- 

ne? 
tza-twe-tza-gan- 

a-two., 
tza-twe-ta-oo- 

twe. 
Ou-net-ton. 
me-etze-hande  ? 


I 


THE  END. 


.■..■ri-m^.wi.->^:i.s-«  :.> ti-.-.a.--  iv^.  .g—r 


Dog-Rib. 
e. 

-annite. 
[link-la. 
u-kon-ecla  ? 
ragh-di-ach. 
one-te-Bonna. 
lu-at-cloy  ? 

la-nette-ousa- 

ousa-ou-sin- 

e? 

twe-tza-gan- 

-two.. 

twe-ta-oo- 

we. 

net-ton. 

etze-hande  ? 


baluable   tUorkB, 

IN  THE   DEPARTMENTS  Ot 

BIOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY, 


PUBLISHED  BY 


lurpr  k  33rntjjn3;  Mm  '^nt 


Abbott's  Illustrated  Histories : 

Comprising,  Xerxes  the  Great,  Cyrus  the  Great,  Darius  the  Great, 
Alexander  the  Great,  Hannibal  the  Carthaginian,  Julius  Caesar, 
Cleopatra  Queen  of  Egypt,  Alfred  the  Great,  William  the  Con 
queror.  Queen  Elizabeth,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Charles  the  First 
Charles  the  Second,  Maria  Antoinette,  Madame  Roland,  Jose 
phine.  Embellished  with  Illuminated  Title-pages  and  numerous 
Illustrative  Engravings.  16mo,  Muslin,  60  cents  each ;  Muslin, 
gilt  edges,  76  cents  each. 

Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland, 

And  English  Princesses  connected  with  the  Regal  Succession 
of  Great  Britain.  By  Agnes  Strickland.  6  vols.  12mo,  Mus- 
lin, $1  00  per  Volume. 

History  of  the  United  States, 

From  the  first  Settlement  of  the  Country  to  the  Organization  ot 
Government  under  the  Federal  Constitution.  By  Richard  Hil- 
DRETH,  Esq.  3  vols.  8vo,  half  Calf,  $7  50 ;  Sheep,  96  75 ;  Mus- 
lin, $6  00. 

History  of  the  United  States,  continued : 

From  the  Adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution  to  the  End  of  the 
Sixteenth  Congress.  By  Richard  H  ldreth,  Esq.  3  vols.  8vo, 
Muslin,  $6  00 ;  Sheep,  $6  75 ;  half  Calf,  $7  50. 

Lord  Holland's  Foreign  Reminiscences. 

Edited  by  his  Son,  Henry  Edward  Lord  Holland.  ISmo, 
Muslin. 

Life  and  Writings  of  "Washington ; 

Being  his  Correspondence,  Addresses,  Messages,  and  other  Pa- 
pers, Official  and  Private,  selected  and  published  from  the  orig- 
inal Manuscripts,  with  a  Life  of  the  Author,  and  Notes  and  lUus. 
trations,  &c.  By  Jared  Sparks,  LL.D.  With  numerous  En- 
gravings.  12  vols.  8vo,  Muslin,  $18  00;  Sheep  extra,  931  00; 
half  Calf,  $24  00. 


I 


t      Valuable  Works  on  Biography  and  History. 
The  Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the  Revolution ; 

or,  Illustrations  by  Pen  and  Pencil,  of  the  History,  Scenery,  Bi^ 
ography,  Relics,  and  Traditions  cf  the  War  for  Independence. 
By  Bbnson  J.  LossiNo,  Esq.  Embellished  with  600  Engravings 
on  Wood,  chiefly  from  Original  Sketches  by  the  Author.  In 
about  20  Numbers,  8vo,  Paper,  25  cents  each. 

Life  and  Writings  of  Thomas  Chalmers,  D.D., 

LL.D.  Edited  by  his  Son-in-Law,  Rev.  William  Hanna,  LL  D 
3  vols.  12mo,  Paper,  75  cents;  Muslin,  $1  00  per  Volume. 

Life  of  John  Calvin. 

Compiled  from  authentic  Sources,  and  particularly  from  his  Coi< 
respondence.    ByT.  H.Dyer.    Portrait.     12mo,  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Leigh  Hunt's  Autohiography, 

With  Reminiscences  of  Friends  and  Contemporaries.  2  vols 
12mo,  Muslin,  $1  50. 

Southey's  Life  and  Correspondence. 

Edited  by  his  Son,  Rev.  Charles  Cuthbert  Socthev,  M.A.  In 
6  Parts,  8vo,  Paper,  25  cents  each ;  one  Volume,  Muslin,  %2  00. 

Dr.  Johnson :  his  Religious  Life  and  his  Death. 

12mo,  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Life  and  Letters  of  Thomas  Camphell. 

Edited  by  William  Beattie,  M.D.,  one  of  his  Executors.  With 
an  Introductory  Letter  by  Washinoton  Irving,  Esq.  Portrait 
2  vols.     12mo,  Muslin,  $2  50. 

Hume's  History  of  England, 

From  the  Invasion  of  Julius  Caesar  to  the  Abdication  of  James 
II.,  1688.  A  new  Edition,  with  the  Author's  last  Corrections 
and  Improvements.  To  which  is  prefixed  a  short  Account  of 
his  Life,  written  by  Himself.  With  a  Portrait  of  the  Author. 
6  vols.  12ino,  Cloth,  $2  40 ;  Sheep,  $3  00. 

Macaulay's  History  of  England, 

From  the  Accession  of  James  II.  With  an  original  Portrait  of 
the  Author.  Vols.  I.  and  II.  Library  Edition,  8vo,  Muslin,  75 
cents  per  Volume ;  Sheep  extra,  87^  cents  per  Volume ;  Calt 
backs  and  corners,  $1  00  per  Volume.  —  Cheap  Edition,  8vo, 
Paper,  25  cents  per  Volume. — 12mo  (uniform  with  Hume),  Cloth. 
40  cents  per  Volume. 

Gihhon's  History  of  Rome, 

With  Notes,  by  Rev.  H.  H.  Milhan  and  M.  Guizot.  Maps  and 
Engravings.  4  vols.  8vo,  Sheep  extra,  $5  00. — A  new  Cheap  Edi> 
tion,  with  Notes  by  Rev.  H.  H.  Milhan.  To  which  is  added  a 
complete  index  of  the  whole  Work  and  a  Portrait  of  the  Author. 
6  vols.  12mo  (uniform  with  Hume),  Cloth,  $2  40;  Sheep,  $3  00. 

Jirurnal  and  Memorials  of  Capt.  Obadiah  Con- 
car  :  for  Filly  Years  Mariner  and  Shipmaster  from  the  Port  ot 
Wew  York.    By  Rev.  H.  T.  Chester.     16mo,  Muslin. 


i 


Valuable  Works  on  Biography  and  History.      3 
Benjamin  Franklin's  Autobiography. 

With  a  Sketch  of  his  Public  Services,  by  Rev.  H.  Hasting* 
Weld.  With  numerous  exquisite  Designs,  by  Jchn  G.  Chap- 
man.   8vo,  Muslin,  $2  £0 ;  Sheep,  $2  75  ;  half  Calf,  S3  00. 

History  of  Spanish  Literature. 

With  Criticisms  on  the  particular  Works  and  Biographical  No- 
tices of  prominent  Writers.  By  George  Ticknob,  Esq.  3  vols. 
8vo,  half  Calf  extra,  $7  50 ;  Sheep  extra,  S6  75 ;  Muslin,  S6  00. 

History  of  the  National  Constituent  Assembly, 

From  May,  1848.  By  J.  F.  Corkran.  £r«.  12mo,  Muslin, 
90  cents ;  Paper,  75  cents. 

The  Recent  Progress  of  Astronomy, 

Especially  in  the  United  States.  By  Elias  Looms,  M.A.  ISmo, 
Muslin,  $1  00. 

The  English  Language 

In  its  Elements  and  Forms.  With  a  History  of  its  Origin  and 
Development,  and  a  full  Grammar.  By  W.  C.  Fowler,  M.A. 
8vo,  Muslin,  $1  50 ;  Sheep,  ^\  lb.  , 

History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

By  William  H.  Prescott,  Esq.  3  vols.  8vo,  half  Calf,  $7  60 ; 
Sheep  extra,  $6  75 ;  Muslin,  $6  00. 

History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico. 

With  the  Life  of  the  Conqueror,  Hernando  Cortez,  and  a  View 
of  the  Ancient  Mexican  Civilization.   By  William  H.  Prescott, 
-    Esq.     Portrait  and  Maps.    3  vols.  8vo,  half  Calf,  S7  60 ;  Sheep 
extra,  $6  75 ;  Muslin,  $6  00. 

History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru. 

With  a  Preliminary  view  of  the  Civilization  of  the  Incas.  By 
W.LLiAM  H.  Prescott,  Esq.  Portraits,  Maps,  &c.  2  vols.  8vo, 
b  ilf  Calf,  $5  00;  Sheep  extra,  $4  50  ;  Muslin,  $4  00. 

Bi'^ graphical  and  Critical  Miscellanies. 

Containing  Notices  of  Charles  Brockden  Brown,  the  American 
Novelist. — Asylum  for  the  Blind. — Irving's  Conquest  of  Grenada. 
— CeiTantes. — Sir  W.  Scott. — Chauteaubriand's  English  Litera- 
ture.—Danciofl's  United  States. — Madame  Caideron's  Life  in 
Mexico. — Moliere. — Italian  Narrative  Poetry. — Poetry  and  Ro 
mance  of  the  Italians. — Scottish  Song. — Da  Ponte's  Observa- 
tions. By  William  H.  Prescott,  Esq.  Portrait.  8vo,  Musl'n, 
32  00 ;  Sheep  extra,  $2  25 ;  half  Calf,  $2  60. 

Pa.st,  Present,  and  Future  of  the  Republic. 

By  Alphonsb  oe  Lamartinb.  12mo,  Muslin,  50  cents ;  Paper, 
37i  cents. 

The  War  with  Mexico  '^ 

By  R.  S.  RiPLBV,  U.S.A.  With  Maps,  Plans  of  Battles,  &e  9 
▼ols.  12mo,  Muslin,  94  00 ;  Sheep.  $4  50 ;  half  Calf,  $500 


4      Valuable  Works  on  Biography  and  History. 
The  Conquest  of  Canada. 

By  the  Author  of"  Hochelaga."    2  vols.  ISmo,  Muslin,  $1  70. 

History  of  the  Confessional. 

By  John  Henby  Hopkins,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Vermont.  1 2mo,  Mus- 
lin, $1  00. 

Dark  Scenes  of  History. 

By  G.  P.  R.  James,  Esq.     12mo,  Paper,  75  cents  ;  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Library  of  American  Biography. 

Edited  by  Jared  Sparks,  LL.D.  Portraits,  «Scc.  10  vols.  12mo, 
Muslin,  $7  50.  Each  volume  sold  separately,  if  desired,  price 
75  cents. 

Gieseler's  Ecclesiastical  History. 

From  the  Fourth  Edition,  revised  and  amended.  Translated  iroia 
the  German,  by  Samuel  Davidson,  LL.D.     Vols.  I.  and  IL  8vu, 

Muslin,  $3  00. 

History  of  the  American  Bible  Society, 

From  its  Organization  in  1816  to  the  Present  Time.  By  Rev. 
W.  P.  Strickland.  With  an  Introduction,  by  Rev.  N.  L.  Rice, 
and  a  Portrait  of  Hon.  Elias  Boudinot,  LL.D.,  first  President  of 
the  Society.    8vo,  Cloth,  $1  50 ;  Sheep,  $1  75. 

Biographical  History  of  Congress  : 

Comprising  Memoirs  of  Members  of  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  together  with  a  History  of  Internal  Improvements  from 
the  Foundation  of  the  Government  to  the  Present  Time.  By 
Henry  G.  Wheeler.  With  Portraits  and  Fac-simile  Autographs. 
8 vo.  Muslin,  $3  00  per  Volume. 

Sohmitz's  History  of  Rome, 

From  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Death  of  Commodus,  A.D.  192. 
With  Questions,  by  J.  Robson,  B.A.     18mo,  Muslin,  75  cents 

Louis  the  Fourteenth, 

and  the  Court  of  France  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  By  Mist 
Pardob.  Illustrated  with  numerous  Engravings,  Portraits,  dec. 
2  vols.  12mo,  Muslin,  $3  50. 

History  of  the  Girondists ; 

Or,  Personal  Memoirs  of  the  Patriots  of  the  French  Revolution. 
By  A.  OE  Lamartine.  From  unpublished  Sources.  3  vols.  12mo, 
Muslin,  $2  10. 

Josephus's  Complete  Works. 

A  new  Translation,  by  Rev.  Robert  Traill,  D.D.  With  Notes, 
Explanatory  Essays,  &c.,  by  Rev.  Isaac  Taylor,  of  Ongar.  II 
lustrated  by  numerous  Engravings.  Publishing  in  Monthly  Num 
bers,  8vo,  Paper,  25  cents  each. 

History  of  the  Fiench  Revolution. 

By  Thomas  Carlyle.  Newly  Revised  by  the  Author,  with  Is 
'lex,  &.C.    2  vols.  12mo,  Muslin,  92  00. 


[■-B^»».'  •^■..R\ji:^  t-^ 


I 


Valuable  Works  on  Biography  and  History.      fi 
Letters  and  Speeches  of  Cromwell. 

With  Elucidations  and  connecting  Narrative.  By  T.  Carlylb. 
2  vols    12mu,  Muslin,  $2  00. 

Life  of  Madame  Guyon. 

Life  and  Religious  Opinions  of  Madame  Guyon :  together  with 
some  Account  of  the  Personal  History  and  Religious  Opinions  of 
Archbishop  Fenelon.    By  T.  C.  Upham.     2  vols.  12mo,  Muslin, 

%2  00. 

Life  of  Madame  Catharine  Adorna. 

Including  some  leading  Facts  and  Traits  in  her  Religious  Experi- 
ence. Together  with  Explanations  and  Remarks,  tending  to  iU 
lustrate  the  Doctrine  of  Holiness.  By  T.  C.  Upham.  12mo,  Mus- 
lin, 60  cents ;  Muslin,  gilt  edges,  60  cents. 

Homes  and  Haunts  of  the  British  Poets. 

By  William  Howitt.  With  numerous  Illustrations.  2  vols. 
l2mo,  Muslin,  $3  00. 

History  of  Wonderful  Inventions. 

Illustrated  by  numerous  Engravings.  12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents  ; 
Paper,  50  cents. 

Life  and  Writings  of  Cassius  M.  Clay ; 

Including  Speeches  and  Addresses.  Edited,  with  a  Preface  and 
Memoir,  by  Horace  Greeley.  With  Portrait.  8vo,  Muslin, 
$1  50. 

The  Valley  of  the  Mississippi. 

History  of  the  Discovery  and  Settlement  of  the  Valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, by  the  three  great  European  Powers,  Spain,  France,  and 
Great  Britain  ;  and  the  subsequent  Occupation,  Settlement,  and 
Extension  of  Civil  Government  by  the  United  States,  until  the 
year  1846.  By  John  W.  Monette,  Esq.  Maps.  2  vols.  Svo, 
Muslin,  $5  00  ;  Sheep,  $5  50. 

Southey's  Life  of  John  Wesley ; 

And  Rise  and  Progress  of  Methodism.  With  Notes  by  the  late 
Samuel  T.  Coleridge,  Esq.,  and  Remarks  on  the  Life  and  Char- 
acter of  John  Wesley,  by  the  late  Alexander  Knox,  Esq.  Ed- 
ited by  the  Rev.  Charles  C.  Southev,  M.A.  Second  American 
Edition,  with  Notes,  &c.,  by  the  Rev.  Daniel  Curry,  A.M.  2 
vols.  l2mo,  Muslin,  $2  00. 

Pictorial  History  of  England. 

Being  a  History  of  the  People  as  well  as  a  History  of  the  King- 
dom, down  to  the  Reign  of  George  III.  Profusely  lUustratec/ 
with  many  Hundred  Engravings  on  Wood  of  Monumental  Rec- 
ords; Coins;  Civil  and  Military  Costume;  Domestic  Buildings, 
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markable Historical  Scenes.  4  vols,  imperial  Svo,  Muslin,  914  00; 
Sheep  extra,  $15  00 ;  half  Calf  $16  00. 


i! 


6      Valuable  Works  on  Biography  and  History. 


't| 


Diplomatic  and  Official  Papers  of  Daniel  Web- 

8ier,  while  Secretary  oi  Stuto.  With  Portrait.  8vu,  Muslin, 
81  75. 

Life  of  the  Chevalier  Bayard. 

By  William  G  SiMMs,  Esq.     Eiigruvings.     12iuo,  Muslin,  91  00. 

History  of  Europe, 

From  the  Commencement  of  the  French  Revolution  in  1789  to 
the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1815.  By  Arciiiuali)  Ali- 
son, F.R.S.  In  addition  to  the  Notes  on  Chapter  LXXVI., 
which  correct  the  errors  of  the  original  work  concerning  the 
United  States,  a  copious  Analytical  Index  has  hern  appended 
to  this  American  Edition.  4  vols.  8vo,  Muslin,  $4  75;  Sheep 
extra,  $5  00. 

Boswell's  Life  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson. 

Including  a  Journal  of  a  Tour  to  the  Hebrides,  With  numerous 
Additions  and  Notes,  by  John  W.  Croker,  LL.D.  A  new  Edi- 
tion, entirely  tiviscd,  with  much  additional  Matter.  Portrait. 
2  vols.  8vo,  i-  jslin,  $2  75  ;  Sheep,  $3  00. 

Life  and  ?  ^eeches  of  John  C.  Calhoun. 

With  Reports  and  other  Writings,  subsequent  to  his  Election  a» 
Vice-president  of  the  United  States;  including  his  leading  Speech 
on  the  late  War,  delivered  in  1811.    8vo,  Muslin,  $1  12^. 

Life  of  Charlemagne. 

With  an  Introductory  View  of  the  History  of  Fr.ince.  By  G.  P. 
R.  James,  Esq.     18mo,  Musfui,  45  cents. 

Life  of  Henry  IV., 

King  of  France  and  Navarre.  By  G.  P.  R.  James,  Esq.  2  vols. 
ISmo,  Muslin,  $2  50. 

History  of  Chivalry  and  the  Crusades. 

By  G.  P.  R.  James,  Esq.    Engravings.     18mo,  Muslin,  45  cents. 

Neal's  History  of  the  Puritans, 

Or,  Protestant  Non-conformists ;  from  the  Reformation  in  1818 
to  the  Revolution  in  1688  ;  comprising  an  Account  of  their  Prin- 
ciples, Sufferings,  and  the  Lives  and  Characters  of  their  most 
considerable  Divines.  With  Notes,  by  J.  O.  Choules,  D.D. 
With  Portraits.     2  vols.  8vo,  Muslin,  $3  50  ;  Sheep,  $4  00. 

Neander's  Life  of  Christ ; 

In  its  Historical  Connections  and  its  Historical  Development. 
Translated  from  the   Fourth   German  Edition,  by  Professors 
M'Clintock  and  Blumenth  al,  of  Dickinson  College.    8vo,  Mus 
lin,  $2  00 ;  Sheep  extra,  $2  25. 

Lives  of  Celehrated  British  Statesmen. 

The  Statesmen  of  the  Commonwealth  of  England ;  with  a  Treat> 
ise  on  tho  popular  Progress  in  English  History.  B>i  John  Fors- 
TBR.  Edited  by  the  Rev.  J.  O.  Choules.  Portraiis.  8vo,  Mug- 
lio,  •!  76 ;  Sheep,  %2  GO. 


1.  ? 

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FRESH  BOOKS 


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TRAVEL  AND  ADVEJAiURE 


2  vols. 


,  Treat. 
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0,  Mus- 


IJ 


rUUMSUED    BY 

Hiarprr  k  36rDt!ier3,  Cliff  ^trrrf,  Jfiria  -^Drlt. 

Travels  and  Adventures  in  Mexico, 

In  the  Course  uf  Journrys  of  upward  of  2500  miles  performed 
on  Foot,  giving  an  Account  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  llie 
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Travels  in  the  United  States. 

13y  Lady  Emmrllnk  Wortley.     12mo,  Muslin. 

Harper's  N.  Y.  and  Erie  Rail-road  Guide-Book : 

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lages, and  other  important  Works  on  the  Road.  Embellished 
with  136  Engravings  on  Wood,  by  Lossino  <Sc  Darritt,  from 
Original  Sketches  made  expressly  for  the  Work.     ISino,  Muslm. 

Pictorial  Field-Book  of  the  Revolution; 

Or,  Illustrations  by  Pen  and  Pencil,  of  the  History,  Scenery,  Bi- 
ography. Relics,  and  Traditions  of  Ihe  War  for  Independencre  : 
with  the  Records  of  a  Tour  to  the  Scenes  of  its  Incidents.  By 
Benson  J.  Lossmo,  Esq.  With  over  GOO  Illustrations  on  Wood, 
chiefly  from  Original  Sketches  by  the  Author.  In  Numbers,  8vo, 
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Nile  Notes  of  a  Howadji. 

l2mo,  Paper,  75  cents ;  Muslin,  87J  cents. 

The  Nile  Boat ; 

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cuts.     8vo,  Muslin.     {Nearly  ready.) 

Travels  in  the  East. 

By  Rev.  J.  p.  DiiRBiN,  D.D.  Engravings.  2  vols  i2mo,  Muslin, 
82  00. 

Observations  in  Europe, 

Principally  iti  France  and  Great  Britain.  By  Re/.  J  P  Durbin, 
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The  Island  World  of  the  Pacific : 

Being  the  Personal  Narrative  and  Results  of  Travel  through  tho 
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Rev.  H.  T.  Cheever     Engravings.     ISmo,  Muslin,  $1  00. 

The  AVhale  and  his  Captors ; 

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Five  Years  of  a  Hunter's  Life  in  the  Far  Inte- 
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Illustrations.    2  vols.  12mo,  Muslin,  $1  75. 

The  Pillars  of  Hercules ; 

Or,  a  Narrative  of  Travels  in  Spain  and  Morocco  in  1848.  By 
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$1  70. 

Glimpses  of  Spain ; 

Or,  Notes  of  an  Unfinished  Tour  in  1847.  By  S.  T.  Walus,  Esq. 
12mo,  Paper,  75  cents ;  Muslin,  $1  00. 

Sketches  of  Minnesota, 

The  New  England  of  the  West.  With  Incidents  of  Travel  in 
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Life  in  the  Far  West. 

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Adventures  in  Mexico  and  Rocky  Mountains. 

By  G.  F.  RuxTON.     12mo,  Paper,  50  cents ;  Muslin,  60  cents. 

Fresh  Gleanings; 

Or,  a  New  Sheaf  from  the  Old  Fields  of  Continental  Europe.  By 
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